Sustaining the Earth 11th Edition Miller

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Chapter 5
Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach

Summary and Objectives

5-1 What are the trends in species extinction?
Human modification of the earth’s natural ecosystems has been extensive: reducing biodiversity, eliminating the
earth’s net primary productivity, strengthening some pest species and disease-causing bacteria, over harvesting
natural resources, etc. CONCEPT 5-1 Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times faster than they were before
modern humans evolved, and by the end of this century, the extinction rate is projected to be 10,000 times higher
than that background rate.1. Distinguish between an endangered and a threatened species. List nine characteristics of
extinction-prone species.
2. Compare past extinctions to present extinctions. Evaluate the reality of an extinction crisis.
3. Why do extinction experts consider the current estimates of species extinction to be conservative?

5-2 Why should we care about the rising rate of species extinction?
Wild species have value, some of which has not yet been identified. We need a precautionary strategy to prevent
significant decrease in the genetic, species, ecological, and functional diversity of the earth. CONCEPT 5-2 We
should avoid hastening the extinction of wild species because of the ecosystem and economic services they provide,
and because many people believe that these species have a right to exist regardless of their usefulness to us.
4. Describe the economic, medical, scientific, ecological, aesthetic, and recreational significance of wild
species.
5. List and explain two reasons why some biologists caution us not to focus on protecting relatively large
organisms with which we are most familiar?

5-3 How do humans accelerate species extinction?

Humans can increase species extinction by causing degradation of habitat, introducing alien species, population
growth, pollution from daily activities, and by over harvesting. CONCEPT 5-3 The greatest threats to any species
are (in order) loss or degradation of its habitat, harmful invasive species, human population growth, pollution,
climate change, and overexploitation.
6. Briefly explain what the acronym HIPPCO stands for.
7. List and briefly describe eight ways humans increase the rate of extinction, indicating which of these
has the most impact.
8. Give two examples of the harmful effects of nonnative species that have been introduced both
deliberately and accidentally.
9. State two examples of what can be done to decrease the incidence and impacts of invasions of

Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach

 nonnative species?

5-4 How can we protect wild species from extinction resulting from our activities?
Mankind must live with a precautionary principle: prevent harm even if a cause-and-effect relationship has not been
established. A low throughput economy reduces the use of matter and energy resources in reusing and recycling
nonrenewable resources, reduces unnecessary consumption, emphasizes waste reduction, encourages pollution
reduction, and controls population growth. CONCEPT 5-4 We can reduce the rising rate of species extinction and
help to protect overall biodiversity by establishing and enforcing national environmental laws and international
treaties, creating a variety of protected wildlife sanctuaries, and taking precautionary measures to prevent such harm.
10. State and briefly describe the most far-reaching international treaty to protect wildlife.
11. Should the Endangered Species Act be strengthened or weakened? Defend your position.
12. Briefly assess the usefulness of wildlife refuges, gene banks, botanical gardens, and zoos in protection
of wildlife. List three qualities that should be given priority in defending wildlife.
13. List and briefly describe four things that you can do as an individual to help prevent the premature
extinction of species.
14. Describe how wildlife populations can be managed. Evaluate whose interests are generally the most
influential in determining wildlife management priorities.

Key Terms
biological extinction endangered intrinsic value
species threatened species existence value
instrumental value HIPPCO

Outline
5-1 What Are the Trends in Species Extinction?
The balance between forming new species and the extinction of existing species determines earth's
biodiversity. The three types of species extinction are local, ecological, and biological.
A. Local extinction occurs when a species disappears from an area it once inhabited but is found elsewhere in
the world.
B. Ecological extinction occurs when the number of members of a particular species is so low that they cannot
fulfill their ecological roles in their biological communities.
C. Biological extinction occurs when a species has disappeared from the earth.
1. The passenger pigeon represents lost natural capital, primarily because of over hunting and habitat
destruction directly attributable to man. (See Case Study: The Passenger Pigeon: Gone Forever, p. 93)
2. Scientific studies show that human activities are causing extinctions: consuming resources, filling
wetlands, loss of forests, degrading aquatic ecosystems, etc.
D. Biologists use measurements and models to estimate extinction rates. (See Science Focus: Estimating
Extinction Rates.)
1. Predicting future extinction rates is difficult because:
a. Extinction of a species usually takes a long time and is difficult to document.
b. We do not know the precise number of species on the earth and the rate of species extinction.
c. Biologists know little about the nature and ecological roles of most identified species.
2. Human activities affect extinction rates.
a. Currently, the rate of extinction is from 1,000–10,000 times the rate before mankind existed.
b. Using estimated extinction rates, by 2050 25% of the world’s present plant and animal species will
be gone; 50% will vanish by 2099.
3. Greater extinction rates than predicted are likely because of several factors.
a. Species loss and biodiversity loss will likely increase because of exponential population growth.
b. Biologically diverse area extinction rates may be as high as 25–-50%. The extinction rates in these
“hot spots” deserve special attention.
c. Possible colonization sites for new species are being eliminated, degraded, and simplified by
human activities so that new species cannot arise. By reducing this rate of speciation, we are
creating a speciation crisis, which may contribute to dominance of the world by species with

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 survival power—cockroaches, rats, and weeds—and contribute to the permanent decline of earth’s
variety of species.
E. Classifying species
1. Endangered species are those that could become extinct fairly soon because there are so few
survivors.
2. A threatened/vulnerable species is likely to become extinct because its numbers are rapidly declining.
3. http://www.iucnredlist.org/ is an online database that lists the world’s threatened species.
4. Such threatened animals tend to be the big, slow, and tasty ones whose valuable parts can be sold.

5-2 Why Should We Care about the Rising Rate of Species Extinction?
Wild species have value—economic and ecological—that is important to the earth.
A. We are destroying species biodiversity more quickly than new species can evolve. It will take 5–10 million
years for speciation to rebuild the animals and plants we will destroy in 100 years.
B. Some of the economic and ecological benefits (instrumental value) of present species have not even been
identified; we are destroying our chance for a future.
1. Medicinal properties are found in many plants and some animals.
2. Genetic information in species helps them adapt and produce new species. This information can be
used to develop food and medicines for people.
3. Recreational use and pleasure are provided by plants and animals.
4. Eco-tourism generates money to help poor countries; preserving plants and animals is much more
economically wise than destroying them.
a. A male lion skin is worth $1,000; a male lion living for seven years produces $515,000 in tourist
dollars.
b. Elephant tusks are worth many times less than the ecotourist revenue generated over its lifetime.
c.
C. Some people would protect some species, not necessarily all of them. Others believe in the intrinsic or
existence value of every species having the right to exist free from human interference.

5-3 How Do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction?

There are several causes of depletion and premature extinction of wild plants and animals. The acronym
HIPPCO describes these causes.
A. The loss, degradation, and fragmentation of habitat is the greatest threat to a species.
1. Deforestation in tropical forests is the greatest species eliminator.
2. Temperate biomes have been compromised by widespread development.
3. Endemic species are those found nowhere else on earth and are often found in island habitats. Habitat
islands are habitats surrounded by different ones, such as a national park surround by logging or
mining activities.
a. Habitat fragmentation leads to species vulnerability to predators, disease, etc.
b. Species are limited in their ability to colonize new areas, and find mates and food.
4. Bird species are excellent environmental indicators; they respond quickly to environmental change and
are easy to track.
B. Introduction of alien species can lead to native species extinction. Nonnative species introduction into an
ecosystem can cause ecological and economic harm.
1. The alien species can be introduced accidentally or deliberately.
2. Some of these species threaten and endanger native species. (See Case Study: Burmese Pythons Eating
their Way through the Florida Everglades)
a. They have no natural predators, competitors, or pathogens in their new habitat.
b. They can trigger ecological disruptions, such as the wild African honeybee, Argentina fire ant, or
the Formosan termite.
3. The best control is to prevent the nonnative species from being introduced.
a. Identify the types of ecosystems that are vulnerable to invaders and identify the characteristics that
allow the nonnative species to become successful invaders.
b. Inspect imported goods.
c. Identify harmful invader species and pass international laws that prohibit their transfer from one
country to another.
d. Require ships to clean or sterilize their ballast water to kill invader organisms.

Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach

 C. Pollution from human activities undermines habitats and the lives of species.
1. Climate change threatens a number of species with extinction. (See Case Study: Polar Bears and
Climate Change)
a. Changes in climate will alter the world’s habitats.
b. Species may not have enough time to adapt to the climate change and will die.
2. Pollution undermines all living species.
a. Chemicals degrade the environment and kill species.
b. Pesticides are especially deadly to honeybees, birds, and fish.
c. DDT is an example of harm to species through both bioaccumulation and biomagnifications.
D. Illegal killing/capturing of wild animals also threatens them.
1. Commercial hunting and poaching must be eliminated.
2. Illegal international trade kills two-thirds of smuggled animals in transit.
a. Huge profits attract organized crime.
b. Poverty forces people to trap and sell animals for minimal payback.
(See Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds, for an illustration of how all of these human impacts are
harming bird populations.)

5-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Extinction Resulting from Our Activities?
A. Treaties help protect endangered/threatened species, but enforcement is hard and punishment inadequate.
B. The 1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITIES) protects 900 species from
commercial trade and restricts international trade for 34,000 species that may become threatened.
1. Enforcement is difficult.
2. Many countries are not signatories and still trade in animals.
3. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) binds governments to reverse the global decline in
biological biodiversity. The United States has not ratified this treaty.
C. Two laws help the U.S. control imports and exports of endangered wildlife and wildlife products.
1. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) identifies and lists endangered species in the U.S. and
abroad.
a. Identification of endangered, threatened ocean and land species is made by the National Marine
Fisheries Service and/or the US. Fish and Wildlife Service.
b. Habitats of endangered species must be protected.
2. A 2000 study by the Nature Conservancy found one-third of the U.S. species are at risk of extinction.
3. Landowners are encouraged to develop habitat conservation plans to protect species on private land.
4. Efforts have been made to repeal/weaken the Endangered Species Act.
D. Successes of the Endangered Species Act are outlined in the Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act
1. The only species listed are in serious danger of extinction.
2. It takes many decades to bring a species in critical condition back so that it can be removed from the
list. There are no “quick fixes” for those listed.
3. Almost 40% of the species on the list are stable or improving—a good rate.
4. Much has been accomplished on a shoestring budget.
5. In order to strengthen the ESA, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences recommended that:
a. The funding be increased to implement the act
b. Recovery plans be developed more quickly
c. Conservation plans that contain solid scientific evidence showing that they are likely to succeed be
required
E. Establishing wildlife refuges and protected areas
1. The sanctuary approach began in 1903 and is still being used to protect wild species.
2. 555 federal refuges protect wildlife, but the habitats are deteriorating from invasive species, pollutants,
and little operational or maintenance funding.
3. Gene banks, botanical gardens and farms can be used to raise threatened species and help protect
species from extinction; but they are expensive to operate and funding is inadequate.
F. Zoos and aquariums can help protect some endangered species, but they are both notoriously underfunded.
1. Egg pulling collects wild eggs of endangered bird species and hatches them in zoos/research centers.
2. Captive breeding takes wild animals into captivity for breeding; aiming to re-introduce the offspring

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 back into the wild.
3. The major conservation role of zoos is to educate the public about species’ biological importance and
the need to protect habitats. Zoos do not have the space to sustain the needed numbers in an animal
population.
G. The precautionary principle states that when we have substantial preliminary evidence that an activity can
harm human health or the environment we should take measures to prevent or reduce such harm even in the
absence of full cause and effect relationships.

Teaching Tips
1. More and more classrooms are now being equipped with technology that enables instructors to download
relevant videos from the internet to share with their students. In addition to the supplementary BBC News
Videos, becoming familiar with websites that offer free downloads can be a wonderful way to supplement
classroom learning, especially when working with a limited budget.

Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach

 2. One popular site for accessing videos is youtube.com. Additionally, using a video search engine such as
video.google.com will display all videos found on the internet, including those found on YouTube, that are
relevant to the topic searched. An advanced video search is also available with this video search engine.

3. Videos effectively allow students to quickly travel through time and space, exposing them to issues that
they would otherwise not able to experience firsthand. Using short videos can also serve as an attention-
getting device to draw students into the lesson.

4. Free downloadable videos can also be assigned as homework. Encourage students to share videos they find
with the class as this is an excellent way to get students interested in the class material. Sharing also fosters
a learning environment in which all students are welcome to contribute.

5. Rather than reinventing the wheel by making follow-up activities for the videos, first try doing a simple
internet search for instructor or educator materials and lesson plans. Additionally, many videos now have
online companion websites with free downloadable classroom activities.

6. Remember to download videos before class begins to ensure that the video is ready when needed.
Downloading videos can sometimes take a few minutes, and so it’s better to do this ahead of time and
maximize the time on task within the classroom. Doing this will also help avoid other technological errors
during class time.

Topics for Term Papers and Discussion

Conceptual Topics
1. Significance of wildlife. Medicines derived from plants and animals; commercial products from wildlife;
aesthetic and recreational significance of wildlife; ecological significance of wildlife.

2. Endangered and threatened wildlife. Tropical deforestation and species extinction; the international trade in
endangered species and exotic pets; lead poisoning in waterfowl and the American bald eagle; Florida’s
alien species problem; the California condor; the Florida manatee; the blue whale.

3. Protecting wildlife. Gene banks; zoos and captive breeding programs; habitat management; artificial reef-
building materials and methods.

Attitudes & Values

1. Do you believe that humans have a duty to subdue wild nature to provide food, shelter, and other resources
for people and to provide jobs and income through increased economic growth?

2. Do you believe that every living species has a right to exist, or at least struggle to exist, simply because it
exists?

3. Do you believe that we have an obligation to leave the earth for future generations of humans and other
species in as good a shape as we found it, if not better? Did past generations do this for you?

4. Should animals be used for medical research? As sources of organs for surgical implants in humans? As
sources of food, fur, fat, oils, and other commercially valuable products?

5. Are extremist tactics by Greenpeace and Earth First! Necessary or justifiable?

6. Should sport hunting be used as a wildlife management tool?

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Action-Oriented Topics
1. Individuals. Scientific methods for estimating wildlife populations and successional stage of ecosystems.

2. Groups. Ducks Unlimited; the National Wildlife Federation; the Audubon Society; Greenpeace; Earth First!

3. National. America’s National Wildlife Refuge System.

4. Global. The World Wildlife Fund.

Activities and Projects

1. Are there zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, or arboretums in your locale that are operating programs
designed to increase the populations of endangered species? If so, invite a spokesperson to explain one or
more of these programs to your class.

2. Ask your students to bring to class and share paintings, sketches, poetry, songs, and other artistic creations
depicting the beauty and wonders of wildlife.

3. Have a game warden address your class about management of populations of fish and animals that are
hunted for sport.

4. Compile a list of the wildlife species in your locale that have been officially designated as threatened or
endangered. As a class project, find out what specific actions are being taken to assist these species.

5. As a class, examine and evaluate the goals of the World Conservation Strategy. Develop objectives that
could help implement the goals that are agreed upon by the class.

BBC News Videos

The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library with Workbook, Featuring BBC Motion Gallery Video
Clips, 2011. DVD ISBN: 978-0-538-73355-7 (Prepared by David Perault)
Kalahari Desert Could Double in Size
Half the World Denied Basic Sanitation
Darwin's Galapagos Under Threat
China's Deadly Pollution
How Exotic Species Are Devastating Hawaii's Native Fauna
Are We Facing an Extinction Crisis?

Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach

Suggested Answers for Critical Thinking Questions
1. Student answers will vary. Some examples include taking steps to reduce personal excessive and wasteful
resource consumption, avoid purchasing exotic pets and decorative plants, and avoid overusing pesticides.

2. Aspects of a person’s lifestyle that directly or indirectly contribute to the premature extinction of some bird
species may include overuse of resources, introduction of nonnative species, and commercial hunting and
fishing. Things that can be done to reduce the premature extinction of birds include reducing human population
growth, restricting deforestation, decreasing pollution emission, and efforts to avoid the introduction of
nonnative species.

3. Student answers will vary. While some students may profess belief in inherent right for species to survive
without human interference, that view may be challenged (or at least be more challenging to profess) when
species that are harmful to humans (mosquito, infections bacterial) are considered.

4. Aldo Leopold’s quote relates to the chapter material on the precautionary principle. We need to take steps to
maintain biodiversity even if some of the cause-and-effect relationships have not been fully established
scientifically.

5. Student answers will vary. The range of opinions represented here are common in a community – discussion of
how these attitudes support or conflict with each other and inform policy decisions is of interest.

6. Student answers will vary. Student answers should explore multiple sides of the issue – economic,
environmental, social, business, etc. There are no right answers, but the way forward in real life lies in
compromise.

7. Student answers will vary.

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