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 chapter 4 Fundamental Hydrodynamics 59

The principle proposed by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738 is that for a frictionless incom-
pressible fluid, total energy head remains constant along the fluid stream. Thus,
p v2
h1 1
5 constant (4-8)
2g g
represents Bernoulli’s Principle and is known as the Bernoulli equation. Bernoulli’s
equation can be expressed in the form of the energy equation (one version of which
is Equation 4-7) by equating total energy at one station along a hydraulic system
with another.
Because all terms of the energy equation are measured in feet (meters), a graph-
ical representation of energy becomes convenient for hydraulic systems. Thus, the
system described in Figure 4-4 can be redrawn as shown in Figure 4-5 to show two
important lines used to analyze hydraulic systems.
The energy grade lin e (EGL) depicts total energy (total energy head) at all stations
along the system. In this hypothetical case, the energy grade line is horizontal since total
energy remains constant (no energy lost to friction). The hydraulic grade line (HGL)
depicts potential energy (position plus pressure head) at all stations along the system.
The vertical separation between the energy and hydraulic grade lines is the velocity head.
Wherever there is a free surface, the hydraulic grade line is coincident with it. Why?
A close scrutiny of Figure 4-5 reveals that the hydraulic grade line is coincident
with the free water surfaces at both ends. The energy grade line is coincident only
with the free surface of the reservoir because, as we have seen, the reservoir velocity
is negligible.

Figure 4-5 energy grade line and hydraulic grade line for a
hypothetical hydraulic system with no friction.

Energy grade line

Hydraulic grade line

v2
2g
p2


h1

h2
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 5
Hydraulic
Devices
ydraulic devices are structures that use Objectives
H hydraulic principles to control the flow
of water. In this chapter, you will learn how After completing this chapter, the reader
should be able to:
to compute flow through an orifice, over
a weir, under a gate, and through a siphon. • Calculate flow through an orifice
Calculating the flow will enable you to • Calculate flow over a weir
determine other key parameters such as
• Calculate flow under a gate
water level.
• Calculate flow in a siphon

5 . 1 O r i f i c e f lOw
An orifice is a hole in the wall of a container through which water may flow. Gen-
erally, the wall is assumed to be thin and the edges of the hole square, but many
variations of geometry are possible. Figure 5-1 shows examples of orifices.
When water flows through a square-edged circular orifice, a contraction occurs,
forming a jet with minimum diameter a short distance from the inside edge of the ori-
fice. As shown in Figure 5-2, flow lines are parallel and closest together at section.
This point is referred to as the vena contracta.
Discharge, Q, can be computed by using Bernoulli’s principle, treating the ori-
fice as a short hydraulic system with Station 1 within the reservoir and Station 2 at
the vena contracta. The datum can be assumed projecting horizontally through the
center of the orifice. Thus, from Equation 4-9,
h 1 v12 5 h 1 p2 1 v2 1 h
2
2 l
1
2g g 2g
 Since the velocity is negligible at Station 1, v1 5 0 and since Station 2 is located at a
free discharge, p2 5 0, and since the datum runs through the center of the ori- fice, h2
5 0. Thus, Equation 4-9 becomes
v22
h1 5 1 hl
2g

chapter 5 Hydraulic Devices 87

Next, find total head as the difference between elevations:

h 5 220.0 2 215.0
5 5.0 ft

Note that the elevation of the orifice is not relevant. Therefore, using Equation 5-3, we
have

Q 5 ca"2gh
5 (0.62)(0.167)"(2)(32.2)(5)
5 1.9 cfs (Answer)

5 . 2 w e i r f lOw
A weir is a structure that, like an orifice, regulates the flow of water out of an
impoundment or reservoir. Generally, a weir consists of a horizontal surface over
which water is allowed to flow. Typical uses include outlet structures for dams and
detention basins, as well as other impoundments such as holding tanks in sewage
treatment plants. Also, weirs are widely used as measuring devices with such
applications as natural streams and treatment works.
Figure 5-4 shows a typical weir discharging freely to a downstream channel.
The energy that pushes water over the crest is measured by the head H above
the crest.
Many different types of weirs have been devised over the years by varying the
width and shape of the crest. The most important of these are shown in Figures 5-5
and 5-6.
Close inspection of Figure 5-4(a) reveals that the surface of the impoundment
begins to drop as it approaches the weir. This is due to the increase of velocity,
which is compensated for by a drop in cross-sectional area in accordance with the
continuity equation. Therefore, H must be measured at some distance away from
the weir crest, where the velocity is virtually zero. Usually, this location is at least
a distance 2.5H upstream of the crest.

RectangulaR WeiR
The rate of flow or discharge over a rectangular weir is computed by the weir formula,

Q 5 cLH3/2 (5-4)

where Q 5 discharge, cfs

c 5 discharge coefficient
L 5 effective crest length, ft
H 5 head above crest, ft
 Equation 5-4 is used for most rectangular weir flow computations using the English
system of units. The discharge coefficient is an empirically determined

158 Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology with Applications for Stormwater Management

Figure 9-1 Typical culverT Through a road embankmenT.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Figure 9-2 Typical culverT cross secTions.

© Cengage Learning 2014

(a) Pipe (b) Box (c) Elliptical Pipe (d) Arch

Figure 9-4 depicts the principal hydraulic components of culvert flow. Refer-
ence will be made to the diagrams in Figure 9-4 later as culvert flow is described in
more mathematical terms.
Although culvert flow generally behaves as described above, there are several
variations of the flow pattern due to specific circumstances. The following factors
affect the flow through a culvert:
1. The size of the opening (cross-sectional area)
2. Entrance geometry
3. Length of the culvert
4. Roughness of the culvert
5. Slope
6. Downstream depth of flow (tailwater)
Downstream depth, also called tailwater depth , can be very impor-
tant in determining the flow pattern. Tailwater depth depends in general on the
characteristics of the stream and is usually independent of the culvert. Tailwater
depth generally is determined by computing normal depth for the stream as it ex-
ists downstream of the culvert.