Transactions on Engineering Sciences vol 25, © 1999 WIT Press, www.witpress.

com, ISSN 1743-3533

3D residual stresses around cold expanded

holes in a new creep resistant aluminium alloy

A.A. Garcia-Granada,^ V. Lacarac,^ DJ. Smith/*' MJ Pavier,^

R. Cook,**' P. Holdway^
^Department of Mechanical Engineering, University ofBristol,
Bristol BS81TR, UK
EMail: David. Smith@bristol ac. uk
™Structured Materials Centre, DERA, Farnborough, GUI 4 6TD, UK

Abstract

Hole cold expansion is used frequently to enhance the fatigue endurance of

components. The cold expansion process introduces compressive residual stress
at the periphery of the hole and tensile stress further away. To understand how
these residual stresses enhance the fatigue life, it is essential that we have an
accurate description of the three dimensional distribution of the stresses. In this
paper we describe the results of experimental studies and finite element analyses
used to determine detailed residual stress distributions in a new creep resistant
alloy. The near surface residual stresses at the mandrel entrance and exit faces
were measured using an X-ray diffraction technique. The results show significant
differences between residual stresses at the two faces. The residual stresses are
also shown to vary as a function of position around the hole. To take account of
this variation a new approach, called the Garcia-Sachs method, was used to
measure residual stress averaged through the thickness of the component. For
finite element simulations, a combined hardening material model was used to
reproduce the Bauschinger effect exhibited by the aluminium alloy. Using this
new model, excellent agreement was found between predicted and measured
near surface residual stresses. Finally there is also good agreement between the
measured mid-thickness residual stress and the FE predictions.
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104 Surface Treatment

1 Introduction

Cold expansion is a well-known method^ frequently employed particularly in

aircraft structures to improve fatigue life of components. The technique
introduces a compressive residual stress in the material surrounding the hole.
One such cold expansion process involves the use of a split-sleeve which is
placed over the mandrel, and inserted into the hole. Plastic deformation of the
material occurs as the mandrel is drawn through the hole, thus inducing
compressive residual stresses around the hole when the mandrel is withdrawn.
Many experimental^ and numerical^ studies have been undertaken to
determine the distribution of the residual stresses. Finite element (FE)
simulations^ have shown that cold expansion introduces a complex 3D
distribution of residual stresses. Experimental measurements of the residual
stress distribution have been carried out using non-destructive techniques such as
X-ray'*, and neutron diffraction^ methods. Destructive methods, like Sachs'
boring^, have also been used to measure average through thickness residual
stresses. In general, the trends of the residual stress distributions obtained using
various experimental techniques and numerical methods agree. However, there
is conflicting information about the detailed three-dimensional (3D) distribution
around a hole that has been cold worked using the split sleeve process. For
example, Cook and Holdway\ measured the most compressive surface residual
stresses at a location that corresponds to the position of the split in the sleeve
during cold expansion. In contrast, Edwards and Wang^ found that the most
compressive residual stresses were at a location 90° to the split in the sleeve. In
addition, Leftheris and Schwarz^ measured the largest surface hoop strain at the
position of the split. Link and Sanford^ also noted that the greatest amount of
expansion occurred at positions adjacent to the location of the split in the sleeve.
In this paper, results are presented where both experimental measurement and
FE analysis were used to characterise the residual stress field around cold
worked holes. Two experimental techniques, X-ray and the new Garcia-Sachs
method^, which is based on Sachs' boring technique, were used. Finite element
analysis was employed, using a material model, which takes account of
asymmetry in the material stress-strain response. Comparisons between
experimental measurements and FE analyses are presented and discussed. It is
shown that, contrary to the conventional Sachs approach, the Garcia-Sachs
method measured the angular variation of the residual stresses. Overall, it is
shown that complementary experimental and numerical studies are required to
determine the residual stress distribution. It is demonstrated that significant
differences in the residual stresses exist between entrance and exit faces as well
as between various angular positions around cold expanded holes.

2 Residual stress measurements

2.1 Material and Specimens

The material used for the study was aluminium alloy Al 2650, with the chemical
composition, 94.55% Al, 2.76% Cu, 1.74% Mg, 0.34% Mn, 0.41% Si, 0.11% Fe,
 Transactions on Engineering Sciences vol 25, © 1999 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3533

Surface Treatment 105

0.09% Ti. The yield and tensile strength are 430 and 460 MPa respectively,
Young's modulus 72 GPa, and Poisson's ratio 0.33.

SECTION
A-A'

6=16
All dimensions in mm
Figure 1: Dimensions of cold expanded specimens.

To apply residual stress measurement techniques, discs were manufactured

initially with 32mm outside diameter and 6mm thick, and holes, 6mm in
diameter, were drilled in the centre. The discs were then subjected to nominal
4% cold expansion using the split-sleeve cold expansion process developed by
Fatigue Technology Incorporated (FTI). The location of the split in the sleeve
during cold expansion is defined as 9=0 degrees, with increasing 9 clockwise as
shown in Figure 1. The cold expanded holes were then reamed to remove
extraneous material generated at the location of the split in the sleeve. Four
faces are defined on the discs, the inner disc edge, the outer disc edge, the disc
face corresponding to the mandrel entrance face, and the disc face at the mandrel
exit.

2.2 X-ray measurements

X-ray residual stress measurements were made using a Bruker D500
diffractometer using Cu K« radiation at 40 kV and 40 mA. X-ray readings were
made at the aluminium {422} peak at 137.5°, and using a position sensitive
detector to reduce data collection times. The X-ray beam was collimated to give
an irradiated area of about 1x1 mm. After background subtraction, the peak
position was determined from the midpoint of a line at 70 % of the maximum
peak intensity. A stress analysis package was used to calculate stresses,
assuming a biaxial stress state and employing the sinV technique^.
X-ray measurements were made on the mandrel entrance and exit faces of the
discs. Two angular positions were examined, 9=0 and 9=90°. At each angle,
measurements were made at various radial locations, moving from the edge of
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106 Surface Treatment

the central hole towards the edge of the disc, to a distance of about 3.5mm from
the edge of the discs. Since the beam size was Ixlmm, residual stresses within
0.5mm of the hole edge could not be measured. Measurements were made of
surface hoop residual stresses, and no radial residual stress measurements were
made.
Surface hoop residual stresses are shown in Figure 2 for the mandrel exit and
entrance faces, at 8=0 and 0=90°. The most compressive residual stress (-
350MPa) was found about 1mm from the hole edge on the mandrel exit face at
the position of the split in the sleeve (6=0°). The least compressive hoop residual
stress (about -lOOMPa) was measured on the mandrel entrance face along a
radial line at 90 degrees to the position of the split in the sleeve.

100 r x-nay mea suremenlts

C3 T Exit, 8=90° i
0* : • Exit, (
)=0°
0
: o Entrar ice, 8=0° v Entrance, 0=90° -
-100 1 v
v v v ^
V
v 0 *
0 T -
CQ3 -200 0 #
13 o 0 T
Tf 7 #
8 -300 T
# # _
: # #
o
o Typical error bar on
-400
X-Ray measurement
_<nn - , , , , i
3 4 5 6 7 8
Distance from hole centre, r [mm]
Figure 2: Hoop residual stresses measured using X-ray diffraction

The results in Figure 2 show that there is a significant difference in the hoop
residual stresses on the surface of the mandrel entrance and exit faces. Residual
stresses on the mandrel exit face were more compressive and differences
between stresses on the mandrel exit and entrance faces were more pronounced
at 90° than at 0°. For example, the largest difference between residual stresses on
the two faces is 200 MPa and 100 MPa at 90° and 0° respectively. The hoop
residual stresses also vary as a function of position around the hole and are more
compressive at 0° than at 90°.

2.3 Destructive measurements

Residual stresses were also measured using the Garcia-Sachs method^,
developed from the conventional Sachs boring technique. The conventional
Sachs' method*° assumes that the residual stresses are independent of angular
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Surface Treatment 107

position. In the new method, angular variations in strain are measured. This
requires that strain gauges at different locations are used, and a Fourier analysis
of the angular strain distribution undertaken. The detailed theoretical analysis is
given in^.
The Garcia-Sachs method was used to measure residual stresses in the cold
expanded discs used for the X-ray measurements. To use the Garcia-Sachs
method five strain gauges were bonded at 8=0, 45, 90, 135, and 180° on the edge
of the discs, as shown in Figure 1. The strain gauges were orientated on the edge
of the disc to measure hoop strains during boring. Cold expanded holes were
bored out incrementally using a boring machine. A number of specimens were
tested and a feed rate of 1 mm/sec was selected as it gave the greatest
repeatability. In performing the machining, a sharp tool and a slow cutting speed
with copious amounts of coolant were employed to minimise the possibility of
generating further residual stresses in the exposed surface during metal removal.
For each increment of boring the strains at each of the strain gauges were
measured. Cuts were made in increments of about 0.05 mm and readings were
taken typically every 0.2 mm increasing to up to 0.5 mm at about 6 mm from the
hole edge. A micrometer was used to measure the hole diameter corresponding
to each strain reading.
To determine the residual stresses from the measured strains, first a Fourier
analysis was performed on the strains. Equation (Al) describing the measured
strain increments, r((r,8), is given in the appendix. The analysis of strain was
restricted to the first five Fourier terms of the cosine coefficients, rj^ for n=0 to
4. The residual stresses corresponding to each of the coefficients were
determined using equations (A3) to (A5), given in the appendix for the first three
coefficients. Equations for the remaining two terms are similar to Equation (A5),
and are expressed in a general form in equation (A6). The complete residual
stress distribution for the hoop, aee(r,9), radial, cr,-r(r,8) and shear stresses, Tre(r,6)
was found by summing the residual stress terms using equation (A2).
Results for the measured hoop, radial and shear residual stresses are shown in
Figure 3. Hoop residual stresses at 9=0, 90 and 180° are shown in Figure 3a, and
radial residual stresses are shown Figure 3b for the same angles. Also shown in
Figure 3a are measured shear residual stresses at 9=90°. The maximum
compressive hoop residual stress occurred at 8=0°, and at about 0.5mm from the
edge of the hole. It is also evident that there was a significant variation of hoop
residual stresses with angular position adjacent to the hole. For example at the
hole edge the hoop residual stress varied from about -420MPa at 9=0° to
-140MPa at 9=180°. This variation becomes less significant with increasing
distance away from the hole, so that at about 5.5mm from the centre of the hole
the residual stresses were essentially axisymmetric.
As might be expected the radial stresses, shown in Figure 3b, also exhibited a
dependence on angular position. Radial stresses were entirely compressive over
the measured range and reached a maximum at about 5.5mm from the centre of a
hole. The largest compressive radial residual stress of-120MPa was found at 0°
and the least compressive stress of-80MPa at 180°.
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108 Surface Treatment

100 : (a)

-100
Garcia-Sachs
"3 -200
measurements

-300 -^- Ow, 8=0°

o ..v • 098,8=90°
o
-400

-500
4 5 6 7
Distance from hole centre, r [mm]

100
(b) Garcia-Sachs measurements
__o__ errr ',6=0° Q_a rr,' 8=180°
50
. . v • <*„ , 9=90° ..-*.. T^Q , 8=90°
a =- 0
^ T .^. .^-'V ?' T
^
-50
C v
•2 1 -100

-150
4 5 6 7
Distance from hole centre, r [mm]
Figure 3: Residual stresses measured using the new Garcia-Sachs
method, (a) Hoop, (b)Radial and Shear

The shear residual stresses were relatively small, as shown in Figure 3b for
8=90°. Although not shown a similar distribution was found at 45°. At 9=0° and
180° shear residual stresses were approximately equal to zero, and are not
included in the figure.
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Surface Treatment 109

3 Finite Element simulations

3.1 Material and finite element model

Previous analytical^'^ and finite element studies^ of the cold expansion process
stress the importance of introducing an accurate material model. In particular, it
is important to include the Bauschinger effect^. Cyclic loading experiments,
including reversed compressive loading, were carried out to obtain the material
stress-strain curve, shown in Figure 4. In the finite element analysis, three
material models were used, isotropic hardening, kinematic hardening and
combined hardening.
500
400 r

• Experimental
FE models
— Combined
Kinematic
Isotropic

2
Strain, f [%]
Figure 4: Stress-strain behaviour for Al 2650 and FE hardening models.

The stress-strain curves for these models are also shown in Figure 4. The
combined hardening model allows both expansion and translation of the yield
surface and gives the best representation of the material response. The material
parameters for this model were identified iteratively.
An axisymmetric FE model was employed, similar to that used by Pavier et
ar\ The analysis included a simulation of the mandrel being pulled through the
hole containing the sleeve. Since an axisymmetric model was used, the
simulation did not include the opening of the sleeve. The mandrel and sleeve
were simulated as a rigid surface moving in the z direction as indicated in Figure
1. The rigid surface included the dimensions of mandrel plus sleeve to provide a
4 % radial expansion of the aluminium plate. The disc was modelled using 80
by 50 (in the radial and axial directions respectively) first order, 4 noded
axisymmetric elements. Contact elements were placed between the rigid surface
simulating the moving mandrel and the disc. The boundary conditions were
applied to the mandrel in 240 steps to complete an axial displacement that
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110 Surface Treatment

allowed the mandrel to be pulled through the hole. A means of constraining the
disc from moving in the z direction during the simulation of cold expansion was
provided by non-linear springs placed around the hole periphery. Reid and co-
workers^ also used this method for constraining the disc.

100 Typical error bar on

I Sachs' measurement
0

-100
Garcia-Sachs
-200 measurement
cq
o 8 = 90"
-300 FE results
Q. — Combined
O -400 Kinematic
O
SB Isotropic
-500
3 4 5 6 7 8
Distance from hole centre, r [mm]
Figure 5: Hoop residual stresses measured using the new Garcia-Sachs
method compared to FE axisymmetric simulations.

_ 100 X-ray FE combined

CQ o Entrance, 8=90° Entrance
a-
• Exit, 8=90" Exit

-100

CQ -200
3
s
i -300
Typical error bar on
o
o -400 iX-ray measurement
33
-500
3 4 5 6 7 1
Distance from hole centre, r [mm]
Figure 6: Hoop residual stresses measured using X-ray diffraction
compared to FE axisymmetric simulations.
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Surface Treatment 111

The axisymmetric FE simulation of the cold expansion process provided the

residual stress distribution as a function of radial (r) and through thickness (z)
position. The reaming process was not simulated. Previous studies have shown
only a small redistribution of residual stresses due to reaming.

3.2 Results
The residual stresses resulting from a 4% cold expansion are very similar those
obtained for aluminium alloy 2024 by Pavier et al*. Reversed yielding, as a
result of unloading during the cold expansion process, was obtained adjacent to
the hole edge. This is the region where there is a significant influence of the
material hardening model. Predicted hoop residual stresses, averaged through
the thickness, are shown in figure 5. Results for each of the three different
material models are shown. The most compressive residual stress was found
using the isotropic model, while the least compressive residual stress was
obtained using the combined hardening material model.
As reported in previous studies^ the predicted residual stresses varied
through the thickness of the plate. The least compressive residual stresses were
found close to the mandrel entrance face, irrespective of the material model used.
In Figure 6, the FE hoop residual stresses at the mandrel entrance and exit faces
are shown. These results were obtained from averaged nodal values for through
thickness depths up to 0.1 mm from the mandrel entrance and exit faces. The
depth of O.lmm is intended to represent the maximum depth of penetration for
the X-ray measurement method.
At the mandrel entrance face the predicted near surface hoop residual stress
was approximately constant at about -lOOMPa, while at the mandrel exit face the
near surface residual stress wass much more compressive and similar to the
predicted residual stress averaged through the thickness.

4 Discussion

Measurements using X-ray and the Garcia-Sachs methods revealed an angular

and through-thickness variation of the residual stresses around a cold expanded
fastener hole. Both techniques show that the most compressive hoop residual
stress adjacent to the hole edge at the position of the split in the sleeve used
during cold expansion. The FE analysis cannot confirm these results since detail
of the split in the sleeve was not included in the model. Nevertheless, the results
of the axisymmetric analysis support the experimental findings when
comparisons are made between experiment and FE analysis at 0=90°.
The Garcia-Sachs method obtains residual stresses averaged through the
thickness of the cold expanded discs, with measurements as a function of angle
and radius. Figure 5 shows the results from measurements using this method at
0=90°. This distribution is very similar to the FE predictions using the combined
hardening model. The kinematic and isotropic material models result in larger
predicted compressive residual stresses. Further away from the edge of the hole,
the differences between the various models and the experimental results are
relatively small.
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112 Surface Treatment

Near surface FE predictions and X-ray measurements of the residual stresses

at 0=90° are shown in Figure 6. There is excellent agreement between results at
the mandrel entrance face, while at the exit face X-ray results face are slightly
less compressive than predicted from the FE analysis. It is notable that the
measured and predicted residual stress distributions at the mandrel exit face are
similar to the average through thickness residual stresses.
Application of the Garcia-Sachs method illustrated the significance of the
angular dependence of the residual stresses. This is not the case if the traditional
Sachs method is applied. If the strains measured at each angle during boring are
analysed independently of each other using the traditional Sachs analysis,
erroneous results arise. This is illustrated in Figure 7, where hoop residual
stresses at 8=0° and 90° measured using the conventional and new methods are
shown. The results at 0=90° indicate that the new method measured less
compressive residual stresses than measured using the conventional method.
The converse occurs at 0=0°, with less compressive residual stresses measured
using the conventional Sachs method compared to the new method. The results
from the new method are also in better agreement with the FE results, especially
when a combined hardening material model.

100

& 0
3
-100

-200
735
-300
a
o Garcia-Sachs Conventional Sachs
o -400 —o__ 8=0° —+— 8=0°
a
..^.. 8=90° ..^..8=90°
-500

Distance from hole centre, r [mm)

Figure 7: Hoop residual stresses measured using the new Garcia-Sachs
method compared to the conventional Sachs.

The results obtained from measurements using X-ray and the Garcia-Sachs
methods confirm earlier surface residual stress measurements*. The most
compressive hoop residual stresses were obtained at cold expanded holes using
the split-sleeve process at 0° and the least compressive at 180°. Furthermore, the
residual stresses were shown to be a function of angular location, distance
through the thickness and radial distance from the hole edge. The results
presented here indicate that split-sleeve cold expansion of holes induces an
asymmetric residual stress field. Importantly, the conventional Sachs method is
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Surface Treatment 113

not able to resolve residual stress variation around a hole. Results obtained in
earlier investigations ^, using the conventional technique to obtain the angular
distribution, are incorrect. In contrast, the new Garcia-Sachs method can be used
to calculate the angular variation of hoop, radial and shear stresses.

Concluding remarks

• Measurements of residual stresses generated during cold expansion of

fastener holes have been shown to be a function of position around the hole,
distance through the plate thickness and radial distance from the hole edge.
• The X-ray method and a new method, called the Garcia-Sachs method, have
been used to measure the three dimensional distribution of the residual
stresses.
• Finite element analyses, utilising a combined hardening material model,
were used to simulate the cold expansion process, and predict the residual
stress distributions.
• Excellent agreement between the predictions and measurements were
obtained, particularly at the entrance and exit faces of the plate containing
the cold expanded hole.

Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by a grant from the UK Department of

Trade and Industry (Air Division 4).

Appendix

Relevant equations used in the Garcia-Sachs method are given below, together
with relevant notation.

Notation:
a Radius at which the boring process is started.
b Radius at which strains are measured.
rjfj (r, 0) - A£0^ (r, 0) Measured strain at radius b.
M =E Elastic constant for plane stress.
M = r- Elastic constant for plane strain.
\-v

The measured strains must be described using a Fourier equation where:

»<>(r)sin(/i0) (Al)
H=0 H=0
The corresponding stresses are also described using Fourier equations, where
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114 Surface Treatment

cr»(r,0)= £aJ'''>(r)cosM+ £c
H=0 M=0
(A2)

W=0 77=0
The coefficients for the first three terms in the Fourier equations for the stresses
are as follows:
_(o)_M62-r\(

(A3)

dr

(A4)
T"

en ' = ( o

-/F
cr ' =cr): /4-r- '+ —
wy 2

The general solution for all the coefficients are:

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Surface Treatment 115

(A6)

n dc

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