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Chapter 28 Tin–tungsten deposits of Myanmar

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DOI: 10.1144/M48.28

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 Chapter 28

Tin–tungsten deposits of Myanmar

THAN HTUN1*, THAN HTAY2 & KHIN ZAW3

1
Myanmar Precious Resources Group, 101 Shwe Than Lwin Condo, Yangon, Myanmar
2
Myanmar Precious Resources Group, 20 Pyithaya Road, Yangon, Myanmar
3
CODES ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 126, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
*Correspondence: uthanhtun@gmail.com

Small-scale mining and primitive smelting of tin by Burmese
and Chinese long preceded the commercial exploitation of
tin and tungsten in the Myeik (Mergui) district of Myanmar.
During the First World War, Myanmar (then British Burma)
came into prominence as a source of tungsten as a strategic
war material resulting from the intensive production of wolfram
from the Dawei (Tavoy) district. In the period between the two
world wars, tin–tungsten concentrates ranked in value only next
to petroleum and natural gas among the mineral products
exported from Burma (Table 28.1).
In 1939 Myanmar produced 5964 long tons of tin and 4342
long tons of tungsten concentrates, according to the Statistical
Summary of the Imperial Institute (1948). Between 2000 and
2008 the declared production of tin and tungsten concentrates
rose steadily, and has risen more steeply since 2009. Chanjar-
oen (2014) forecast Myanmar tin output to rise to 28 000 tons
in 2015. The International Tin Research Institute (ITRI) has
estimated a higher figure of 35 000 tonnes for 2015 (Gardiner
et al. 2015), making Myanmar the third-largest producer of
tin in the world after China and Indonesia. Gardiner et al.
(2015) have evaluated the current and future potential for the
tin industry in Myanmar, with regard to the economics of global
tin production.
Sn–W occurrences in Myanmar
A surge in tin production in Myanmar since 2013 has been due
to the tin production from the Man Maw Mining District, which
amounted to about 2000 tonnes in 2014 (Gardiner et al. 2015).
The Man Maw Mining District (locality No. 3 in Fig. 28.1,
Table 28.2) is situated in Wa State, an autonomous area on
the border with Yunnan in SW China, governed by the United
Wa State Party. The Wa State recognizes the sovereignty of
Myanmar over its territories and signed a peace deal with
Myanmar in 2013 (Wikipedia 2015).
When the new alluvial tin finds discovered recently in
the northeastern (Namkham–Muse) and eastern (Mong Ton–
Mong Hsat) areas are included (locality No. 7 in Fig. 28.1),
more than 600 Sn–W occurrences and deposits are known of
in Myanmar (Fig. 28.1); many of these have been mined on
various scales from commercial to artisanal. With the exception
of the largest deposit at Mawchi (Kayah State) (locality No. 10
in Fig. 28.1), the majority are situated in the Tanintharyi
(Tennanserim) region, especially in the Dawei (Tavoy) and
Myeik (Mergui) districts. The Dawei district has the largest
and more important tin–tungsten lode mines, whereas more
tin-rich tin–tungsten lode mines, tin lode mines and alluvial
tin deposits occur in the Myeik district. Details of the histori-
cally more important Sn–W mines in Myanmar are summarized
From: BARBER, A. J., KHIN ZAW & CROW, M. J. (eds) 2017. Myanmar: Geology, Resources and Tectonics.
Geological Society, London, Memoirs, 48, 625–647, https://doi.org/10.1144/M48.28
© 2017 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. All rights reserved.
For permissions: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/permissions. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
in Table 28.2 and localities of the Sn–W deposits/occurrences
are shown in Figure 28.1.
Sn–W deposits and occurrences in Myanmar are spatially and
genetically related to granite intrusions (Mitchell 1977; Khin
Zaw 1990). Compositionally these granites are granodiorites
and monzogranites which range from I-type to S-type in charac-
ter (Khin Zaw 1990; Cobbing et al. 1992). All of the highly dif-
ferentiated Sn–W-bearing granites are typically S-type granites.
In most cases, they are mesocratic to leucocratic, grey, fine- to
coarse-grained, inequigranular K-feldspar megacrystic biotite
granites, locally greisenized and tourmalinized.
Khin Zaw (1990) classified the granites in Myanmar into
three belts: the Western, Central and Eastern granitoid belts.
Cretaceous–Tertiary granites fall within the Central Granitoid
Belt (Figs 28.2, 28.3). Radiometric age dating indicates that
the Central Belt granites, some of which are associated
with tin–tungsten mineralization (Table 28.3), are Late
Cretaceous–Tertiary (Eocene and younger) in age. A solitary
exception is the Sisters Island granite that yielded a possible
Triassic age, and which Cobbing et al. (1992) describe as a
‘highly deformed and mylonitized granite’ quite different
from typical granites in the Myeik (Mergui) Archipelago.
Central Belt granites are similar in age and lithology to granites
in Peninsular Thailand (Charusiri et al. 1993; Putthapiban
2002) which, in the context of SE Asia, represent the Western
Granite Belt of Mitchell (1977) and the ‘Western Granite Prov-
ince’ of Cobbing et al. (1986, 1992) and Schwartz et al. (1995).
The granite provinces in Myanmar and parts of Thailand
according to Cobbing et al. (1992) are shown in Figure 28.3.
The newly discovered Sn–W occurrences in the eastern part
of the Shan State are related to granites of the Eastern Granitoid
Belt of Khin Zaw (1986a, b, 1987a, 1990), which Cobbing
et al. (1986, 1992) refer to as the ‘Central Belt’ of the ‘Central
Province’ of the North Thai Granites.
Gardiner et al. (2014) reviewed the metallogenic provinces
in Myanmar and introduced the term ‘Mogok–Mandalay–
Mergui Belt’ (Fig. 28.4), incorporating the ‘Slate Belt’ (Mitch-
ell et al. 2012) and the metamorphic complex within and to
the west of the Slate Belt. The Mogok–Mandalay–Mergui
Metallogenic Province covers the Central Granitoid Belt
(Khin Zaw 1990) and the Western Granitoid Province (Cob-
bing et al. 1992) and incorporates Sn–W, Au, Sb and other
mineralization present in the area between the Sagaing Fault
and the Shan Plateau.
Primary Sn–W ores originate from the magmatic-hydrother-
mal solutions emanating from high-level, highly differentiated
Central Belt granitoid plutons. The high potassic contents,
high initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (>0.717 ± 0.002) and Rb/Sr ratios
(0.4–33.07) of these granites assisted the fusion of crustal mate-
rials and the scavenging of the tin, tungsten and associated base
626
Table 28.1. Reported mine production of tin and tungsten concentrates in Myanmar in metric tonnes (metal content)
Metal/Year 2000 2001 2002 2003
Tin 744 659 456 606
Tungsten 146 86 84 96
Source: US Geological Survey Minerals Yearbooks and ITRI (International Tin Research Institute).
metals plus sulphur from rocks in a continental sialic basement
(Khin Zaw 1986a, b, 1987a, 1990).
Sn–W quartz lodes are post-magmatic in the ore-forming
sequence. On the basis of their modes of occurrence and min-
eral assemblages, primary Sn–W orebodies can be categorized
as disseminations, as in tourmalinized biotite granites, pegma-
titic, pneumatolytic (in tourmalinized and greisenized bodies)
and hydrothermal (in quartz-sulphide veins). Scheelite occurs
in pyrometasomatic (skarn) deposits. However, the bulk of pri-
mary Sn–W mineralization occurs as hydrothermal greisen-
bordered quartz-sulphide vein swarms, both in the host granite
and in the intruded sedimentary rocks.
Studies of fluid inclusions have been made in samples from
the Hermyingyi and Mawchi areas and prospects in the Pagaye
area in the Tavoy township of the Tanaintharyi region. At the
Mawchi Mine, Khin Zaw & Khin Myo Thet (1983) described
vein quartz with numerous rounded, elliptical and irregular
shaped two-phase aqueous inclusions containing about 30%
vapour, and determined a filling temperature range of total
homogenization of 190–260°C. The filling temperature in
scheelite crystals was from 170°C to a maximum of 270°C.
Temperatures of total homogenization at Hermyingyi were
220–2500°C (Khin Zaw 1978; Nilar Shwe 1980) and at Pagaye
were 140–2700°C (Khin Zaw 1984). The salinity at Mawchi
and in the Pagaye prospects was 4–9 wt% NaCl equivalent
and 1–5 wt% NaCl equivalent, respectively. The fluid measure-
ment techniques used, together with fluid inclusion data from
elsewhere in SE Asia, are discussed by Schwartz et al. (1995).
Discovery of the major Sn–W deposits in Myanmar
In 1839, German geologist Dr J. W. Helfer discovered tin-
bearing quartz veins at Wumpo on the right bank of Dawei
(Tavoy) river between Yebyu and Dawei. In 1911 these veins
became the site of Egani mine operated by the Egani Tavoy
Mining Co. Ltd (Brown 1918; Beadon 1919).
The world-famous Mawchi tin–tungsten deposit in Kayah
State was discovered by Captain E. O’Riley who noticed that
fishermen in Kemapyu village, on the bank of Than Lwin
(Salween) River, were using large crystals of cassiterite
(SnO2) as sinkers for their fishing nets. O’Riley (1858) pros-
pected the Kemapyu Chaung (tinstone river) upstream and
came upon the Kedaung (Tin Hill) near the village of Mawchi
(locally called Moki). At that time, local people (Kayins)
worked only tin ore (cassiterite) and discarded the tungsten
ore (wolframite) as waste. Mawchi Mines Ltd was subsequently
incorporated to mine the deposit for both tin and tungsten ores
(Penzer 1922). Prior to the Second World War the Mawchi
Mine was the largest producer of tungsten lode deposit in
the world.
When Mr John J. A. Page, formerly of the Geological
Survey of India (GSI), was prospecting in the Pagaye area
in March 1909, he traced cassiterite and wolframite float up
the Sanchi Chaung, finding boulders and slabs of wolframite
derived from Sn–W-bearing quartz veins over a width of
120 ft (37 m); over 20 of these veins were thicker than
6 inches (15 cm) (Beadon 1919). This discovery initiated
the wolfram mining industry in the Dawei area, with the
THAN HTUN ET AL.
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
526 708 923 830 830 1030 4030 11 000 10 600
107 168 197 183 136 87 163 140 140
development of Pagaye and the larger resource at Hermyingyi
as tungsten mines.
Mineralogy
Details of the metals, ore minerals, mineral associations and
types of ore in Sn–W deposits in the Myanmar (Central Belt)
and Thai (Western Province) deposits are summarized in
Table 28.4. In Myanmar the main ore minerals in quartz vein
deposits are cassiterite and wolframite, with subordinate schee-
lite. The gangue minerals comprise quartz, pyrite, arsenopyrite,
bismuthinite, bismuth, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, tourma-
line (schorl), calcite, fluorite and rarely beryl. Molybdenite
occurs in W-rich tin–tungsten quartz veins. Sn-sulphides such
as stannite and cylindrite may occur in quartz veins with base
metal sulphides. Powellite can be present, accompanying
scheelite in skarn deposits.
In some pegmatites, especially Sn-rich deposits (as in the
Yamone–Kazat area, locality No. 26 in Fig. 28.1), colum-
bite–tantalite (Nb–Ta) and rare earth element (REE) minerals
occur in addition to cassiterite, wolframite, quartz, feldspars
and Sn–lepidolite. In alluvial tin deposits, zircon, monazite,
xenotime, traces of gold and, very rarely, detrital diamond crys-
tals (gem quality) are found in addition to magnetite, ilmenite,
ilmenorutile and garnet.
In Malaysia and Indonesia, the black heavy mineral tailings
(magnetite, ilmenite, monazite, xenotime, zircon and REE
minerals) are called ‘amang’ and are mined from tailings
dumps. After making concentrates, these more valuable miner-
als find ready markets. Amang resources remain to be exploited
in Myanmar.
Mineral zoning
Despite the close association of tin and tungsten in quartz veins,
a distinct zoning between cassiterite (tin) and wolframite (tung-
sten) exists in Sn–W lode mines. Generally, only tungsten and
W-rich Sn–W deposits occur proximal to granite intrusives,
and tin only and Sn-rich Sn–W deposits in distal positions.
Mixed ore (Sn + W) deposits occur in between these two
end-members.
Regionally, tin (cassiterite) occurs more abundantly in the
southern parts (Myeik and Kawthaung districts) of the Tanin-
tharyi region, and tungsten minerals (wolframite and scheelite)
are more abundant to the north in the Dawei district, Mon,
Kayin and Kayah States, Pyinmana East area, Yamethin district
and Shan State (Brown 1922). In the Namkham–Muse area in
the NE, the placer deposits are rich in tin. According to Dutt
(1942), in the Yamethin district tungsten occurs as ferberite
(FeWO4) in several deposits.
In relation to the traditional view of regional spatial zoning
pattern for Sn–W deposits, the density of Sn deposits evidently
increases from the north to the south; however, Khin Zaw
(1986a, 1990) noted that this view on zoning has no particular
reference to the primary and/or secondary alluvial deposits.
The abundance of secondary tin deposits does not necessarily
mean that Sn is increased in the south, since cassiterite survives
 Sn–W DEPOSITS 627

Fig. 28.1. Tin–tungsten deposits of Myanmar (after Tin Aye & Kyaw Nyein 1966; Ye Myint Swe pers. comm. 2012). 1, Nam Kham; 2, Pansan–Pankhan; 3,
Walinkhunmar; 4, Wan Pon; 5, Chaungnibauk; 6, Palamaw; 7, Mong Hsat; 8, Peinnedaik; 9, Myinmati; 10, Mawchi; 11, Mawday; 12, Natkyigyaung; 13,
Natkyizin; 14, Ohnbinkwin; 15, Kanbauk; 16, Widnes; 17, Pha Chaung; 18, Hermyingyi; 19, Pagaye; 20, Mwehauk Chaung; 21, Nanthila; 22, Phachaung; 23,
Thanbaya Chaung; 24, Palaw; 25, Yemyintkyi; 26, Yamon-kazat; 27, Zegami; 28, Gahan; 29, Dongyi; 30, Thabawleik; 31, Kadebyin; 32, Zalun; 33, Khe
Chaung; 34, Yengan; 35, Bokpyin; 36, Yadanabon; 37, Kyaukhtanaung; 38, Lampi Island; 39, Harkapru; 40, Kyaukpan Chaung; 41, Chaungnagpi; 42,
Karathuri; 43, Palau Bada; 44, Chockling; 45, Maliwun; 46, Pakchan River.
 628
Table 28.2. Details of the major tin–tungsten-producing mines in Myanmar

No. in Name Township, region, Latitude (N)/ Metal Deposit type Brief geological description Ore Remarks
Figure 28.1 state longitude (E) reserve
(metric
tonne)

3 Man Maw Mining Wa region, northen 22° 55′, 99° Sn Veins, stockworks Current production
District Shan State and alluvial 10 000–20 000 ore t a−1
10 Mawchi Pasawng, Kayah 18° 45′, 97° 10′ Sn–W Veins and stockworks En echelon quartz veins and stockworks in both 102,022 A world-class deposit in the
tourmalinized biotite granite and Mawchi pre-war period
Formation metasediments
20 Heinda Dawei, Tanintharyi 14° 7′, 98° 27′ Sn Fossil placer Uplifted fossilized placer deposit with large 12,464 Largest tin placer deposit
granite boulders and gravels

THAN HTUN ET AL.

18 Hermyingyi Dawei, Tanintharyi 14° 15′, 98° 35′ Sn–W Veins and stockworks En echelon quartz veins stockworks in biotite 2636 One of the major tin–tungsten
granite and Mergui metasediments mines; in 1917 it produced
1051 long tons
19 Pagaye Dawei, Tanintharyi 14° 6′, 98° 19′ Sn–W Stockwork pegmatite Stockwork quartz veins and pegmatites in biotite 6050 One of the major W-producing
and quartz veins granite mines
15 Kanbauk Yebyu, Tanintharyi 14° 35′, 98° 3′ Sn, Sn–W Alluvial flats and Alluvial tin placers and quartz veins in granite at 1323 Major tin–tungsten producer
quartz veins Home Hill
30 Thabawleik Myeik, Tanintharyi 12° 1′, 99° 12′ Sn Alluvial flats A huge alluvial tin deposit underlain by Mergui 160 Alluvial mining by dredgers in
Group metasediments; no granite outcrop the past
16 Widnes (Wazun-chaung) Dawei, Tanintharyi 14° 3′, 98° 28′ Sn–W Quartz veins Sn–W-bearing quartz veins in both granite and 927 One of the big W-producing
argillites of Mergui Group mines in pre-war days
22 Paungdaw Dawei, Tanintharyi 14° 2′, 98° 33′ Sn–W Quartz veins Parallel veins containing wolframite, cassiterite, 90 Major tungsten mine
sulphides and fluorite
36 Yadanabon (Namyen) Bokpyin, Tanintharyi 11° 17′ 05″, 99° 17′ Sn–W Quartz veins, eluvial Sn–W-bearing quartz-sulphide veins and eluvial 43 Sn–W mine developed in post-
and alluvial deposits in weathered granite and also Sn war period close to
deposits alluvial deposits Thai–Myanmar border
21 Nanthilar (Muntet) Palaw, Tanintharyi 13° 22′ 40″, 98° 41′ 30″ Sn Cassiterite-sulphide- Single large quartz lode carrying cassiterite and 233 Tin lode underground mine
quartz vein (lode- base metal sulphides in slates and quartzites of
type) deposit Mergui Group

Source: Tin Aye & Kyaw Nyein (1966), Ye Myint Swe (pers. comm. 2012).
 Sn–W DEPOSITS
Fig. 28.2. Western, Central and Eastern granitoid belts of Myanmar
(after Khin Zaw 1990).
during weathering and erosion cycles while W minerals are
mostly destroyed and are not present in an appreciable amount
in secondary alluvial deposits. Tungsten appears to dominate
over Sn in the primary vein-type deposits of the central belt
from Nyaunggyat, Shan State (tungsten-only deposit) at the
north through Mawchi (Kayah State), Hermyingyi (Dawei) to
the Tagu Mine and the Yadanabon Mine (Myeik) in the south-
ernmost part of the belt, showing increasing W/Sn–W ratios to
the south (Khin Zaw 1986a, 1990). In fact, the Sn–W belt asso-
ciated with the central belt in Myanmar is a tungsten province,
with subordinate Sn mineralization.
Distinct mineral zoning on deposit-scale is present in the
Hermyingyi, Natkyigyaung and Hnantazeik mines. In the Her-
myingyi Mine there are three north–south-aligned hills. The
northern hill called Yinthan Taung (Tin Hill) is rich in Sn,
the middle Gadin (Big Hill) produces mixed (Sn + W) ore
and the southern hill, Nyaungbin Daung (Banyan Tree Hill),
is rich in W. In the other two mines the zoning of proximal tung-
sten and distal tin, with mixed tin and tungsten in between, is
controlled by the proximity to granite intrusions. In the Hnan-
tazeik Mine area, Paung township, Thaton district, the southern
portion of the Hnantaseik hill range is mineralized with tin,
the middle portion with mixed ore and the northern half with
wolfram (Than Htay 1972).
Sn:WO3 ratios
In Sn–W lode mines in Myanmar it is usual practice to deter-
mine the Sn:W ratio, which is the chemically analysed ratio
between the value of Sn (tin) and WO3 (tungsten trioxide or
629
oxide) contents in the ore; the value of Sn is taken as 100,
and an adjusted value for WO3 is calculated. These ratios are
represented graphically in curves where the x-axis shows the
Sn:WO3 ratio values and the y-axis shows the depth or the
mine levels (as in the pre-war Mawchi Mine). Variation
along the y-axis shows whether cassiterite (tin), wolframite or
scheelite (tungsten) forms first or overlaps with each other,
while the x-axis show the variation in Sn and W values with
rock types. The Sn:WO3 ratios for different deposits vary
from 2:1 to 1:3, e.g. Mawchi (Kayah), Hermyingyi (Tanin-
tharyi) (Bender 1983).
Studies on the homogenization temperature of primary fluid
inclusions in mineralized vein quartz in relation to the com-
positional variation of wolframites, using huebnerite (Mn
end-member): ferberite (Fe end-member) or h/f ratios from
the selected Sn–W deposits along the central granitoid belt
was also made, and demonstrates that there is no permissible
regional correlation or a trend by which the h/f ratio can be
used as a geothermometer. However, the regional variation
of the h/f ratio in the Myanmar wolframite deposits reflects
the variation of Mn2+/Fe2+ in the ore solutions and chang-
ing fO2 and pH during ore deposition (Khin Zaw 1987b).
Oreshoots
In Sn–W lode mines (as in Mawchi, Pagaye, Hermyingyi,
Widnes and Nanthilar) oreshoots of high-grade ore in pockets
or patches occur in individual quartz veins at regular or irregu-
lar intervals, with the result that the distribution of Sn–W ore
values is uneven and at times highly erratic. Some of these
oreshoots are visible as bunches of dark-coloured cassiterite–
wolframite-sulphides against the white vein quartz in the under-
ground workings. In practice, the oreshoots only are detectable
by close-spaced sampling and assay of ore veins.
The oreshoots are vertical in most mines (such as at Mawchi
and Hermyingyi), reflecting their deposition from ascending
mineralizing solutions. The shapes and patterns of the ore-
shoots are carefully delineated through systematic sampling.
Understanding the distribution of oreshoots is crucial to both
mine development, such as where to make mine openings
(stopes), and the control of ore extraction, such as decisions
regarding which parts of veins should be left as permanent
pillars for mine safety.
Major Sn–W and Sn mines
Historically there were six major Sn–W lode mines and four
alluvial Sn mines in Myanmar (Table 28.2). These deposits
have been joined by the recently developed Man Maw Mining
District. The historic Sn–W lode mines include Mawchi,
Hermyingyi, Pagaye, Widnes, Kanbauk and Yadanabon, and
the alluvial Sn mines are Heinda, Heinze Basin, Manoron and
Thabawleik. Although worked for many years all of these
mines have substantial ore resources, much of which is cur-
rently inaccessible in the lode mines due to mine collapse.
With proper mine rehabilitation and renovation these mines
could be exploited profitably, providing the prices of tin and
tungsten remain economically attractive.
Man Maw Mining District (Ma Makhsan mine)
Man Maw town is about 90 km NE of Pang Kham, the capital
of the Wa State. The Man Maw Mining district covers an area
of about 100 km2, where there are numerous tin mine sites
worked by small concerns. The main deposit at Ma Makhsan
630 THAN HTUN ET AL.

Fig. 28.3. Granite provinces in

Myanmar and parts of Thailand (after
Cobbing et al. 1992; Cobbing 2011;
Gardiner et al. 2014).

(22° 16′ 31.59″ N, 99° 02′ 23.57″ E, locality No. 3 in Fig. 28.1), staff and miners. The open-pit primary ore has a grade of
situated near Man Maw town and exploited since 2008, is 1%–2% Sn, while the underground mine primary ore grades
owned by Mr Aik Kaw and is operated by Chinese technical up to 40% Sn. The mine produces crushed ore, typically grading
 Sn–W DEPOSITS 631

Table 28.3. Radiometric age data for the Central Granitoid Belt of Myanmar

87
Pluton name Lithology Location Dating method/ Age (Ma) Sr/86Sr References
(sample no.) mineral

Pyetoyo Taung Bio granite (7973A) Neyaungga K–Ar biotite 58 ± 1 0.7229 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Pyetoyo Taung Hb Bio adamellite (7973B) Neyaungga K–Ar biotite 51 ± 1 0.7154 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Pyetoyo Taung Hb Bio adamellite (7973B) Neyaungga K–Ar hornblende 82 ± 2 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Phelun Chaung Bio Hb granodiorite 20° 35.4′ N, 96° 3.2′ E Rb–Sr isochron 80 ± 82 0.7115 Cobbing et al. (1992)
Yebokson B Bio Hb granodiorite 20° 35.4′ N, 96° 3.25′ E Rb–Sr isochron 149 ± 21 0.7099 Cobbing et al. (1992)
(4 samples)
Yebokson B Med. gr. Hb-Bio granodiorite SHRIMP U–Pb 123.50 ± 0.89 Barley et al. (2003)
(UB065B) (no.118 in
appendix 1 of Cobbing
et al. 1992)
Yebokson B Med. gr. Hb-Bio granodiorite SHRIMP U–Pb 2621 ± 8 Barley et al. (2003)
(UB065B)
Yebokson B Med. gr. Hb-Bio granodiorite SHRIMP U–Pb 121.12 ± 0.89 Barley et al. (2003)
(UB065B)
Yebokson B Med. gr. Hb-Bio granodiorite SHRIMP U–Pb 125.46 ± 0.73 Barley et al. (2003)
(UB065B)
Kyaukpan Augen gneiss sheet (K2) 20° 46′ 21.0″ N, 96° 17′ 09.4″ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 122 ± 2 0.7151 Mitchell et al. (2012)
Nattaung Quarry Undeformed dyke of 20° 16′ 40.9″ N, 96° 15′ 34.8″ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 71.8 ± 0.5 0.7177 Mitchell et al. (2012)
Nattaung granite (C)
Sedo Sedo Granite (A) 20° 19′ 43″ N, 96° 19′ 50″ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 48.8 ± 0.9 0.7107 Mitchell et al. (2012)
Sedo Sedo Granite (A) 20° 19′ 43″ N, 96° 19′ 50″ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 53.8 ± 0.8 Mitchell et al. (2012)
Padatgyaung Granite (4 samples) 19° 44.58′ N, 95° 36.47′ E Rb–Sr isochron 56 ± 2 0.717 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095B) 19° 44.58′ N, 95° 36.47′ E K–Ar biotite 57 ± 1 0.799 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095B) 19° 44.58′ N, 95° 36.47′ E K–Ar muscovite 53 ± 1 0.799 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095F) 19° 38.94′ N, 95° 35.7′ E K–Ar biotite 55 ± 1 0.7226 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095F) 19° 38.94′ N, 95° 35.7′ E K–Ar hornblende 45 ± 1 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095G) 19° 40.77′ N, 95° 35.7′ E K–Ar biotite 55 ± 1 0.7405 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095G) 19° 40.77′ N, 95° 35.7′ E K–Ar K-feldspar 47 ± 1 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (micas from 3 sp.) 19° 40.77′ N, 95° 35.7′ E K–Ar micas ave 55 ± 0.5 Cobbing et al. (1992)
Hermyingyi Alkali feldspar aplite stock 14° 14′ N, 98° 21′ E Rb–Sr isochron 59.5 ± 1.4 0.727 Lehmann & Mahawat
(1989)
Hermyingyi Med-f. Leuco. Mesogranites 14° 15′ N, 98° 26′ E Rb–Sr isochron 59 ± 2 0.735 Cobbing et al. (1992)
Hermyingyi Granite 14° 15′ N, 98° 26′ E U–Pb SHRIMP 61.7 ± 1.3 Mitchell et al. (2012)
Auk Bok Mafic Prim Tex granite & 13° 48.9′ N, 97° 46.3′ E Rb–Sr isochron 35 ± 34 0.7083 Cobbing et al. (1992)
K-feld. leucogr.
Maingy Island V. coarse. Ineq.pink Prim 12° 29.2′ N, 98° 9.1′ E Rb–Sr isochron 45 ± 2 0.7104 Cobbing et al. (1992)
Tex granite
Parker &Trotter B K-feld. megacryst.& Prim 11° 56.9′ N, 98° 9.1′ E Rb–Sr isochron 94 ± 14 0.7108 Cobbing et al. (1992)
Tex granites
High Island C. Ineq.- K-feld. Megacryst. 11° N, 98° 16.4′ E Rb–Sr isochron 46 ± 16 0.7156 Cobbing et al. (1992)
grey granite
Pulo Baleigh Med. Ineq. grey Prim Tex 10° 25.5′ N, 98° 25.45′ E Rb–Sr isochron 51 ± 13 0.7152 Cobbing et al. (1992)
granite
Davis Island C. ineq.grey Primary Texture 9° 40.5′ N, 98° E Rb–Sr isochron 57 ± 4 0.7091 Cobbing et al. (1992)
granite
Padatgyaung Granite (4 samples) 19° 44.58′ N, 95° 36.47′ E Rb–Sr isochron 56 ± 2 0.717 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095B) 19° 44.58′ N, 95° 36.47′ E K–Ar biotite 57 ± 1 0.799 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095B) 19° 44.58′ N, 95° 36.47′ E K–Ar muscovite 53 ± 1 0.799 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095F) 19° 38.94′ N, 95° 35.7′ E K–Ar biotite 55 ± 1 0.7226 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095F) 19° 38.94′ N, 95° 35.7′ E K–Ar hornblende 45 ± 1 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095G) 19° 40.77′ N, 95° 35.7′ E K–Ar biotite 55 ± 1 0.7405 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (8095G) 19° 40.77′ N, 95° 35.7′ E K–Ar K-feldspar 47 ± 1 Brook & Snelling (1976)
Padatgyaung Granite (micas from 3 sp.) 19° 40.77′ N, 95° 35.7′ E K–Ar micas ave 55 ± 0.5 Cobbing et al. (1992)
Mawchi Biotite granite (12 zircon 18° 48′ N, 97° 10′ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 42.72 ± 0.94 Aung Zaw Myint et al.
crystals) (2017)
Mawchi Tourmaline granite (6 zircon 18° 48′ N, 97° 10′ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 44.6 ± 2.1 Aung Zaw Myint et al.
crystals) (2017)
Hermyingyi Alkali feldspar aplite stock 14° 14′ N, 98° 21′ E Rb–Sr isochron 59.5 ± 1.4 0.727 Lehmann & Mahawat
(1989)
Hermyingyi Med-f. Leuco. Mesogranites 14° 15′ N, 98° 26′ E Rb–Sr isochron 59 ± 2 0.735 Cobbing et al. (1992)
Hermyingyi Granite 14° 15′ N, 98° 26′ E U–Pb SHRIMP 61.7 ± 1.3 Mitchell et al. (2012)
Hermyingyi Granite 14° 15′ N, 98° 26′ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 70.5 ± 0.8 Jiang et al. (2017)
Taungphila Granite LA-MC-ICP-MS 68.9 ± 1.8 Jiang et al. (2017)
Tawmore Taung Porphyritic Bio granite 14° 5′ N, 98° 12′ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 58.73 ± 0.54 Su Su Hlaing et al.
(2014)

(Continued)
632 THAN HTUN ET AL.

Table 28.3. (Continued )

87
Pluton name Lithology Location Dating method/ Age (Ma) Sr/86Sr References
(sample no.) mineral

Tawmore Taung Porphyritic biotite 14° 5′ N, 98° 12′ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 59.0 ± 0.53 Su Su Hlaing et al.
microgranite (2014)
Tawmore Taung Biotite granite 14° 5′ N, 98° 12′ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 60.52 ± 0.75 Su Su Hlaing et al.
(2014)
Mawpalaw Taung Biotite granite (E4) 15° 45′ 35″ N, 97° 50′ 35″ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 121.3 ± 1.1 Mi Paik & Khin Zaw
(2014); Mi Paik (2017)
Thanbyuzayat Tin-bearing pegmatitic dyke 15° 46′ 29″ N, 97° 49′ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 106.8 ± 1.6 Mi Paik & Khin Zaw
(2014); Mi Paik (2017)
Yadanabon Sn–W-bearing garnite 15° 46′ 29″ N, 97° 49′ E LA-MC-ICP-MS 50.3 ± 0.6 Gardiner et al. (2016)

Dated Sn–W mineralized granites are shown in italics.

Data from Brook & Snelling (1976), Lehmann & Mahawat (1989), Cobbing et al. (1992), Barley et al. (2003), Mitchell et al. (2012), Mi Paik & Khin Zaw (2014), Su Su Hlaing et al.
(2014), Gardiner et al. (2016), Aung Zaw Myint et al. (2017), Jiang et al. (2017), Mi Paik (2017).

@ 10% Sn and a semi-processed concentrate between 20% and
25% Sn. Annual production of ore has been up to 30 000 tonnes
(Gardiner & Sykes 2015; Gardiner et al. 2015) and in 2015 was
about 10 000 tonnes (Mr Aik Kaw, pers. comm., 2015).
Geological details are not currently available concerning
the Man Maw Mining District, but the Geological Map of
Myanmar (Ministry of Mines 2008) shows a small granite plu-
ton in the vicinity of Man Maw intruded into Lower Palaeozoic
rocks. This pluton is most likely a Triassic granitoid, related to
the North Thai Province Granitoids of Cobbing et al. (1992),
and is probably the source of tin mineralization at the Ma
Makhsan Mine.

Fig. 28.4. The Mawchi Sn–W mine: a

plan view of the mine workings and a
section through the Mawchi Sn–W
mine showing the mine workings
(modified from the Mawchi Mine
Project Map by Aung Zaw Myint).
 Sn–W DEPOSITS 633

Table 28.4. Metallogenetic sub-provinces in the SE Asian Tin Belt

Granite Metallogenic sub- Geological environment Composite metal Type of Primary ore type Type
province/belt province association mineralogical localities
association

Western Province Tanintharyi Permo-Carboniferous Sn − W ± Cu ± Cassiterite– Vein systems/skarn Myeik, Dawei

of Cobbing (Myanmar) continental margin pebbly Mo ± Bi ± Pb ± wolframite stockworks ± (Myanmar)
et al. (1992) (Ranong-Three mudstones with slaty Zn ± Fe ± F (chalcopyrite– greisen
Pagodas) Fault cleavage molybdenite–
Block bismuth)
Central Belt of Shan (Three Shan Dolomite Group, mainly W and/or Sn ± Wolframite ± Vein systems/ Mawchi
Khin Zaw Pagodas, Moei) Ordovician–Triassic shelf Sb ± Cu ± Pb ± scheelite- greisen ± skarn (Myanmar)
(1990) Fault Block limestones with subordinate Zn ± Mo ± Bi ± cassiterite
pebbly mudstones As ± Fe (arsenopyrite)

After Cobbing et al. (1992).

Mawchi Mine The Mawchi Sn–W-bearing quartz veins occur in an approx-

The Mawchi Mine (18° 45′ N, 97° 10′ E, locality No. 10 in
Fig. 28.1) is situated in the Kayah State 160 miles (256 km)
NE of Yangon and is the largest and the only Sn–W lode
mine in Myanmar with a mill complex at the mine site. It was
the largest operating W-lode mine in the world in terms of its
size and production during the 1930s (Hobson 1941).
This Sn–W deposit occurs where a tourmaline-rich granite
cupola has intruded clay slates, argillites, very fine-grained
sandstones, quartz grits, calcareous mudstones and limestones
of the Mergui Group (formerly Mawchi Series). In the contact
zone, the granite has slightly metamorphosed these rocks to
indurated shales, quartzites, spotted schists and crystalline
limestones (Khin Zaw & Khin Myo Thet 1983).
The petrography, geochemistry and geological setting of the
biotite and tourmaline granites at the Mawchi mine are
described by Aung Zaw Myint et al. (2017). LA-ICP-MS U–
Pb zircon dates obtained for the biotite granite (42.72 ±
0.94 Ma) and tourmaline granite (44.6 ± 2.1 Ma) place the con-
solidation of these granites and the associated Sn–W minerali-
zation at Mawchi in the Lutetian stage of the Eocene. The
granites investigated are very contaminated through assimila-
tion of country rocks, but have a within-plate geochemical sig-
nature and contain zircons inherited from the Cretaceous
plutonism in the Central Belt.
imately north–south-aligned en echelon pattern and penetrate
both the granite and metasediments. These veins are worked
by a series of adits driven into the hillside (Fig. 28.5a). The
Sn–W-bearing quartz veins pinch out in the limestone bands,
which are the main lithologic control on the distribution of
ore veins. Most of the veins are less than 1.2 m (4 ft) in
width and consist of quartz, cassiterite, wolframite, scheelite,
tourmaline (as schorl), pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite and
galena (Fig. 28.5b).
Hydrothermal Sn–W quartz veins occur singly, in stock-
works, in greisens, in pneumatolytic tourmalinized bodies
and in pegmatites. Scheelite occurs in the quartz veins together
with wolframite (Dunn 1938a). Scheelite also occurs as a skarn
mineral at the granite–limestone contacts in the upper levels.
Primary cassiterite occurs as disseminated crystals in pneuma-
tolytic tourmalinized granite forming a low-grade orebody.
In the underground mine workings, high-grade oreshoots
occur at 9–15 m (30–50 ft) intervals in adjacent levels (Than
Htay 1970). The pattern of oreshoots has controlled the posi-
tions of mine openings, stopes and positioning of permanent
pillars for mine safety. The highly erratic ore values at the
underground Mawchi Mine unfortunately did not permit the
use of core drilling for ore evaluation or exploration.
The Mawchi Mine is at an elevation of about 1098 m (3600
ft), and the mineralization has been explored to a depth of

Fig. 28.5. (a) Spoil heaps at the foot of adits driven into the Mawchi granite to mine the Sn–W mineralized quartz vein system. (b) Sn–W mineralization at
margins of a quartz vein in granite in the Mawchi Mine (location, level-4, vein No. 15). Photographs courtesy of Ye Myint Swe.
634 THAN HTUN ET AL.
300 m. The mine was developed in eight levels, named (from
top to bottom) M, G, F, E, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4 and No. 5 levels,
with a main cross-cut on No. 2 level driven west–east that cuts
across all the veins in the mine. The veins originally cropped
out on the steep slopes of the Mawchi Hill and have been
exploited through adits at varying elevations affording good
mine ventilation and drainage. Altogether 64 veins were
worked using the open-stope mining method. Timber cladding
was inserted when the wallrocks were kaolinized (as in the
granite) or composed of clay-filled fractures and joints (as in
the slate and argillite).
A self-acting steel cable bucket-ropeway with a midway sta-
tion to assist smooth operation just over 1.6 km (1 mile) long
served to transport the mine ore from the mine to the mill.
The Mawchi Mine mill was designed to produce a concen-
trate of 70% Sn and WO3 with a minimum of sulphides.
After milling the cassiterite, wolframite and scheelite were
extracted by jigging and tabling. The Murex process removed
sulphides in the ore (the sulphides are first coated with pine
oil and pulverized magnetite and then removed magnetically).
The very-fine-grained sulphides were removed by flotation.
The final mill concentrates typically assayed 30% Sn, 32.5%
WO3, 0.6% As and 0.6% S (Denyer & Heath 1940).
A total of 143 000 tons of ore were produced in 1938 yield-
ing 4774 tons of Sn–W concentrates with 32% Sn and 34%
WO3 (Sommerlatte 1948). Approximately 400 tons of Sn–W
concentrates were produced in 1974–75 (Bender 1983).
There still remain substantial ore reserves in the mine, espe-
cially in the upper levels; Goossens (1978) estimated 712 540 t
of ore grading at 3.02% Sn+W. These upper levels are unsafe
due to the collapse of underground mine workings (Than
Htay 1970). Outside the mine area there is a north–south align-
ment of sporadic Sn–W vein occurrences believed to have eco-
nomic potential (Than Htay 1970).
Hermyingyi Mine
The Hermyingyi Mine (14° 15′ N, 98° 21′ E, locality No. 18 in
Fig. 28.1) dates from 1910 and is situated about 40 km NE of
Dawei in the Tanintharyi region. The Hermyingi Mine exploits
a quartz–cassiterite–wolframite vein system which cuts the
Hermyingyi granite stock 1400 m in length and 550 m wide
located just north of the Central Range Granite. The geological
map of the mine is shown in Figure 28.6 (after Bender 1983).
The mined area includes five granite hill-stocks protruding
Fig. 28.6. Geological map of the Hermyingyi
Mine and the main Sn–W vein system
(simplified after Bender 1983).
 Sn–W DEPOSITS 635

Fig. 28.7. (a) Brecciated Sn-bearing quartz vein

in production adit in Mergui Group quartzite in
the Hermyingyi Mine. (b) Quartz veins
containing Sn–W mineralization in production
adit in the Hermyingi Mine. Photographs
courtesy of Myint Soe.

from a pluton that intruded into phyllites, schists and quartzites
of the Mergui Group. Tin Hill (Yinthan Taung) in the north is
Sn-rich, Big Hill (Gadin Taung) produces mixed Sn–W con-
centrates and Banyan Tree Hill (Nyaungbin Taung) in the
south is W-rich.
The Hermyingyi mesogranite is a megacrystic biotite granite
which is highly fractionated and has a high 87Sr/86Sr ratio
between 0.727 and 0.7350, indicating significant assimilation
of crustal rocks (Lehmann & Mahawat 1989; Cobbing et al.
1992). Cobbing et al. (1992) describe two-phase granitic vari-
ants derived from a primary textured granite forming the gra-
nitic stock. Mitchell et al. (2012) quote a U–Pb SHRIMP
zircon age of 61.7 ± 1.3 Ma age (Pickard et al. 1996; Barley
& Khin Zaw 2009; Barley et al. 2000a, b, 2004) from the Her-
myingyi granite which is older than the poorly constrained Rb–
Sr isochron ages of c. 59 Ma previously obtained by Lehmann
& Mahawat (1989) and Cobbing et al. (1992) (see Table 28.3).
Jiang et al. (2017) recently reported LA-ICP-MS zircon ages of
70.5 ± 0.8 Ma and 68.9 ± 1.8 Ma (Late Cretaceous) for the
Hermyingyi and Taungphila granites.
Quartz veins and marginal greisens contain cassiterite and
wolframite in varying proportions and cut the granite and the
surrounding envelope rocks. The quartz veins vary in thickness
from a several centimetres to a few metres. The mineralized
veins have been mined using monitoring, hill sluicing
and aditing.
The Sn–W mineralization occurs within the pluton and its
envelope rocks and consists of a north–south-trending fissure-
filling, discontinuous, vertical vein system, examples of
which are illustrated in Figure 28.7. The quartz veins are up
to 2 m thick and contain the following ore assemblage (Dunn
1938b): wolframite, cassiterite, molybdenite, pyrite, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, galena, bismuthinite and bismuth. About 40 of
the 300 branching and discontinuous ore veins known in the
mine have been worked at one time or another over a length
of 300 m and a vertical extent of 200 m (Khin Zaw 1978;
Nilar Shwe 1980; Bender 1983). Wendt (1979) found a
decrease in Sn–W assay values with increasing depth, as shown
in Table 28.5 (see also Tables 28.6, 28.7).
During the First World War the mine produced 640–1051
tons of mixed Sn–W concentrates each year (Brown & Heron
1923). The peak production was 1051 tons of mixed con-
centrates in 1917, while the entire production of the district
of Dawei was 3653.5 tons. In 1939 the total output was

Table 28.5. Ore reserves at the Mawchi Mine

Area/map reference Township region/state Ore reserves Remarks

Block Ore (tonne) Grade (%MC) Concentrate (tonne)

Mawchi Mine Pasawng, Sn:WO3 = 1.8:1

94 F/1.QB-730810 Kayah
Mawchi Proper Level 3/4 2 57 646.73 1.76 4538.13 Mixed concentrate
Level 4/5 1 72 829.63 1.08 1862.18
Level 5 48 010.81 2.10 414.24
Knee-kee 107 166.00 2.10 2368.43
Total (1) 585 653.17 1.58 9182.98
Guest House Hill Guest House Hill 19 125.00 1.40 267.75
2 West Level Weste Dump Waste Dump 38 400.00 0.48 184.32

3 West Level Weste Dump Waste Dump 61 440.00 0.37 227.33

Total (2) 704 618.17 1.40 9862.38

Nyaungbinsakan Stockwork zone 30 720 000.17 0.30 92 160.00
94 F/1-QB-723 825
Grand total/average 31 244 618.17 0.32 102 022.38

Zaw Ko et al. (1998).

%MC, percentage of mixed concentrate.
636 THAN HTUN ET AL.

Table 28.6. Decline of Sn–W values (uppermost) with increasing depth in the Hermyinyi Mine

%WO3 %Sn %WO3 + Sn %WO3:Sn Average vein thickness

Second-level, total average vertical distance 29 m 0.276 0.061 0.337 4.52:1 119.84
First-level total average vertical distance 47 m 0.331 0.049 0.360 6.35:1 103.37
Zero-level total average 0.171 0.018 0.198 9.51:1 122.75

After Wendt (1979).

126 tons of tin and 345 tons of tungsten concentrates (Clegg
1944). From 1967 to 1975 it produced 102–109 tons of
mixed concentrates per year (Bender 1983).
The Hermyingyi Mine still has substantial ore reserves in its
upper levels that will be recoverable when the mine is rehabil-
itated. If redevelopment is contemplated, it could proceed with
the driving of a sub-level between 0 and No. 1 level to define the
actual depth limits of the minable orebody.
Pagaye Mine
Pagaye is a W-rich Sn–W lode mine located about 12 miles
(19 km) to the east of Dawei. Geologically the mine area
(14° 6′ N, 98° 19′ E, locality No. 19 in Fig. 28.1) is underlain
by mudstones, sandstones and thin bands of dolomite of Mergui
Group that are intruded by biotite granite, pegmatites and
quartz veins. Quartz veins are numerous, striking N35° W
and S35° E and dipping 80° NNE. The vein zone is 60 ft
(18 m) wide in the north, 80 ft (24 m) in the southern end and
120 ft (36 m) in the middle, the widest part. All the quartz
veins are bordered by mica selvages. Stockworks are also pre-
sent. These quartz veins, veinlets and stringers tend to unite at
depth, presumably as they approach the underlying granite.
Both the quartz veins and pegmatitic stockworks carry
quartz, mica, wolframite, cassiterite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, spha-
lerite, galena, small quantities of scheelite, and occasionally
small crystals of green and blue fluorite. In Pagaye No. 1
Mine six small irregular quartz veins with mineral zoning
occur in the Paneichaung granite with a north–south-aligned
outcrop. In the central area of the mine, tungsten predominates
while tin values increase to the south.
The shaft is 111 m (365 ft) deep, has two compartments and
is now filled with water. Current mine production includes
lode mining and hydraulic working of the eluvial and alluvial
deposits. Pre-1941 this mine produced over 400 tons of W con-
centrates with some Sn per year. Geologists from No. 2 Mining
Enterprise carried out detailed exploration at Pagaye between
1984 and 1986 and determined that there still remains
2 137 156 tons of ore with 0.283% of mixed WO3–Sn at a
ratio of 8:1 (Hla Htay 2004).
Widnes Mine
The Widnes or Wazungchaung Mine (14° 3′ N, 98° 28′ E,
locality No. 16 in Fig. 28.1) is situated about 3 miles
(4.8 km) to the SE of Wazungchaung village, 42 miles
(67 km) east of Dawei. Geologically, the mine lies in the
eastern margin of the Central Range Granite intruded into
the Mergui Group. The Widnes Mine property covers the
Aletaung, Anauktaung, Kalat Taung and Shanmataung hills
which are aligned east–west. The mineralization is roughly
NNE–SSW–trending, parallel to subparallel to the W-rich
Sn–W hydrothermal quartz veins mainly in granite, and are
mined in underground adits.
The veins on the Aletaung section carry wolframite and
pyrite, dip at high angles to the east in deeply weathered granite
and vary in thickness over 0.4–1.5 m (3–5 ft) over 305 m
(1000 ft) with a variable strike between N15° E and N15° W.
The hill surface contains valuable eluvial deposits that have
been mined using hose monitors. It is interesting to note that
the upper surface of the veins exposed in one part of these work-
ings ended at the granite contact and did not penetrate into the
overlying sediments, while elsewhere the veins passed from the
granite into the argillites. In the Shanmataung section, a large
vein 1.8–2.4 m (6–8 ft) wide contained a minor wolframite,
some pyrite and large quantities of molybdenite. In 1939, this
mine produced 285 tons of WO3 concentrates. In addition to
the Widnes Mine, the High Speed Steel Alloys Mining Com-
pany Limited also operated Paungdaw (14° 5′ N, 98° 31′ E)
and Crest Mines (14° 1′ N, 98° 31′ E) which produced 107
and 26 tons of WO3 concentrates, respectively, in 1939
(Clegg 1944). All these deposits still have substantial ore

Table 28.7. Ore reserves at the Hermyingyi Mine

Area/map reference Township region/state Ore reserves Remarks

Block Ore (tonne) Grade (%MC) Concentrate (tonne)

Hermyingyi Mine Dawei, Big Hill 132,219.40 0.547 724.54 J.V

95 J/8 0-337 780 Tanintharyi (Gadin Taung) Metric unit
Big Hill 98,632.63 0.270 266.88 Mixed concentrate
Big Hill 38,686.88 0.286 96.89
Total (1) 264,588.91 0.410 1088.31
Tin Hill 17,424.826 0.338 58.840
(Yinthan Taung)
Tin Hill 114,023.960 0.350 399.080
Tin Hill 302,632.500 0.360 1089.477
Total (2) 434,081.286 0.356 1547.397
Grand total(1 + 2)/average 698,620.196 0.377 2635.707

Zaw Ko et al. (1998).

%MC, percentage of mixed concentrate.
 Sn–W DEPOSITS
reserves that can be exploited after the rehabilitation of the
flooded and dilapidated underground workings.
Yadanabon Mine
The Yadanabon or Namyen Mine (11° 17′ 5″ N, 99° 17′ E,
locality No. 36 in Fig. 28.1) is situated near the Thai–Myanmar
border on the western flank of the Frontier Range Granite, about
30 miles (48 km) to the east of Lenya village. Tungsten (wol-
fram) and mixed concentrates are obtained by lode mining of
the quartz veins. Between 1949 and 1952, 549 tons of wolfram-
ite, 10 tons of cassiterite and 17 tons of mixed concentrates
were produced. From 1954 to 1956 the mine produced 530
tons of mixed concentrates. In 1953, 64.5 tons of cassiterite
and 137 tons of mixed concentrates were produced (Hla Htay
2004).
A coarse-grained biotite–granite is intruded into phyllites,
slates and quartzites of Mergui Group. Quartz veins and string-
ers penetrated both granite and sedimentary rocks. The veins in
the granite show greisenized borders. These quartz veins carry
wolframite and cassiterite and also molybdenite, bismuth, bis-
muthinite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, tourmaline and fluorite. The
size of these veins varies from a few inches to a few feet with
Sn–W values higher in the thinner veins. Pegmatites also
occur in granite in the Namron (Namlon) Chaung area. Tin
has also been mined from alluvium in the Namron Chaung
area. In addition to the remaining ore resources in veins and
alluvial flats, there are prospective Sn–W areas to the north
and south of the mine.
Kanbauk Mine
The Kanbauk Mine (14° 35′ N, 98° 3′ E, locality No. 15 in
Fig. 28.1) is situated approximately 90 km north of Dawei in
a narrow valley surrounded by granite hills (Fig. 28.8a, b) on
the southern flank of the Heinze Basin which is underlain by
Mergui Group sedimentary rocks. Thick eluvial and alluvial
deposits cover the area.
In the Home Hill section of the mine the primary ore in quartz
veins occurs in slates and quartzites of the Mergui Group, sev-
eral centimetres to 0.5 m thick with an east–west strike and
steep dip to the south. The quartz veins contain wolframite
and cassiterite with accessory pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena,
sphalerite and native bismuth. The mine area is approximately
Fig. 28.8. Kanbauk Mine, Tanintharyi Region. (a) View to north showing open-cut mine and tailing ponds. Kanbauk village and the Heinze Basin are situated
further to the north. (b) Open-cut and gravel-pump mining site looking west. Photographs by Than Htun, December 2014.
637
500 m long, 250 m wide and at least 20 ore veins are present
(Bender 1983).
Most of the cassiterite, and to a lesser extent the wolframite,
are won from eluvial and alluvial deposits about 30 m thick.
The more productive areas run along the Heinze Chaung on
the northeastern side of Home Hill where tin occurs in the ero-
sional debris. Particularly Sn-rich unconsolidated sediments of
this unique placer deposit (Brown & Heron 1923) were trapped
between eroded pinnacles in limestone beds of the Mergui
Group.
Together with other small minesites located in the valley of
Heinze Chaung, the Kanbauk mine produced 829 tons of tin
concentrate and 187 tons of tungsten concentrate in 1936. In
the 1970s, the annual mine production ranged over 45–100
tons of cassiterite concentrate, 31–252 tons of tungsten concen-
trate and 5–27 tons of Sn–W mixed concentrate (Bender 1983).
In the opinion of the authors, substantial ore reserves still
remain in both alluvial and primary tin–tungsten deposits.
Heinda Mine
The Heinda Mine (14° 7′ N, 98° 27′ E, locality No. 20 in
Fig. 28.1) is located at Hpolon Taung (Polon Hill), about
40 km to the east of Dawei, and is a unique tin deposit in Myan-
mar in which cassiterite occurs in consolidated pebble and boul-
der beds of about 200 ft (61 m) thick. In this fossilized placer
deposit, the beds alternate from very coarse with boulders
weighing up to several tons to very fine sandy layers in
which the transition from fine to coarse is abrupt (Than Htay
1976) (Fig. 28.9).
The pebble and boulder beds are composed of slates, quartz-
ites and micaceous quartzites of the Mergui Group, greisens
and occasional granite boulders. Twelve to thirteen cycles of
sedimentation are present, each of them about 8 m thick and
grading from conglomerate at the base to sand and clay at the
top. All the beds are tin-bearing, but richer layers occur at var-
ious levels (Bender 1983).
Along with cassiterite, the deposit contains magnetite, hema-
tite, pyrite, zircon, topaz, monazite and rutile in significant
amounts, traces of andradite (garnet), wolframite, ilmenite,
molybdenite and tourmaline and small quantities of gold flakes.
Columbite–tantalite and tapiolite were recognized as minute
inclusions in cassiterite grains by Nanda Oo (1980).
Current bedding, fluviatile resedimentation and bimodal
grain size in the conglomerate characterize this fossil tin placer
638 THAN HTUN ET AL.
Fig. 28.9. Open-cut mining site in thick alluvium at the Heinda Mine.
Photograph courtesy of Ye Myint Swe.
as being of fluvial origin and probably of late Tertiary age
because of their lateritization, in contrast to the unconsolidated
Quaternary clastics (Bender 1983). The Heinda Mine still has
substantial tin ore reserves at Hpolon Taung, the Heinda Tailings
Flat and the Heinda Nge Flat. Currently its annual production
ranges over 300–500 tons of tin concentrates with 72% Sn.
Heinze Basin
The Heinze Basin (14° 40′ N, 98° 1′ E, locality No. 17 in
Fig. 28.1), a drowned tidal valley of Heinze River, just lying
north of Kanbauk Mine, is situated in Yebyu township, Tanin-
tharyi region. It is a sub-recent large alluvial tin deposit occur-
ring in terraces submerged under the tidal waters of the Heinze
River estuary which is underlain by limestone pinnacles and
clastic sedimentary rocks of the Mergui Group. The source of
cassiterite was the submerged Coastal Range Granite. Tungsten
is rare in these alluvial deposits.
The Heinze Basin has a long history of tin dredging. The
Tavoy Tin Dredging Company Ltd operated two dredgers in
1937, and mined 292 tons of tin concentrates which increased
to 517.14 tons in 1939 (Clegg 1944). A new dredger, designed
and built under the supervision of Osborne & Chappel Interna-
tional Bhd (Malaysia), began operation for No. (2) Mining Cor-
poration in 1992 under the then Ministry of Mines. This dredger
has a capacity of 378 m3 per hour (Osborne & Chappel Sdn Bhd
1975), but the project was not successful for uncertain reasons.
Nevertheless, there still remains a substantial resource esti-
mated at 6660 tonnes of cassiterite awaiting exploitation,
according to Osborne & Chappel Sdn Bhd (1975).
Manoron mines
Manoron mines (11° 40′ N, 99° 5′ E, locality No. 37 in
Fig. 28.1) are situated near the source of Khe Chaung, at
about 16 km (10 miles) to the ENE of the junction of the
Manoron Chaung with the Lenya River in Bokpyin township.
The area is underlain by slates and quartzites of the Mergui
Group containing numerous Sn-bearing quartz stringers 5–
7 cm (2–3 in) thick. The weathering of these stringers sheds
cassiterite into the alluvial flats on both banks of Khe Chaung,
which have been worked by the local people (Clegg 1944).
Mining engineer U Chit Myint of the Mineral Development
Corporation (MDC) conducted an ore reserve estimation of the
alluvial deposits on both banks of the Khe Chaung by banka
boring in 1960. A resource of 2400 tons of alluvial cassiterite
was estimated (Tin Aye & Kyaw Nyein 1966), but no mining
in this area has been reported.
Thabawleik Mine
The Thabawleik alluvial tin deposit (12° 1′ N, 99° 12′ E,
locality No. 33 in Fig. 28.1) is situated near Tanintharyi
town. The cassiterite in the deposit was derived from numerous
tin-bearing quartz veins in the underlying sedimentary rocks of
the Mergui Group. No granite or pegmatite outcrops are found
in the vicinity.
This deposit was dredged by the Thabawleik Tin Dredging
Company between 1929 and 1941 (apart from the period
1931–33). In 1939, 500 tons of tin concentrates were pro-
duced (Clegg 1944). Despite the difficulties of transportation,
hard lateritic clay, paucity of water in the dry season and
undulating ground, this area was successfully dredged over
a long period. Substantial tin ore resources remain to be
exploited.
Offshore tin and tungsten deposits
Cassiterite resources of offshore and nearshore areas in Tanin-
tharyi region, such as the Dawei area (Heinze Basin) and Myeik
Archipelago, were evaluated in 1971 in the Tin/Tungsten
UNDP Project (BUR/71/519) and the Offshore Exploration
for Tin UNDP Project (BUR/73/017) in 1973 (Fig. 28.10).
The former project evaluated the previously recorded tin ore
reserves of the Booth’s Grant and Kanbauk Mine area, the
onshore Heinze Basin and in the nearshore waters by means
of drilling. The latter project was the continuation of the first
project and concerned with offshore tin exploration (Than
Htun 1983, 1989).
Than Htun (2009) has described a drilling programme of 768
shallow holes drilled from a barge-platform between 1977 and
1980 to confirm geological details of seafloor topography off-
shore of the Tanintharyi coastline mapped by a 2748 line-km
marine seismic survey made during the UNDP assisted ‘Off-
shore Exploration for tin’ project 1975–80 in conjunction
with the Department of Geological Survey and Mineral Explo-
ration. Bathymetric and bedrock maps were prepared of the off-
shore waters less than 20 fathoms deep between the Ye River in
the north and the border with Thailand in the south. The drilling
programme on the whole confirmed the offshore stratigraphy
mapped by the shallow seismic survey which located the buried
channels and the thicknesses of alluvium. The Tanintharyi
coast zone is thought to have undergone only minor submer-
gence since the Pleistocene (Win Swe & Soe Thura Tun
2008) and to have tin ore potential, currently mostly untested,
for alluvial Sn–W concentrations derived from submerged
and emergent granite bodies.
Recent tin discoveries
A new tin deposit was discovered in 2011 at the Mong Ton–
Mong Hsat area near the Thai–Myanmar border in a relatively
unexplored part of the eastern Shan State, east of the Salween
River. The deposit is hosted by altered biotite granite intruded
into Palaeozoic metasedimentary rocks. Tin is disseminated in
the altered granite and alluvial tin is present east of the Thanl-
win River (Thanlwin East Region).
A prospecting project (Than Htun et al. 2014) revealed
four potential areas for further detailed exploration: Mong
 Sn–W DEPOSITS
Kan Noi (20° 35′ N, 98° 45′ E) and Htaw Tin Loi (20° 33′ N,
98° 44′ E) in Mong Ton township and Wan Ha Taung-Me Kin
Chaung (20° 24′ N, 99° 05′ E) and Wan Hong-Na Khok (20°
26′ N, 99° 15′ E) in the Mong Hsat township (Fig. 28.1, locality
No. 7).
The U–Pb zircon dating from altered biotite granite at the
Mong Kan Noi Prospect yielded an LA-ICP-MS U–Pb zircon
age of 214 ± 1.5 Ma (Late Triassic; Khin Zaw et al. 2014). Sim-
ilar Triassic granite-related tin deposits probably occur else-
where in the Shan State (east) (Than Htun et al. 2014).
639
Fig. 28.10. Location of offshore, onshore and
nearshore exploration blocks and tin deposits in
Peninsular Myanmar (after Ye Tun 1989).
Mong Kan Noi
The Mong Kan Noi area (20° 35′ N, 98° 45′ E) is situated in the
Mong Ton township where, since early 2011, medium to coarse
cassiterite has been panned by the local villagers from alluvium
in the main stream and its tributaries. Reconnaissance sampling
of the alluvial deposit indicated a cassiterite ‘ground value’
ranging over 0.3–1.0 kg m−3 and the associated heavy minerals
are magnetite, ilmenite, garnet, etc. The average thickness
of the alluvial flat is about 2 m within an area of more than
640 THAN HTUN ET AL.
12 km2. The local geology includes biotite granite intruded into
quartzite, schist and limestone. A weathered coarse-grained
granite forming the highest ridge of the granitic hills contains
tin-bearing quartz veins (Fig. 28.11).
Htaw Tin Loi
The Htaw Tin Loi area (20° 32′ N, 98° 44′ E) is also situated in
the Mong Ton township where local people have been panning
the alluvial tin, but no systematic exploration has been carried
out. The area is underlain by the granitic rocks within which tin-
bearing quartz veins up to 0.3 m thick have been observed.
Some gold particles were noted in pan concentrates of the
alluvial deposits.
Wan Ha Taung–Me Kin Chaung
The Me Kin Chaung (stream) is located close to Mong Hsat
town in the Mong Hsat township (20° 24′ N, 99° 5′ E). A
local mining company has been producing tin by gravel
pump mining of alluvium along the Me Kin Chaung since
2007. A tin-bearing granite and some metasediments crop out
upstream of the alluvial mine site.
Wan Hong-Na Khok
Local companies are working the main stream in the Mong Hsat
township for alluvial tin. No systematic exploration has been
done in the area. The area (20° 26′ N, 99° 15′ E) is underlain
by granite and metasediments.
Comparison of Sn–W deposits in Myanmar and in
neighbouring countries
The main features of the Sn–W deposits in the countries neigh-
bouring Myanmar are summarized in Table 28.8. The granite
belts (Fig. 28.3) of Khin Zaw (1990), granite provinces
(Fig. 28.4) of Cobbing et al. (1992) and the major tinfields of
Pitfield et al. (1986) in SE China, Myanmar, Thailand and Pen-
insular Malaysia are summarized in Figure 28.12.
Fig. 28.11. Tin-bearing quartz vein (±1 m wide)
in weathered granite at Kywe Ai, Mong Ton in
Shan State. Photograph by Than Htun.
Eastern province granitoids
The Wan Pon Sn occurrence (locality No. 4 in Fig. 28.1) is at
the margin of a large granitoid batholith parallel to the border
between Myanmar and Laos. This occurrence is within the
northern continuation of the Sukhothai Arc in Thailand (Sone
& Metcalfe 2008), which is called the ‘Yunxian–Jinggu Arc
terrrane’ further north in China and contains Late Triassic–
Early Jurassic granitoids. Tin occurrences are associated with
the small Bulangshan and Mengsong plutons which straddle
the Myanmar–China border (Wang et al. 2013).
Main Range Province Granitoids and Eastern Granitoid Belt
The Man Maw Tin District in the Wa State is currently a signif-
icant tin-producing area for which geological detail is lacking.
The main deposit at Ma Makhsan appears to be linked to a gran-
ite pluton which may be a component of the Triassic North Thai
Granitoids Province of Cobbing et al. (1992).
The recently recognized tin occurrences in the Mong Ton–
Mong Hsat areas in the east of the Shan State (locality No. 7
in Fig. 28.1) are associated with a biotite granite in which zir-
cons gave a LA-ICP-MS U–Pb zircon age of Late Triassic
(214 ± 1.5 Ma; Khin Zaw et al. 2014; Than Htun et al.
2014). The granitoids and associated tin mineralization are a
northwards continuation of the ‘Eastern Marginal Belt of the
North Thai Province Granitoids’ (Cobbing et al. 1992) which
are the northern continuation of the Main Range Province
Granitoids of Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand.
The Mong Kai Noi and Htaw Tin Loi prospects in the Mong
Ton township occur at the margin of a projection into Myanmar
of a north–south-aligned elongate Mai Rai batholith (Braun
et al. 1976) which straddles the Thai–Myanmar border to the
north of the composite Fang batholith (Cobbing et al. 1992).
The Wiang Po Pao tin field is peripheral and east of the Fang
batholith from which Nakapadungrat et al. (1984) obtained a
whole-rock Rb–Sr isochron age of 215 ± 3 Ma for the age of
the tin mineralization.
The Mong Hsat alluvial tin finds, the Walinkhumar (locality
No. 3 in Fig. 28.1) occurrence and the little-known tin occur-
rences in the vicinity of the Mong Yawng granite (21° 11′ N,
100° 22′ E) are derived from plutons of the Eastern Granitoid
 Sn–W DEPOSITS
Belt whose northern continuation in the Baoshan Block of SW
China is named the ‘Changning–Menglian granitoid province’
by Wang et al. (2013). Hydrothermal and pegmatite tin deposits
and occurrences (Hou et al. 2007; Wang et al. 2013) in the
Changning–Menglian granitoid province are referred to as the
‘Middle Sn metallogenic belt’ by Wang et al. (2013). The
Changning–Menglian granitoids have older zircon ages of c.
231 Ma compared to the Rb–Sr whole-rock determinations of
200–215 Ma of the Thai granitoids.
Western province granitoids and central granitoid belt
Tin–tungsten mineralization of Late Cretaceous–Early Tertiary
age is present north of the ‘Central Myanmar Tin Gap’ trending
NE–SW in the NE of Shan State in the Muse area (locality No. 1
in Fig. 28.1) and further to the NE in the Tengchong Block of
China. Zircon U–Pb and K–Ar age dates of the plutons of the
‘Tengchong–Baoshan Granitoid Province’ associated with the
‘Tengchong–Baoshan Sn metallogenic belt’ (Wang et al.
2013) are 65–89 Ma. These granitoids are believed to have
originated through partial melting of the lower to middle
crust (Hou et al. 2007). There is also a suite of Early Cretaceous
granitoids emplaced between 136 and 113 Ma (K–Ar and Rb–
Sr methods) which likely originated from an earlier phase of
crustal melting (Wang et al. 2013). Some skarn tin deposits
are associated with this earlier granitoid phase, while tin poly-
metallic deposits including hydrothermal vein ores, greisens
ores and skarn ores forming substantial tin resources are asso-
ciated with the Late Cretaceous–Eocene granitoids. Cheng
et al. (2013) recorded a 40Ar–39Ar age of mica from mineral-
ized intrusions (77.4 ± 0.6–95.3 ± 0.7 Ma) from the mineral-
ized intrusions from the Gejiu tin-polymetallic deposits,
Yunnan, South China which are similar to the zircon U–Pb
age of the granitic intrusions (77.4 ± 2.5–85.8 ± 0.6 Ma). The
tin mineralization in SW China is referred to as the ‘Southwest-
ern Sanjiang Tethys (SWST) Sn metallogenic domain’ in Hou
et al. (2007). The SWST is composed of relict continental frag-
ments that separated from Gondwana and, after movement
across successive Tethys oceans, were accreted against the
Eurasian Plate and subsequently sandwiched between the
Indian and Eurasian plates. Details of the Mesozoic timing of
these block movements are given by Wang et al. (2013) and
is currently a topic of investigation and discussion (Metcalfe
2013).
The ‘North Myanmar Tin Gap’ separates the outcrops of the
Late Cretaceous–Eocene granites associated with Sn–W miner-
alization north of the border of Myanmar with China which
reappears south of Mandalay. The ‘North Myanmar Tin Gap’
coincides with the Mogok Metamorphic Belt (Searle et al.
2017), which includes high-grade metamorphics and alkaline
and granitic intrusions. A period of extension between the
Oligocene and Miocene unroofed and exposed the high-grade
rocks in the Mogok area in a core complex structure (Bertrand
et al. 2001). Mitchell et al. (2012) explain the ‘tin gap’ as due to
differences in amounts of uplift in the Slate Belt compared to
that in the Mogok Metamorphic Belt.
South of Mandalay the Sn–W deposits associated with the
Central Granitoid Belt are intruded into the Slate Belt
(Fig. 28.3) and the metamorphic rocks in the Mogok–Manda-
lay–Mergui Belt (Searle et al. 2017) (Fig. 28.4) The Slate
Belt (Mitchell et al. 2002, 2012) is predominantly composed
of the Mergui Group metasediments (Carboniferous–Permian).
The Slate Belt extends southwards into the Thanintharyi Penin-
sular in Myanmar and across the border into Thailand where the
Mergui Group is known as the Kaeng Krachan Group (Ueno &
Charoentitirat 2011).
The Central Belt Granitoids in the Thanintharyi Peninsular
were subdivided by Bender (1983) into the Coastal Range
641
Granites, the Central Range Granites and the Frontier Range
Granites. The granite islands south of Tavoy in the offshore
part of the Coastal Range Granites discussed above
(Fig. 28.10) are potential sources of submerged and onshore
alluvial/eluvial tin deposits. An occurrence of Sn–W mineral-
ization associated with a Coastal Range Granite within the
Three Pagodas Fault Zone at Mawpalaw Taung (15° 46′ N,
97° 49′ E) is described by Mi Paik & Khin Zaw (2014) and
Mi Paik (2017) who found a tin-bearing pegmatite dyke with
a zircon LA-MC-ICP-MS age of 106.8 ± 1.6 Ma, somewhat
younger than the accompanying biotite granite with a zircon
LA-MC-ICP-MS age of 121.3 ± 1.1 Ma. This is a rare example
of a dated Sn-mineralized granite of Early Cretaceous age in
Myanmar. Gardiner et al. (2016) also yielded a U–Pb zircon
crystallization age of 50.3 ± 0.6 Ma for a mineralized granite
at Yadanabon Sn–W Mine further south at Myeik (Mergui),
Tanintharyi region.
Bateson et al. (1972) also reported a cluster of small Sn–W
quartz lode veins associated with the Padatgyaung granite at
the east of Pyinmana in the north of the Slate Belt. The Padat-
gyaung granite is the most economically significant intrusion
in the area which is fault-bounded and emplaced within the
Kankalin Formation, which Bateson et al. (1972) correlated
with the Panlaung Formation (Upper Jurassic–Lower Creta-
ceous) described by Garson et al. (1976). Cooling ages of
45–57 Ma of minerals collected from the tin-mineralized Padat-
gyaung granite were obtained by Brook & Snelling (1976)
using the K–Ar method (Table 28.3). The 87Sr/86Sr ratios of
the Padatgyaung granite varied over the range 0.717–0.799.
Age range and 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the Padatgyaung granite
are similar to those obtained from the Mawchi and Hermyingyi
(Central Range) granites. Both of these granites are associated
with significant Sn–W deposits (described above) and are
located within the Mae Ping (Mawchi) and Three Pagodas
fault zones (Hermyingyi) as noted by Pitfield et al. (1986) and
Cobbing et al. (1992). The Sn–W mineralization at the Mawchi
Mine has been dated at 42–45 Ma (LA-MC-ICP-MS zircon
method) by Aung Zaw Myint et al. (2017), who describe a
within-plate tectonic setting for the Mawchi granite based on
its geochemistry and an association with a Cretaceous granitoid
based on inherited zircons. The Hermyingyi granite has a U–Pb
SHRIMP age of 61.7 ± 1.3 Ma (Pickard et al. 1996; Barley et al.
2000a, b, 2004; Barley & Khin Zaw 2009; Mitchell et al. 2012)
and is also a within-plate granite (Cobbing et al. 1992).
The emplacement of these Sn–W granites within the Mae
Ping and Three Pagodas fault zones coincides with left-lateral
movement along these fault zones, which Morley (2004) attrib-
uted to a regional Late Cretaceous–Palaeogene transpressional
tectonic episode in eastern Myanmar and Thailand at 80–
40 Ma. This episode involved a broad regional topographic
uplift documented by zircon and apatite fission track age data
in Thailand. This uplift resulted in moderate crustal thickening,
but Morley (2004) has noted that the thickening was not accom-
panied by a fold–thrust belt.
Depth data for the Myanmar granites are not available but in
Peninsular Thailand, Linnen (1998) has estimated the Sn–W
mineralization to have formed at depths of 10–14 km based
on fluid inclusion data. This depth range implies that the
granites analysed have been significantly uplifted since con-
solidation. Linnen (1998) suggested that at such depths the
tin in the granitic magma became partitioned into the melt–
vapour phase at low salinities, and the reduced nature of the
sedimentary carbonaceous layers in the Mergui/Kaeng Kra-
chan Group favoured the precipitation of tin and associated
minerals at the granite–sediment interface.
Lehmann (1982) argued for fractional crystallization as the
fundamental process of tin enrichment in granites, with the
primary enrichment being modified by late-stage interaction
with fluids. Pollard et al. (1995) proposed that, in the SW
 642
Table 28.8. Comparison of the Myanmar Sn–W deposits with those of neighbouring SE Asian countries

Country Tectonic and geological environment Granitoid intrusive Primary ore deposit type Mineralogy Metal association

China (leading W producer)

(1) South China Fold Crustal tectonic zone S-type granitoids Skarn, greisen, pegmatite, Cassiterite, wolframite, scheelite, pyrite, W and/or Sn ± Sb ± Cu ± Pb ±
System contact zones between galena, bismuthinite, arsenopyrite, Zn ± Mo ± Bi ± As ± Fe
granites and Triassic chalcopyrite, molybdenite, columbite–
limestones tantalite, magnetite, stibnite, sphalerite
(2) Daxinganling and Part of Gondwana
Jilin-Heilungian Fold
System
(3) Sangjiang Fold Back-arc basin

THAN HTUN ET AL.

(4) Yangtze Continental block
Paraplatform
Indonesia (major Sn producer)
(1) Tin Islands (Sinkep, Amphibolite facies pelites and hornblende schists overlain by A-, I–S- and S-type Greisen-bordered vein swarms/ Cassiterite- ± wolframite ± base metal Sn ± W
Belitung) Permo-Triassic flysch attaining greenschist facies ± granitoids stockworks and pipes sulphides
Triassic-rhyodacitic volcaniclastics, Permo-Triassic
flyschoid sediments and Permo-Triassic volcaniclastics
(2) Tin Islands (Batu, I- and I–S-type Bedded ± skarn vein systems Cassiterite–pyrite–magnetite Sn ± Fe; Cu ± As and/or Mo
Belitung) granitoids
Malaysia (Sn–W producer)
(1) North Main Range Cambrian–Devonian shelf clastics and limestones flanked S-type granitoids Pegmatites, massive greisens, Cassiterite-columbite ± wolframite ± Sn–Nb (Ta) and/or Fe Sn ±
(Kedah Perak, Kinta eastwards by calc-alkaline volcanics passing to deep-water greisen-bordered vein swarms cassiterite ± schellite ± stannite ± W ± Cu ± Pb ± Sb ± Zn ±
Valley) pelites deformed in greenschist facies and overlain by and stockworks, xenothermal complex sulphides, cassiterite ± Bi ± Mo ± Hg ± Fe ( ± Au)
Carboniferous–Triassic shelf clastics and carbonates deposits ± skarns (pipes) malayaite ± Sn–andradite Sn–As–Fe
(2) South Main Range Similar to North Main Range S-type granitoids Pegmatites, massive greisens, Cassiterite-columbite ± monazite, Sn–Nb–Ta ± Be ± U ± REEs
(Sungei Besi, West greisen-bordered vein swarms cassiterite ± wolframite ± scheelite ± Sn ± W ± Cu ± Zn ± Pb ±
Johore, Kuala and stockworks, xenothermal stannite ± base metal sulphides, Mo ± Be (±Au)
Lampur, Selangor) deposits ± skarns (stratabond) sulphosalts and Be silicates
(3) Trenoganu and East Carboniferous–Permian shelf clastics with subordinate I-type granitoids Greisen bordered and composite Columbite ± malayaite ± scheelite, W ± Sn ± Cu ± Fe ± Mn ± As ±
Pahang (Sungei calcalkaline volcanic, moderately deformed and covered by vein systems/stockworks, wolframite (ferberite) ± cassiterite ± Zn ± Pb ± Bi ± Mo ± Au ±
Lembing, Bukit Jurassic molasse magnetite skarns, sulphide base metal sulphides ± molybdenite Fe ± Sn ± Mn ± Cu ± Zn ±
Besi) skarns cassiterite–magnetite/pyrrhotite Cu and/or Pb ± Zn ± Fe ± Bi
(4) Central Belt (Raub, Permo-Triassic clastics and volcaniclastics with calcalkaline I-type granitoids Vein systems, xenothermal Gold ± stibnite ± scheelite, cassiterite– Au ± W ± As, Au–Cu, Pb–Zn ±
Manson) volcanics, greenschist facies and local amphibolite facies, replacement deposits, stannite–galena–chalcopyrite ± Sn ± Fe ± Ag ± Mn ± Hg
Jurassic molasse porphyries cinnabar
(5) E Johore (Pelephah Permo-Triassic clastics strongly deformed in upper I-type granitoids Vein systems, magnetite skarns, Magnetite-cassiterite ± fluorite ± scheelite Fe ± Sn ± W ± As ± Cu ± Bi ±
Kanan Bukit Greenschist facies, undeformed rhyodacite volcanics sulphide skarns chalcopyrite–bornite–galena Mn ± Fe (±Au) Cu ± Pb ±
Payong) Zn ± Sn (Fe ± U)
 Sn–W DEPOSITS 643

arm of the Thailand Peninsula, the Phuket Supersuite biotite

W and/or Sn ± Sb ± Cu ± Pb ±
Sn–W ± Cu ± Mo ± Bi ± Pb ±

Sn and/or W ± Sb, Cu ± Pb ±
W and/or Sn ± Sb ± F ± As ±

Mo (±Mn) Sb ± Pb ± Zn ±
and two mica granites were derived from the fractionation of

Zn ± Mo ± Bi ± As ± Fe

Cu ± Pb ± Zn ± Fe ± Au ±
hornblende granites derived from the partial melting of meta-

Sn ± W, Sn ± Li ± Ta ±
igneous source rocks, probably of Proterozoic age. The igneous

W ± Cu ± F (±Ba)
source rocks appear to have included Triassic granite, as

Nb ± Y ± REEs
Searle et al. (2012) report zircon U–Pb ages of 214 ± 2.4

Fe ± Zn ± Cu

F, Sn–As–Fe
Zn ± Fe ± F

and 211.5 ± 3.0 Ma from a granite on Phuket Island intruded

at 81.2 ± 0.95 Ma and single-grain Proterozoic ages up to
>1530 Ma. Previously Cobbing et al. (1992) reported Nd
model ages of 1176–1770 Ma for the Phuket granites.
The study of the Sn–W granites in Thailand and Myanmar
has revealed that the Slate Belt (at least in Peninsular Thailand)
(chalcopyrite, molybdenite–bismuth)

hematite–ferberite–stibnite–fluorite
has a Proterozoic basement and that it has been positioned

arsenopyrite, cassiterite–malayaite
Scheelite ± arsenopyrite–cassiterite–

Chalcopyrite–malachite–magnetite–
cassiterite ± chalcopyrite–pyrite–
Greisens, stockworks, pegmatites Cassiterite–wolframite, cassiterite–

against Sibumasu since the Triassic and likely earlier

Wolframite ± scheelite–cassiterite
Cassiterite–wolframite–scheelite–

Wolframite (ferberite)–stibnite, (Bender 1983; Ridd 2009), although its boundary zone has sub-
sequently been faulted in a complex manner (Ridd & Watkin-
scheelite ± wolframite

son 2013).
(arsenopyrite)

Future prospectivity for Sn–W in Myanmar

lepidolite

In comparison with the other SE Asian Sn–W-producing coun-

tries, namely Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia, Myanmar still
has some virgin and unexplored areas for the finding of sizeable
Porphyries, bedded/skarns, vein
greisens ± skarn ± pegmatites

deposits, both lodes and alluvials. Although Dawei and Myeik

greisens, stockworks, skarns
Vein systems, greisens, skarns

Greisen-bordered vein swams,

Breccia pipes, vein systems ±

Vein systems, stockworks ±

districts in Tanintharyi region are mine-studded and fairly well

systems, breccia pipes

explored for near-surface veins and alluvial deposits, there is

stockworks, skarns

potential for the discovery of deeper primary systems and

new styles of Sn–W mineralization such as the skarn-type at
Kanbauk. The area with the highest potential for finding sizable
Sn–W deposits also lies in the eastern part of the densely for-
ested and very sparsely populated linear tract parallel to the
Thai–Myanmar border, where the granite crops out beneath
the thin cover of Mergui Group metasediments. Another area
which deserves consideration for exploration lies in a heavily
forested, unpopulated, north–south-trending linear tract along
S-type granitoids

S-type granitoids

S-type granitoids

S-type granitoids

I-type granitoids

the western edge of the Shan Plateau between Taungoo and

S- and I-type
granitoids

Pyinmana with the geological setting similar to the eastern

part of Myeik district. In the east of Pyinmana in the north of
the Slate Belt, a cluster of small Sn–W quartz lode mines that
were described by Bateson et al. (1972) are also considered
to have potential for future development.
greenschist facies domed and cored by migmatite complex;

calc-alkaline volcanics with cover of Triassic red beds and

facies with cover of Permian shelf limestones and Triassic
(3) Peninsular Thailand Cambrian–Carboniferous shelf clastics in lowest greenschist
Permo-Carboniferous continental margin pebbly mudstones

Permo-Carboniferous continental margin pebbly mudstones

Shan Dolomite Group of mainly Ordovician–Triassic shelf

(4) Northern and Central Carboniferous–Permian shelf clastics with carbonates and
Cambrian–Carboniferous shelf clastics and limestones of

upright fold of Eastern-Range-bounded major faults

Concluding remarks
limestones with subordinate pebbly mudstones

Source: Chen Xin & Wang Zhitai (1984); Pitfield et al. (1986); Cobbing et al. (1992).

The low trading price of tin during 2015, with which the sudden
Triassic–Jurassic calc-alkaline volcanics

increase in tin production in Myanmar is implicated, means that

the future for tin mining in Myanmar is discouraging (Gardiner
et al. 2015). However, the strong demand for Myanmar tin from
China, which is related to the fall in tin production in Indonesia
(Gardiner et al. 2015), is likely to continue (at least in the short
term). Much will depend upon the tin resources available in the
with slaty cleavage

with slaty cleavage

Man Maw Tin District, which are currently unknown.

An encouraging factor for the exploitation of tungsten in
Myanmar is that tungsten is a ‘critical metal’ (Brown & Pitfield
sandstones

2014) in the sense that the global demand for tungsten is strong,
but tungsten deposits are uncommon. The future Sn–W mining
industry in Myanmar is dependent upon the rehabilitation
and renovation of the existing major Sn and W lode mines,
Myanmar (Sn–W producer)

Thailand (Sn–W producer)

such as Mawchi, Hermyingyi, Pagaye, Widnes, Kanbauk

(Tenasserim) Dawei-

Lampang, Doi Mok)

(2) Central Migmatitic

and Yadanabon, and the alluvial tin deposits, namely, Heinda,

(2) Kayah (Mawchi,

Belt and Eastern

Pyinmana East)

Granitic Range

Heinze Basin, Manoron and Thabawleik, where substantial ore

Myeik (Tavoy-

(Chiang Mai,

resources are known to exist. Progress has already been made in

(1) Tanintharyi

Thailand

attracting outside participation in the exploitation of specific

Mergui)

(1) Phuket

deposits, such as at Mawchi and Heinda, and evaluation of pre-

viously undocumented occurrences in the east and NE of the
Shan Plateau is currently in progress.
644 THAN HTUN ET AL.

Fig. 28.12. Granite province and tin

fields in SE Asia between Yunnan, SW
China and Peninsular Malaysia (after
Shi Lin et al. 1984; Pitfield et al. 1986;
Cobbing et al. 1992; Cobbing 2011).
 Sn–W DEPOSITS
Potential but poorly evaluated economic assets associated
with certain tin-bearing pegmatites and granites in Myanmar
include the minerals rich in the REE, lithium, niobium (colum-
bite) and tantalum (tantalite), which are ‘critical metals’ in the
context of current world market demand (Gunn 2014). Minerals
not specifically targeted in alluvial tin deposits include dia-
monds and gold as by-products. The evaluation and develop-
ment of such potentially economic occurrences, especially the
REE minerals, could be a significant boost to the rejuvenation
of the tin–tungsten mining industry in Myanmar.
Myanmar has the advantage of having geologically prospec-
tive virgin areas for tin–tungsten mineralization, in addition to
the potential for REE minerals. Production of tin has risen
steeply since 2008, mainly in response to the increased demand
from China. It would be difficult to maintain the momentum of
tin production at 2012 levels and above unless new deposits are
brought into production.
Social and environmental issues have already been raised by
local people affected by the rehabilitation of the older mine
sites. The effects of legal challenges and hostility of local
people could well retard the rehabilitation of the former
mines and impede the exploration and evaluation of potential
deposits, as has been the experience in other countries in SE
Asia. Responsible mining techniques and the development of
good public relations with local communities are issues that
clearly have to be addressed if the tin–tungsten industry in
Myanmar is to prosper. Lastly, the downstream activities and
value-adding aspects of tin–tungsten mining should not be
overlooked when conducting market research into the sales of
Sn–W concentrates.
The authors are much indebted to Dr Mike Crow and Professor Punya
Charusiri for their detailed review and helpful comments and suggestions
to improve the manuscript. Dr Tony Barber is thanked for his expert
editorial input.
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