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    Fundamentals of Electric Circuits chapter 1 and 2

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    221 views223 pages

    Fundamentals of Electric Circuits-Chapter 1&2

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    Fundamentals of Electric Circuits chapter 1 and 2

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    CHAPTER Electro Magnetic Circuits Chapter Objectives Ater the completion of this unit, students/readers willbe able to understand: What is magnetic field and its significance? What is a magnetic circuit? What are the important terms related to magnetism and magnetic circuits? What are the similarities and dissimilarities between magnetic and electric circuits? How series and parallel magnetic citcuits are treated? What is leakage flux and how it affects magnetic circuits? What is magnetic tysteresis and hysteresis loss? What is electromagnetic induction phenomenon? What are Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction? What are self- and mutual inductances and wat is thelr significance? Whats the effective value of inductances when these are connected in seies-perallel combination? What are electromechanical energy conversion devices? How does torque develop by the alignment of two fields? What are the factors on which torque depends? How to determine the direction of torque or induced emt in rotating machines? Introduction Itis always advantageous to utilise electrical energy since it is cheaper, can be easily transmitted, ‘easy to control and more efficient, The electrical energy is generally generated from natural resources such as water, coal, diesel, wind, atomic energy, ete, From these sources, first mechanical energy is produced by one way or the other and then that mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by suitable machines. For the utilisation of electrical energy, its again converted into other forms of energy such as mechanical, heat, light ete. It is a well-known fact that the electrie drives have been universally adopted by the industry due to their inherent advantages. The energy conversion devices are always required at both ends of a typical electrical system. The devices or machines ‘which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice-versa are called eleetro-mechanical energy conversion devices. 2 Blectrical Machines ‘The operation of all the electrical machines such as DC machines, transformers, synchronous ‘machines, induction motors, etc, rely upon their magnetic circuits, The closed path followed by the ‘magnetic lines of force is called a magnetic circuit. The operation ofall the electrical devices (e., transformers, generators, motors, etc) depends upon the magnetism produced by their magnetic citeuits, Therefore, to obtain the required characteristics of these devices, their magnetic circuits have to be designed carefully. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the basic fundamentals of magnetic circuits and their applications as electromechanical energy conversion devices. 1 Magnetic Field and its Significance The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or repulsion is called magnetic field. The existence ofthe magnetic field ata point around the magnet can also be determined by placing ‘a magnetic needle at that point as shown in Fig, 1. Although magnetic lines of force have no real existence and are pur cffects. Ibis assumed (because of their effects) that the magnetic ines of force possess the following important properties: imaginary, yet their concept is very useful to understand various magnetic (The direction of magnetic lines of force is from N-pole to the S-pole outside the magnet. But inside the magnet their direction is from $-pole to N-pole. id They form a closed loop. (Gi) Their tendency is to follow the Teast reluctance path, (®) They act like stretched cords, always trying to shorten themselves. (@) They never intersect each other. (They repel each other when they are parallel and are in the same direction. (vi) They remain unaffected by non-magnetic materials ro flings rissretc nee Fig. 1.1. Magnetic field around a bar magnet Electro Magnetic Circuits 3 1.2 Magnetic Circuit and its Analysis The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circui ‘A magnetic circuit usually consists of magnetic materials having high permeability (eg, iron, J, etc). In this circuit, magnetic flux starts from a point and finishes atthe same point after soft st ‘completing its path. Figure 1.2 shows a solenoid having V turns wound on an iron core (ring). When current Fampere is passed through the solenoid, ‘magnetic flux g Wb is set-up in the core, Let nean length of magnetic circuit in m; area of cross-section of core in m*; relative permeability of core material Flux density in the core material, B= 2 Weim? Magneiing force in the coe materi Fin12 Namnetecinet fan HoH, — My Hy According to wrk the work done in moving aunt pole once round he magnetic iret or path sequal othe ampere turns enclosed by the magnet circu é ML xIeN oo g= Mwy Tah, *- TTaue me) ATi ie, HIM or ‘The above expression reveals that the amount of flux sct-up in the core is (@ directly proportional to N and Fie, NI, called magnetomotive force (mmf). I shows that the flux increases if either of the two increases and vice-versa. Gi inversely proportional to Va yp, called reluctance of the magnetic path. In fact, reluctance is the opposition offered to the magnetic Flux by the magnetic path, The lower is the reluctance, the higher wil be the flux and vice-versa Thus, Flux = mt eluctance 1 may be noted that the above expression has a strong resemblance to Ohm's law for electric current (J = emffresistance), The mmfis analogous to emf in electric circuit, reluctance is analogous to resistance and flux is analogous to current. Because of this similarity, the above expression is sometimes referred to as Ohm's law of magnetic circuits 1.3 Important Terms While studying magnetic circuits, ge erally, we come across the following terms 1. Magnetic fil repulsion is called magnetic field. he region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or 4 Electrical Machines 2, Magnetic flux (9: The amount of magnetic Hines of foree set-up in a magnetic circuit called ‘magnetic fx. Ks unit is weber (W>). It is analogous to electric current Lin electic circuit 3. The magnetic flux density ata point isthe flux per unit area at right angles 1 the flux a that point His, generally, represented by letter ‘B,Its unit is Wb/m? or Tesla, ie. b= 20/0? or Wine = 110" Whim 4, Permeability: The ability of a material 10 conduct magnetic lines of force through it is called the permeability of that material Itis generally represented by u (nu, a Greek letter) The greater the permeability ofa material, the greater is its conductivity for the magnetic lines of force and vice-versa. The permeability of air or vacuum isthe poorest and is represented assy (where fy = 42" 10-7 Him) Relative permeability: The absolute (or actual) permeability of « magnetic material is much greater than absolute permeability of air ug. The relative permeability of a magnetic material is given in comparison with air or vacuum. Hence, the ratio of the permeability of material u to the permeability of air or vacuum jy is called the relative permeability u, ofthe material ie, =F! ot wa nge, » Hye TR ot w= tot, Obviously, the relative permeability of air would be tip = I. The value of relative permeability of all the non-magnetic materials is also 1. However, its value is as high as 8000 for soft iron, whereas, its value for mumetal (iron 22% and nickel 78%) is as high as 1,20,000, 5. Magnetic field intensity: The force acting on a unit north pole (1 Wb) when placed at a point in the magnetic field is called the magnetic intensity ofthe field at that point. Is denoted by H. In magnetic circuits, itis defined as mmf per unit length of the magnetie path. Its denoted by H, mathematically, mmf ML Trngih of magnetic path ~ 1 “7 /™ ‘6. Magnetomotive force (mmf): The magnetic pressure which sets-up or tends to set-up magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is called magnetomotive force. As per work law it may be defined as under: ‘The work done in moving « unit magnetic pole (1 Wb) once round the magnetic circuit is called ‘magnetomotive force. In general mmf VF ampere-turns (or AT) ILis analogous to emfin an electric circuit 7. Reluctance ($): The opposition offered to the magnetic flux by # magnetic circuit is called its reluctance. It depends upon length (1), area of eross-section (a) and permeability (11= HH) of the material that makes up the magnetic circuit, It is measured in AT/Wb, Electro Magnetic Circuits 5 1 iy Hy {tis analogous to resistance in an electric circuit. 8 Permeance: Its a measure of the ease with which flux can be se-up in the material. It is just ‘reciprocal of reluctance of the material and is measured in WBIAT ot henry. Reluctance, $= 1 Permeance =“ gctance = Ata wnt or {tis analogous to conductance in an electric circuit, 9. Reluetivity: It is specific reluctance and analogous to resistivity in electric circuit 1.4 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits Although magnetic and electric circuits have many points of similarity but sill they are not analogous in all respects. A comparison of the two circuits is given below: ‘Magnetic Circuits Electrical Circuits —_ i9.1.4 Electric cre ig. 1.3 Magnetic circuit Similarities 1. The closed path for magnetic x's called | 1. The closed path for electric curent is ealed magnetic circuit slectrc circu. 2 Flux-= mmieluctance 2. Gutrent = emtresistance 3. Fux, gin Wb 3, Current, rin ampere 4 mmfin aT 4 emtinv Loot sistance, A= pla or A= AL 5, Rautanes,S= 2 = an 5, Resistance, R= pla or A= tha 6. Permeance« treluctance 6. Conductance = tesistance 7. Permeabilty, p 7. Conductivity, = tp ‘8. Reluctivity 8. Resistivity 1 Flux density, © woe 9. Current density, J= 4 A/m® 10. Magnetic intensity, H= lil 10. Electric intensity, E= Vid 6 Electrical Machines Dissimilarities 1. Infact, the magnetic flax does not flow butit sets up in the magnetic circuit (basically molecular poles ae aligned). 2. Formagnetic lux, there Is no perfect insulator. It canbe set-up even inthe non-magnetic materials like ar, rubber, glass etc. with reasonable mmt 3. The reluctance ($) of a magnetic circut is not constant rather it varies withthe value of B. It is because the value of y changes considerably vith the change in 4. Once the magnetic flux is set-up in a magnetic, circuit, no energy is expanded. However, a small amount of energy is required atthe stato create flux inthe cireuit 4. The electric current (electrons) actually flows in an electric circu. 2, For electric current, there are large number of perfect insulators ike glass, air, rubber, etc, hich denotallow to follow through them under normal conditions 3. The resistance (A) of an electric circuit is almost constant as its value depends upon the value of ‘which is almost constant. However, the value of ppand A may vary slightly itemperature changes. 4, Energy's expanded continuousiy, so long as the current flows through an electric circuit. This, energy is dissipated in the form of heat 1.5 Ampere-turns Calculations In a magnetic circuit, flux produced, j- amet aduns “Tar oe Atpica 28 6 Bs a 1.6 Series Magnetic Circuits ‘A magnetic circuit that has a number of parts of different dimensions and materials carrying the ‘same magnetic field is called a series magnetic circuit. Such as series magnetic circuit (composite cireuit) is shown in Fig. 1.5. Fig. 1.5 Series magnetic circuit Electro Magnetic Cirewits 7 ‘Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit, s tS 45,45, f_,_b _,_4_, GMa Hoa” a Mods 4, Me 4 b 4 _) tania * miei * ein * a) “Hola Hola Hols Mo Hyl+Hyh+Hl+H, 1, 1.7 Parallel Magnetic Circuits ‘A magnetic cireuit which has two or more than two paths for the magnetic flux is called a parallel ‘magnetic circuit, Its behaviour can be just compared to a parallel electric circuit Figure 1.6 shows a parallel magnetic circuit, A current carrying coil is wound on the central limb ‘AB. This coil sets-up a magnetic flux ¢, in the central limb which is further divided into two paths ive, (@ path ADCB which carries flux ¢, and (i) path AFEB which carries flux 4, faim Fig. 1.6 Parallel magnetic circuit +h ‘The two magnetic paths ADCB and AFEB are in parallel. The ATs required for this parallel circuit is equal to the ATs required for any one of the paths. tis clear that 4, If §, =reluctanee of path BA ies flay Hy Hy, S, = reluctance of path ADCB ie, La Hy Hy 5, = reluctance of path AFEB i.e, [aH i, umf required for path BA + mmf required path ADCB or path AFEB, 5, + S= 4,5, +65, ‘Total mmf required ie, Total mmf or AT: 8 Electrical Machines 1.8 Leakage Flux “The magnetic fax which doesnot follow the intended path ina magnetic cireits called feakage flux When some current is passed through @ solenoid as shown in Fig. 17, magnetic flux is produced by it. Most of this flux is set-up in the magnetic core and passes through the ar gap (an intended path), This Fux is known as useful fls ,, However, some ofthe flux is just set-up around the coil and isnot utilised for any work. This flux is called leakage flux $, “otal flux produced by the solenoid Useful fx) $= 4,48 ‘Magnetic Leakage co-efficient or leakage factor: The ratio of core: total flux (@ produced by the solenoid to the useful flax Fig. 1.7 Leakage tx (,) set-up in the air gap is known as leakage co-efficient. Iis generally represented by letter ‘2. Leakage co-efficient, 2= & Fringing: It may be scen in Fig. 1.7 that the useful flux when sets-up in the air gap, it tends 10 bulge outwards at b and D’ since the magnetic lines set-up in the same direction repel each other. ‘This increases the effective area in the air gap and decreases the flux density. This effect is known as fringing. The fringing is directly proportional to the length of the air gap. Example Ll ‘An iron ring of 400 em mean circumference is made from round iron of eross-section 20 en? Its permeability is 500. fit is wound with 400 turns, what current would be required to produce a flux of 0-001 Wo? Sol ‘The magnet circuit is shown in Fig. 18. Mean length of magnetic path, |, ‘Area of X-section of iron ring, a= 20x 10-' m? 00 cm=4 m Absolute permeability, uy = 4x 107 Now mmf = flux x reluctance by N= $x Tn, Fig. 1.8 Magnetic circuit 4001 =0.001 x 4 B10 ae x1 500 coi x4 Current, 20 x10 x 4 x 107 x 500 x 400, Electro Magnetic Circuits _ 9 ymple L2 An electromagnet has an air gap of 4 mm and flux density in the gap is 13 Wh/m®, Determine the ‘ampere-turns for the gap. Solution: Here, 1, = 4mm =0-4 em =4 x 10° m; B, = 13 Whim? Ampere-turns required forthe gap 2 Hx, = Bt, = E34 107 413683 AT Gans) OE My 8 4 x 10° Example 1.3 A coil of insulated wire of 300 turns and of resistance 4 0 is closely wound on iron ring. The ring has a mean diameter of 025 m and a uniform cross-sectional area of 700 mn®. Calculate the total flux in the ring when a DC supply of 6V is applied tothe ends ofthe winding, Assume arelative permeability of $80 Solution: ‘Mean length of iron ring, = % D= x 025 = 025 am Fig. 1.9 Magnetic circuit Area of cross-section, a= 700 mm? =700 x 10-m? Current flowing through the coil, = Nollage applied across coil Resistance of coil =15A 1 NI _ NIX aight, Total flaxinthering, = 7727 = “Tibial, 500 x 1-5 x 700 x 10 x 4x x 107 x 550 = I SE = 0-462 mW (Ans) Example L4 What are the similarities between electrical circuits and magnetic circuits? An iron ring of mean length SO.cm and relative permeability 300 has an air gap of | mm. Ifthe ring is provided with winding of 200 urns and a current of 1 Ais allowed t0 flow through, find the flux density across the airgap. Solution: Here, I=1A 50cm =05 m4, B Ampere-turns required for air gap = ps 4 eap= 7 10 Electrical Machines Ampere-turns required for iron ring = Bo Be Cr BB or Total ampere-turns required = 2.1, +B 0 " ee Uy Ty Hy Ampere-turns provided by the coil = N = 200 1 = 200 « Equating eqn. () and (i, we get or Al 4) A 23) 4 (0-001 +0- 00167) = 2 x0. 00267 Hy Hy . 200 x tg _ 200 x48 <10" _ prgggas or Flux density, B= 220% He 200% 42 210" 9.99495-7 (Ans) Example LS A coil of 1000 turns is wound on a laminated core of steel having a cross-section of 5 en. The core has an air gap of 2mm cut at right angle. What value of current is required to have an air gap flux density of 05 T7 Permeability of steel may be taken as infinity. Determine the coil inductance, Solution: Here, N= 1000 turns; a= 5 em?=5.x 104m? 1, =2mm=2> 10 m;B=05 Tp, ‘Total ampere-turns required, x2 107 +0 =796 ( (SHE AT _ 796, T ~ 1000 Current required, 0-796 A (Ans) ~ 1000x0.5 x 5x10 Inductance of coil, 0.796 = 0314 H (Ans) ample 1.6 A flux density of 12 Wo/m? is required in 2 mm air gap of an electro-magnet having an iron path I metre long. Calculate the magnetising force and current required ifthe electro magnet has 1273 turns, Assume relative permeability of iron to be 1500. Solution: Flux density, B= 12 W/m? Electro Magnetic Cirewits 11 Relative permeability of iron, w, = 1500 No. of turns, N= 1273 Length of iron path, f, = 1m Length of air gap, f, = 2mm = 0-002. m Magnetising force for iron H, = B= —_1-2__ = 636.6 aim °° Holy ~ ax 107 1500 B12 Magnetising force for air gap, H, = 2 = 1-2 _ ~ 954900 tim ignctising sap. He = tot ATs required for iron path = Hl, = 636-6 x 1 = 636-6 Hj], = 954900 x 0-002 = 19098 Total ampere-turns = 636-6 + 1909.8 = 2546-4 Total ATs _ 2546-4 TowATs _ 2546-4 <4 (Ans) ATs required for air ga Current required, = Example Estimate the number of ampere-turns necessary to produce a flux of 100000 lines round an iron ring of 6 cm? cross section and 20 cm mean diameter having an air gap 2 mm wide across it Permeability of the iron may be taken 1200. Neglect the leakage flux outside the 2 mm air gap. Solution: ‘The magnetic circuit is shown in Fig, 1.10 ‘Area of cross section of the ring, a = 6 cm? ‘Mean diameter ofthe ring, D,, = 20 em Length of air gap, , = 2 mm = 2. 10-7 m Flux set up in the ring, ¢ = 100,000 lines = 100,000 x 10-* = 0.001 Wb 200 Relative permeability of iron, 4, Fig. 1.10 Magnetic circuit Mean length of ring, |, ="D = 2x02 6283 m Length of ar gap, = 0.002 m Lenath of iron path = 06283 0.002 = 06263 m Now, mmf = flux x reluctance ‘Ampere turns required for fon path at, = 9x = 0-001 x 0-268 __ aot TaI0 x de x 107 1000 = 69221 AT 12 Electrical Machines Ampere-turns required for air gap, 0-002 AT, 0-002 6x10" x 4x x10 265258 AT | x2 =0-001x ox ‘Total ampere-turns required to produce the given flux 7, + AT, = 69221 + 265258 = 3344-79 AT (Ans) Examole LE ‘A wrought irom bar 30cm long and 2.em in diameter is bent into a cireular shape as given in Fig O11. is then wound with 500 turns of wire. Calculate the current required to produce aflux of 0S imW¥b in magnetic circuit with an airgap of | mim: u, (ron) = 4000 (assume constant) f] [x — 20en —>] Fig. 1.14 Magnetic circuit Solution: Here, Area of x-section, a = 16 em 2x 109m No.of umms,.V = 1000; Flux, §= 4m Wo = 4 x 10° Wb; y, = 2000 16 x 10-4 ms J, = 2m Flux density required, B= Bach side of the cross-section Length of iron-path, = 738 em =0738 m B B wurns required = 2 , +B, * Hy 7° Ho He 2-5x2x107 ,_2.5x0-738 4x x10" | 4x 107" x 2000 3979 + 734 = 4713 _ Total ampere-turns _ 4713 _ 4, - Exciting current required, 1 ee GBB = 4713.4 (Ans) sample 1.14 An iron ring of 10 em? area has a mean circumference of 100 em. Ifhas a saw cut of 02 em wide. A flux of one mi¥¥b is required inthe air gap. The leakage factor is 12. The flux density of iron for relative permeability 400 is 1.2 Wh/m2, Calculate the number of ampere-turns required. 16 Electrical Machines Solution: oe 2 lox density in ar gap, B, = © = L Wi Flux in iron ring, g, = 2% 9, (where 2 is leakage factor) 1.2 103 Wb L os +12 _ Sex 4a x10" x 400 978-87 (Ans) umple LIS A steel ring 10 cm mean radius and of circular cross-section | em in radius has an air gap of | ‘mm length. It is wound uniformly with 500 turns of wire carrying current of 3 A. Neglect magnetic leakage. The air gap takes 60% of the total mmf Find the total reluctance. Solution: Total mmf 5003 500 ATS Mnf for air gap = 60% of total mmf = 046 x 1500 = 900 ATS Reluctance of air gap, , where, f= 1mm = 1x 10° m;a= nx (001? = mx 104m? FaIO aeRO aP reluctance 10° Man for iron fal mmf air mmf Flux inthe iron ring, 4, = 9,= 36 = x 10-* Wb (since there is no magnetic leakage) MME. of iron 600 10° ar ywy Reluctance of iron ring, 5, = —600___ a 36m? x10 x? Electro Magnetic Circuits 17 Foal stance, ~5, +5, 10% 4 10 10 | * 4x 6x" © 122 x 10° ATs/Wh (Ans) Example 6 Determine magnetomotive force, magnetic flux, reluctance and flux density in case of a steel ring 30 cm mean diameter and a circular cross-section 2 em in diameter has an air gap I mm long. It is wound uniformly with 600 turns of wire carrying a current of 2.5 A. Neglect magnetic leakage, The iron path takes 40% of the total magnetomotive force. Solution: ‘Mat of the magnetic cireuit 600 x 25 = 1500 ATs (Ans,) As iron path takes 40% of the total mmf, the reluctance of iron in 40% and the rest of the reluctance (60%) is of air path. Sy _ 60 3 54072 Reluctance of air path, S, fe Pale Hy here 1, = 1x 103 m;a= % (Px 10¢= nx 104m where /, = 1% 10° mja=% QP x 10 10 s 110" 1x10" __ 22533 x 10° ATW x10 x 4x x10 533108 rs Reluctance of iron path, S, = = 1688 % 108 ATWO Se Total reluctance = $, + 5,= (2533 + 1.688) x 10° ATYWb = 4221 x 10° ATS/Wb (Ans), mat q Magnetic ux, 6= MLL 1500 954m Wh (Ans = $= Tahuctanee ~ 37201 x10 (ans) sux densin, B= © = 238542107 p31 Whim? (any ample 117 ‘An iron ring is made up of three parts; l= 10 em, a 25 em?. Iris wound with a 250 turns coil. Caleulate current required to produce flux of 0-4 mWb. 1670, 1, = 1050, 44, = 600. 18 Electrical Machines Sottion: o-o4mwe Fux denity 5, = $= 9-410" heavy Ian a S10 8 Whim? @ _0-4x10" a 3x10 = 133 Wb/m? o 04x 107% rears hays Fig. 115 Series magnetic circuit as per data ini ‘Current required to produce given flux, T= AD = 23102 «9.928 4 (Ans) 250 Example 1.18 The ring shaped core shown in Fig, 116 is made of a material having a relative permeability of 1000. The flux density inthe smallest area of cross-section is 2T. Ifthe current through the coil is not to exceed 1'5 A, compute the number of turns ofthe coil, Fig. 1.16 Series magnetic circuit as per data Electro Magnetic Circuits 19. Solution: XA = 2x2 x 10-424 x 10-4 Wo Flux in the core, ‘ Total reluctance of the magnetic path, - hb 4 wh abe whe 1 (44,4) ar(e?sa) - 1 (_o1 , 04 0.2) = 13926 x 108 AT/Wb Total mmf required, NI= 9S or Nx 15 = 4x 10x 13:926 x 105 No. of turns, V = 37136 (Ans) Example 119 The magnetic frame shown in Fig. 1.17 is built-up of iron of square cross-section, 3m side, Each air gap is 2 mm wide, Each of the coil is wound with 1000 turns and the exciting current is 1-0 A. The relative permeability of part A and part B may be taken as 1000 and 1200 respectively le-Pan® Calculate, (reluctance ofpartA; (i) reluctance of part B; (i) reluctance of two air gaps; (is) total reluctance ofthe complete magnetic circuit; () mmf aoa produced and (vi) flux set-up in the circuit. Fig. 147 Series magnetic circuit Solution: ty (@) Reluctance of path A. S, where, 1, = 20 (15 + 15) + (15 + 15)=20em=02 m x 10-4 m2; ,, = 1000; a=3x 0-2 22 ___ 176839 ATW (Ans) 9x10 x 4x x 107 x 1000, fy Habe @) Reluctance of path B, S, = 20, _Flectrical Machines where y= @20~ 15 ~ 15) 42 (10~ 15) =34 em = 034 mi yy = 1200 Ss saw ete Tape 7 250821 ATID (Ans) ii) Reluctance of two air gaps, 5, = aH, where, I= 2+2=4mm=4 x 107 m 8, = 4x 10°19 « 10-4 de 10-7 = 3836776 ATIWD (Ans) (v) Total reluctance of the composite magnetic circuit, S= 5,45, +S, = 176839 + 250521 + 3536776 3964136 AT/Wb (Ans) 2000 AT (Ans) mm, _ _2000 Fehuctance ~ 3964136 () Total mmi NI=@ x 1000) x (i) Flux setup in the circuit, 5045 m Wb (Ans) Example 120 Amagnetic core made of annealed sheet stel has the dimensions as shown in Fig, 118. The cross- section everywhere is 25 cm? The flux in branches A and B is 3500 m Wb, but that in the branch Cis zero, Find the required ampere-turns for coil A and for coil C. Relative permeability of sheet stel is 1000. 30 em, 80 om 30 em= Fig. 1.18 Given parallel magnetic circuit Fig. 1.49. Flux distribution in te parallel magnetic circuit Solution: ‘The given magnetic circuit isa parallel circuit, To determine the ATS for coil is shown in Fig. 1.19, Since path °B" and °C” are in parallel with each other wat. path ‘A, the Mux distribution munf for path ‘B" = mmf for path C, ies 65,= 45S, ie 3500 x 10 x 30 x 107 yc 80.107 " aH, 2 ably 6, = 13125 x 10- Wb Electro Magnetic Cirewits 21 ‘Total Mux inthe path ‘A’, $= 4, + 4, = (3500 + 13125) x 10-=48125 x 10-* Wb ~b ‘Actual (resultant) flux in path ‘AY 500 x 10-° We ATs required for coll = ATs for path ‘A’ + ATS for path * orc’ - 3500 x 10~* 4x x10” x 1000 x 25 x10 = 1225-5 (Ans) (0-8 +0-3) ‘To neutralise the flux in section ‘C’, the eoil produces flux of 13125 p Wb in opposite direction. ATs required for coil ‘C” = ATs for path ‘C’ only x10 x0-8 — = 33422 (Ans) % 1000 X 25 x 107 4a xi 1.9 Magnetisation or B-H Curve ‘The graph plotted between flux density B and magnetising force H of a material is called the ‘magnetisation or B-H Curve of that material ‘The general shape of the B-H Curve of a magnetic material is shown in Fig. 1.20. The shape of the curve is non-linear This indicates that the relative permeability (1, = Big H) of a magnetic ‘material is not constant but it varies. The value of, largely depends upon the value of flux density Its shape is shown in Fig, 1.21 (for cast steel) < 1200 = 8 /“Seuraion 2 a = I" | «oo A 3 a a + 8 bin) Fig. 1.20 8-H curve of a magnetic material Fig. 1.21 4; ‘The B-H curves of some of the common magnetic materials are shown in Fig, 1.22, The BHT curve for a non-magnetic material is shown in Fig, 1.23. Itis a straight line curve since B= 1, H for B x Has the value of 4 is constant. 22 Flectrical Machines 29 3 3" é 2, wt sy © fos atin OS sas Fig. 1.22 B-H curve or diferent magnetic materials Fig. 1.28 B+ curve fora non-magnetic materials 1.10 Magnetic Hysteresis ‘When a magnetic material is magnetised first in one direction and then in the other (Le, one eyele ‘of magnetisation), itis found that Flux density B in the material lags behind the applied magnetising force H. This phenomenon is known as magnetic hysteresis. Hence, the phenomenon of flux density B lagging behind the magnetising force H in a magnetic ‘material is called magnetic hysteresis. ‘Hysteresis’ is the term derived from the Greek word hysterein meaning to lag behind. To understand the complete phenomenon of magnetic hysteresis, consider a ring of magnetic material (on which a solenoid is wound uniformly as shown in Fig. 1.24. The solenoid in connected to a DC source through a double pole double throw reversible switeh (position "’. Solonois Ring of magnetic material bpor reversible ‘wth DE sate Fig. 1.24 Circuit to trace hysteresis loop Fig. 1.25. Hysteresis loop Electro Magnetic Circuits 23 ‘When the field intensity M7 is increased gradually by increasing current in the solenoid (by decreasing the value of R), the flux density B also increases until saturation point a is reached and ccurve so obtained is oa. If now the magnetising force is gradually reduced to zero by decreasing ‘current in the solenoid to zero. The flux density does not become zero and the curve so obtained is ab as shown in Fig. 1.25. When magnetising force H is zero, the flux density still has value ob Residual Magnetism and Retentivity This value of flux density ‘ob’ retained by the magnetic material is called residual magnetism and the power of retaining this residual magnetism is called retentivity of the material. To demagnetise the magnetic ring, the magnetising force H is reversed by reversing the direction ‘of flow of current in the solenoid. This is achieved by changing the position of double pole, double throw switch (i.e, position °2'), When H is increased in reverse direction, the flux density starts decreasing and becomes zero and curve follows the path bc. Thus residual magnetism of the magnetic ‘material is wiped off by applying magnetising force oc in opposite direction, Coercive Force This value of magnetising force oc required to wipe off the residual magnetism is called coercive force. To complete the loop, the magnetising force HY is increased further in reverse direction tll saturation reaches (point d’) and the curve follows the path ed. Again H is reduced to zero and the curve follows the path de. Where oe represents the residual magnetism. Then H is increased in the positive direction by changing the position of reversible switch to position I’ and increasing the Flow of current in the solenoid. The curve follows the path of ef and the loop is completed. Again of's the magnetising force utilised to wipe off the residual magnetism oe. Hence, isthe total coercive force required in one eycle of magnetisation to wipe off the residual magnetism, Since the meaning of hysteresis is lagging behind, and in this case flux density B always lags bind the magnetising force, H, therefore, loop (abedefa) so obtained is called hysteresis loop. 1.11 Hysteresis Loss ‘When a magnetising force is applied, the magnetic material is magnetised and the molecular magnets are lined up in a particular direction, However, when the magnetising force in a magnetic material is reversed, the internal friction of the molecular magnets opposes the reversal of magnetism, resulting in hysteresis, To overcome this internal friction of the molecular magnets (or to wipe off the residual magnetism), a part of the ‘magnetising force is used, The work done by the magnetising force against this internal friction of ‘molecular magnets produces heat. This energy, which is wasted in the form of heat due to hysteresis, is called hysteresis loss. Hysteresis loss occurs in all the magnetie parts of electrical machines where there is reversal of ‘magnetisation. This loss results in wastage of energy in the form of heat, Consequently, it increases 24 Flectrical Machines the temperature of the machine which is undesirable. Therefore, a suitable magnetie material is selected for the construction of such parts, eg. silicon steel is most suitable in which hysteresis loss 1.12 Importance of Hysteresis Loop ‘The shape and size of hysteresis loop of a magnetic material largely depends upon its nature. For a particular location, the choice of the magnetic material depends upon the shape and size (ie., area) ofits hysteresis loop. The hysteresis loops of some of the common magnetic materials are shown in Fig, 1.26. (@ Hard steel: The hysteresis loop for hard steel is shown in Fig. 1.26 (a). This loop has larger arca ‘hich indicates that this material will have more hysteresis oss. Therefore, itis never used for the construction of machine parts. However, is loop shows thatthe material has high retentivity and coercivity. Therefore, itis more suitable for making permanent magnets. i] L Ly (2) For hare stot (b)Forsicon stool (e)For wrought ron Fig. 1.26 Hysteresis loop for dtferent magnetic materials Gi) Silicon steel: The hysteresis loop for silicon steel is shown in Fig. 1.26 (@) This loop has smallest area which indicates that this material will have small hysteresis loss. Therefore, itis most suitable for the construction of those parts of electrical machines in which reversal of magnetisation is very quick eg,, armature of DC machines, transformer core, starter of induction motors ete Wrought iron: Figure 1.26 (c) shows the hysteresis loop for wrought iron. This loop shows that this matcrial has fairly good residual magnetism and coercivity. Therefore, it is best suited for making cores of electromagnets Section Practice Problems Numerical Problems ‘An iron ring has a cross-sectional area of 400 mm? and a mean diameter of 25 om. Itis wound with 500, turns i the value of relative permeability is 500, find the total flux set-up inthe ring. The col resistance | 400 0 and the supply voltages 200 V. (Ans, 0:08 m Wb} Electro Magnetic Circuits _ 25 2. Anion ring of mean dlameter 22 em and cross-section 10 em? has an air gap t mm wide, The ring Is \Wound uniformly with 200 turns of wire. The permeability of ring material is 1000. A lux of 016 mW is required in the gap. What current should be passed through the wire? (Ans. 1.076 4) 3. Aniron ring has cross-section 3 cm and a mean giameter of 25 em, Ana gap of 0-4 mm has been made by saw cut across the section. The rng is wound with 200 turns through which a current of2 Ais passed. If the total fuxis 21 x 10-8 weber, find for iron assuming no leakage. (Ans. 2470) 4. Antron ing has a mean circumferential engt of 6 cm with an ar gap of 1 mm anda uniform winding of 300 turns. When a current of flows through te col nd the fx density. The lative permeability ofiran is 300. Assume y= An 10-7 Hm (Ans. 01256 7) 5. Inthe magnetic citcuit shown in Fig. 1.27, col of $00 turns is wound on the central im. The magnetic path from Ato B by way of outer limbs have a mean length of 100m each and an effective cross-sectional area of 25 cm: The central limb is 25 cm long and 5 om’ cross-sectional area. The air gaps 08 cm long, Calculate the current flowing through the coll to produce a flux of 0-3 m Wh in the airgap. The relative permeability ofthe core material is 800 (neglect leakage and fringing) Fig. 1.27 Short Answer Type Questions 4, Whatis a magnet? ‘Ans, A substance that attracts pieces of iron is called a magnet 0.2, What are permanent and temporary magnets? ‘Ans. A magnet that retains magnetism permanently is called a permanent magnet. Whereas a magnet in wien magnetism remains temporarily is called a temporary magnet. A wire wound soft iron piece becomes a temporary magnet when a DCs passed through the wire 0.3, What are magnetic poles? [Ans. The ends of magnet from where the magnetic lines of force appear to emitor enter are called magnetic poles, tese are identified as north and south poles respectively 0.4, What do you understand by magnetic field? ‘ans. The space occupied by the magnetic ins of force around a magnet is called the magnetic field 1.5. What do you mean by magnetic axis? ‘Ans. Magnetic axs isthe imaginary line joining the two poles of a magnet. tis also called asthe magnetic equator, 26 as. Ans. a7. Ans, as. Ans. as. Ans. a0, Ans. Electrical Machines Detine and explain a magnetic circuit. A complete closed path followed by a group of magnetic lines force is called a magnetic circuit. Ina ‘magnetic cicult, the magnetic flux leaves from north pole, passes through the circuit and. returns to ‘the north pole Mention atleast four properties of magnetic lines of force. 1. Magnetic lines always emanate from north pole and terminate at south pole outside the magnet ‘whereas they are set-up from south to north poe inside tne magnet 2. The magnetic lines af force do not intersect each other. 3. Themagnetc lines of force set-up in one direction havea repulsive force between them and therefore do not intersect. 4, The magnetic lines of force always follow the least reluctance path, Explain the term MMF Theforce wtih ves he magnetic tux through a magnticcirutis cal the magretomotve force its produced by passing electric current through wre of numberof urs. tis measured in ampere turns (47) ‘MN: a magnetic circu canbe compared to EMF in an electric circu Both ae pressure, MMEIs, magnetic pressure and EMF'seetric pressure. Deine relative permeability. The relative permeabity (y,) ofa material (or medium) is dtined as te ratio ofthe ux density produced in that material or medium to the tux density produced in vacuum by the same magnetising force B By ‘where, 8 Flux density inthe material or medium in tesla 8,~ Flux density in vacuum D Detine permeance of magnetic circuit, Permeance isthe reciprocal of reluctance. tis the ease ofthe magnetic material with which magneti flux is set-up init tis equivalent to conductance in an electric circuit. Its unit is weber per ampere turn rmeance = gt Pormeance= reractance AL atte Tighe F where, /= length ofthe magnetic circuit a~ area of eross section of the magnetic circuit ‘uy~ absolute permeability of the magnetic circuit, 14,~rolative permeability ant Ans. a2. Ans. 033, Ans. a4. Ans. as, Ans. a6, Ans. Give similarities of electric and magnetic circuits. Electro Magnetic Cirewits 27 Se. fa Magnetic Circuit lect Circuit 1. |The closed path for magnetic fluxis called ‘magnetic circuit. The closed path for electric curent is called electric circuit. MME 2 | Fux (0) = patois Courrent () 3, | MME (Ampere-turns) emt (volt) 4, | Reluctance ($)= reste = pL ik 5. | Reluctivity Resistivity 6. | Permeance Conductance 7. | Fux density B= & Won? Current density (J) = 4 amperei? Y vation ensity H= Mati 8. | Magnetic el intensity H= Mar v Electric Held intensity E What isa composite magnetic circuit? A composite magnetic circuit consists of diferent magneti materials. The magnetic materials have diferent permeabilities and length it may also have an airgap. Each path wll have is un reluctance. Since the materials aren series, the total reluctance is given by the sum of individual etuctances State ‘Ohms law’ of magnetic iret The ‘ohms law’ of 2 magnetic circuits given by MM _M Ratuctance '* #5 ‘The above equation is simiiar to that ofthe ohms law in electric circu Flux s analogous to current, MMF to EMFand reluctance wo resistance in electric crcut Fux Detine leakage factor. Leakage factor is defined asthe ratio of total lux tothe useful lx. Why is it necessary to keep alr gaps in magnetic circuits as small as possible? Usually, the ampere-turns (A7)requited forthe airgap is much greater than that required forthe magnetic ‘irouit. tis because the reluctance of airis very high as compared to that offered by iron. Therefore, itis always prefered to keep ar gaps in magnetic circuits as small as possible. Why does leakage occur in a magnetic circut? Ina parallel magnetic circuit, large amount o fux follows the intended path. Atthe same time a small amount of fuxleaks through the surrounding air since airs nota magnetcinsulator. Therefore, leakage of flux takes place easily. The leakage flux useless, tis harmful in an electrical machine. 28 Flectrical Machines 0.17. What is magnetic fringing? Ans. While crossing an alr gap the magnetic lines of force tendta bulge out, The reason is that the magnetic lines of force repel each other when passing through non-magnetic material. This phenomenon is known as fringing What is hysteresis in a magnetic material? The phenomenon due to which magnetic flux density (B) lags behiné the magnetic field intensity (H) ina magnetic material i called magnetic hysteresis (0.19. Give the units of MMF, reluctance, flux and give the elation between them, Quantity Unit MME Ampere-Turn Fux Weber Reluctance | AT/weber ame Reluctance = Mi 1.13 Electro Magnetic Induction ‘The phenomenon by which an emf is induced in a circuit (and hence current flows when the circuit is closed) when magnetic flux Linking with it changes is called electro-magnetic induction, (2) Bar magnetic in mation (©) Collin motion ig. 1.28 Electromagnetic induction For illustration, consider a coil having a large number of turns to which galvanometer is connected. ‘When a permanent bar magnet is taken nearer to the coil or away from the coil, as shown in Fig, 1.28 (@, a deflection occurs in the needle of the galvanometer. Although, the deflection in the needle is ‘opposite is two cases, ‘On the other hand, ifthe bar magnet is kept stationary and the coil is brought nearer to the magnet ‘or away from the magnet, as shown in Fig. 1.28 (6), again a deflection occurs in the needle of the zalvanometer. The deflection in the needle is opposite in the two cases. However, ifthe magnet and the coil both are kept stationary, no matter how much flux is linking With the coil, there is no deflection in the galvanometer needle, Electro Magnetic Circuits 29) ‘The following points are worth noting: (The deflection in the galvanometer needle shows that emf is induced in the coil. This condition ‘occurs only when flux linking with the cireuit changes ie, either magnet or col is in motion, i) The direction of induced emf in the coil depends upon the direction of magnetic field and the dircetion of motion of coil 114 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction ‘Michael Faraday summed up conclusions of his experiments regarding electro-magnetic induetion into (wo laws, known as Faraday's laus of electro-magnetic induction, First Law: This law states that “Whenever a conductor cuts across the magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor.” “Whenever the magnetic flux linking with any circuit (or coil) changes, an emf is induced inthe circuit.” Figure 1.29 shows a conductor placed in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet to which a galvanometer is connected. Whenever, the conductor is moved upward or downward i., across the field, there is deflection in the galvanometer needle which indicates that an emf is induced in the conductor. If the conductor is moved along (parallel) the field, there is no deflection in the needle Which indicates that no emf is induced in the conductor For the second statement, consider a coil placed near a bar magnet and a galvanometer connected ‘across the coil, as shown in Fig. 1.30, When the bar magnet (N-pole) is taken nearer tothe coil [see Fig. 130 (@)] there is deflection in the needle of the galvanometer. If now the bar magnet (pole) is taken away from the coil [see Fig, 1.30 (b)], again there is deflection in the needle of galvanometer but in opposite direction, The deflection in the needle of galvanometer indicates that ema is induced in the coil, 6 {b) Bar magnet takeaway from the col Fig. 1.29 Conductor moving inthe field Fig. 1.30 Collis stationary but bar magnet (fel is moving 30 Electrical Machines ‘Second Law: This law states that “The magnitude of induced emf in a coil is directly proportional 10 the rate of change of flux linkages. Rate of change of flux linkages = N(=6) sp.curnsis 7 where, =o. of turns of the col (6,~ 4) =change of flux in Wo time in second for the change According to Faraday’s second law of electro-magnetic induction; ac NOs =) . 7 Induced emf, N@ ~ 9) (Gaking proportionality constant, as unity) Usually, a minus sign is given to the righthand side expression which indicates that emt is induced in such a direction which opposes the cause (i. change in flux) that produces it (according to Lenz's law, ao 2 ott 1.15 Direction of Induced emf ‘The direction of induced emf and hence current in a conductor or coil can be determined by either of the following two methods: 1. Fleming's Right Hand Rule: This rule is applied to determine the direction of induced emf in a conductor moving across the field and is stated as under, “Stretch, first finger, second finger, and thumb of your right hand mutually perpendicular to ‘each other. IF frst finger indicates the direction of magnetic field, thumb indicates the direction ‘of motion of conductor then second finger will indicate the direction of induced emf in the conductor.” Its illustration is shown in Fig. 1.29. 2. Lenz’s Law: This law is more suitably applied to determine the direction of induced emf in a coil or circuit when flux linking with it changes. It is stated as under: “In effect, electro-magnetically induced emf and hence current flows in a coil or circuit in such «direction that the magnetic field set up by it, always opposes the very cause which produces it.” Explanation: When N-pole of bar magnet is taken nearer to the coil as shown in Fig. 1.30, an emf is induced in the coil and hence current flows through it in such a direction that side ‘B’ ofthe coil attains North polarity which opposes the movement of the bar magnet, Whereas, when N-pole of the bar magnet is taken away from the coil as shown in Fig. 1.30, the direction of emf induced in the Electro Magnetic Cirewits 31 coil is reversed and side “B' of the coil attains South polarity which again opposes the movernent of the bar magnet 116 Induced emf ‘When flux linking with a conductor (or coil) changes, an emf is induced in it. This change in flux linkages can be obtained in the following two ways: () By either moving the conductor and keeping the magnetic field system stationary or moving the magnetic field system and keeping the conductor stationary, in such a way that conductor ccuts across the magnetic field (as in ease of DC and AC generators). The emf induced in this, way is called dynamically induced emf By changing the flux linking with the coil (or conductor) without moving either coil or field system, However, the change of Flux produced by the field system linking with the coil i obtained by changing the current in the field system (solenoid), asin transformers, The emf induced in this way is called statically induced emf 147 Dynamically Induced emf By cither moving the conductor keeping the magnetic field system stationary or moving the field system keeping the conductor stationary so that flux is eut by the conductor, the emf thus induced in the conductor is called dynamically induced emf Mathematical Expression Considering a conductor of length ! metre placed in the magnetic field of flux density B Wb/m? is moving at right angle tothe field ata velocity v metrehecond as shown in Fig. 1.31 (a. Let the consluctor be moved through a small distance dr mete in time dt second as shown in Fig. 1.31 () — s s 4), s ‘roa swept (e)Conductor movingin (6) Conductor is moving (c)Area swept by (4) Conductors moving Uniform magnetic als “through alstance dx” the conductor atan ang with te field Perpendicular tot Fig. 1.31 Dynamically induced emt 32__Flectrical Machines ‘Area swept by the conductor, A= [x de Flux cut by the conductor, @= Bx A= BI de According to Faraday's Law of electro-magnetic induction; Sueut = $ aie =Blv (since dxdt = v (velocity) Now, if the conductor is moved at an angle @ with the direction of magnetic field ata velocity » metre/second as shown in Fig. 1.31 (d). A small distance covered by the conductor in that direction is dr in time dt second. Then the component of distance perpendicular to the magnetic field, which produces emf, is dx sin 6 Induced emt, € = Area swept by the conductor, A = [x dx sin @ Flux cut by the conductor, ¢ = BX A= BI dx sin 6 Bldesin ain? — Bi vsind Induced emf e = Example 21 A -coil of 500 turns in linked with a flux of 2 mWb. If this flux is reversed in 4 ms, calculate the average emf induced in the coll. sotaton: where, N= 500 turns; d $= 2~(-2)=4 m Wh; dt =4 x 10° 5; 300 V (Ans.) Example 1.22 A coil of 250 turns is wound on a magnetic circuit of reluctance 100000 AT/Wb. Ifa current of 2A ‘flowing in the coil is reversed in 5 ms, find the average emf induced in the coil Soh ¢= mmfireluctance ic., = NUS where, N'= 250; 1= 2A and $= 100000 ATW, 250 x2 Toon =>" WP 49, ‘Average induced emf e = 22 where, ay 10 m Wb (Since current is reversed) 250 10X10" 599 v (ans) 310" Electro Magnetic Circuits 38 1.18 Statically Induced emf ‘When the coil and magnetic field system both are stationary but the magnet field linking with the coil changes (by changing the current producing the field), the emf thus induced in the oil is called statically induced emf ‘The statically induced emf may be: (@)Self induced emt Gi) Mutually induced emf @ Self induced emf: The emf induced in a coil due to the ‘change of flux produced by it linking with its own turns is called self induced emf as shown in Fig, 1.32. ‘The direction of this induced emfis such that it opposes the ‘cause which produces it (Lenz’s law) i., change of current in the coil Since the rate of change of flux linking withthe coil depends upon the rate of change of current in the coil, Therefore, the magnitude of self induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of current in the coil. Therefore, the magnitude of self induced emf is directly proportional to Fig. 1.82. Flux produced by call the rate of change of current in the eoil,ie., linking with its own turns ai ar ex Gt or e= Lot where L is a constant of proportionality and is called self inductance or co-efficient of self inductance or inductance ofthe coil. Gi) Mutually induced emf ‘The emf induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced by another (neighbouring) coil, linking with itis called mutually induced emf as shown in Fig. 1.33. Fig. 1.83. Flux produced by collA inking with coi-B Since the rate of change of flux linking with coil ‘B' depends upon the rate of change of current incoil ‘4’. Therefore, the magnitude of mutually induced emf is directly proportional tothe rate of change of eurrent in coil 4", ie, 34 Flectrical Machines ah, oe yl coe th cee, ul were Mis «constant of proportionality and is called mutual inductance ot co-efficient of ‘mutual inductance 119 Self Inductance The property of a coil due to which it opposes the change of current flowing through itself is called self inductance or inductance of the coil. This property (ie., inductance) is attained by a coil due to self-induced emf produced in the coil itselfby the changing current flowing through it. Ifthe current inthe coil is increasing (by the change in circuit conditions), the self-induced emf is produced in the coil in such a direction so as to oppose the rise of current i. the direction of self-induced emt is opposite to that of the applied voltage. On the other hand, ifthe current in the coil is decreasing, the selfinduced emf is produced in the coil in such direction so as to oppose the fall of current ic, the direction of selfinduced emf is in the ‘same direction as that ofthe applied voltage. In fact, sel inductance does not prevent the change of current but it delays the change of current flowing through a coil, ‘It may be noted that this property of the coil only opposes the changing current (ie., alternating current). However, it does not affect the steady (1, direct) current when flows through it. In other ‘words, the selfinductance of the coil (by virtue of its geometrical and magnetic properties) will exhibit its presence to the alternating current but it will not exhibit its presence tothe direct current, Expressions for self inductance: ara b= giglime «= 12) = Ae[sincee = we = nth T a). wf mM_) ar" ar) Tratigh, (ms Trauca, | 1.20 Mutual Inductance The property of one coil due to which it opposes the change of current inthe other (neighbouring) coil is called mutual-inductance between the two coils This property (ie,, mutual-inductance) is attained by a coil due to mutually induced emf in the coil while current in the neighbouring coil is changing. Expression for mutual inductance: 25d eg = wi) ara a) Nadia © 462 a, 2c og =n SB = wt Ny TT atts, Electro Magnetic Circuits 38 1.21 Co-efficient of Coupling ‘When current flows through one coil, it produces flux (g,). The whole of this flux may not be linking ‘with the other coil coupled to it as shown in Fig, 32. Tt may be reduced, because of leakage flux ¢), by a fraction k known as co-efficient of coupling. Thus, the fraction of magnetic flux produced by the current in one coll that links with the other is known as co-efficient of coupling (k) between the two coils. If the fux produced by one coil completely links with the other, then the value of kis one and the coils are said to be magnetically tightly coupled. Whereas, ifthe flux produced by one coil docs not ink atall withthe other, then the value of kis zero and the coils ae said to be magnetically isolated Mathematical expression: Considering the magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 1.34, When current /, flows through coil-1; Nida _ Nake — iO and ar ale bee 1, = TB and r= 3° 7 0 (¥ a = ky) Fig. 1.84, Flux produced by one callinking with the other Now considering coil-2 carrying current fy Nx M8 and A (2 bn = ko) or = kia iy ‘The above expression gives a relation between mutual-inductance between the two coils and their respective self inductances, Expression (if) can also be written as, 36 Flectrical Machines 1.22 Inductances in Series and Parallel Consider two coils magnetically coupled having self‘inductance of L, and Ly respectively, and a ‘mutual-induetance of M henry, The two coils, in an electrical cireuit, may be connected in different ‘ways giving different values of resultant inductance as given below: Inductances in series: ‘The two coils may be connected in series in the following two ways: (When their fields (or mmfs.) are additive ie. their fluxes are setup in the same direction as shown in Fig. 1.35 In this case, the inductance of each coil is increased by Mie., ‘Total inductance, L, +L, 42M Gi) When their fields (or mms) are subtractive i., their fluxes are setup in opposite direction as shown in Fig. 1.36, In this ease, the inductance of each coil is decreased by M, ie., ‘Total inductance, Lp = (Ly -M) + (Ly-M) =, +1,-2M. L,+M) + (L, +) Note: it ay be noted that cretion of fild protuced by acolis denoted by placing a Dotat the side atwhich current enters (or flux enters the core), see Fig 1.35 and 1.36. Fig. 1.35. Inductances in series having field in ‘Fg. 1.88 Inductances in series wit field in same direction opposite direction Inductances in parallel: The two coils may be connected in parallel in the following two ways: (When the fields (or mmts) produced by them are in the same direction as shown in Fig. 1.37, IyL, - M? Total inductance, Ly= PAP Fig. 1.37 Inductances connected in parallel fields Fig. 1.88 Inductances in parallel felds are in are in same direction opposite direction Electro Magnetic Circuits 37 (G®) When the fields (or mmf) produced by them are in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 1.38 Total inductance, L, umple 1.23 Accoil has 1500 turns. A current of 4A causes a flux of 8 mWb to link the coil. Find the selfinductance of the coil Solution: Indastane otc, = 8 wher N= 1500; $=8 x 10 Wo and /=4 A. p= 1500x8x10 4 3M (Ans) Example 1.24 Calculate the value of emf induced in circuit having an inductance of 700 micro-henry ifthe current flowing through it varies at a rate of 5000 A per second. Solution: Inductance of the coil, L = 700x 10-° H Magnitude of emf induced in the coil, dl dt 100 x 10-® x 5000 = 35 V (Ans) Example 1.25 Anair cored solenoid has 300 turns its length is 25 em and its cross section is 3 em. Caleulate the selfinductance is henvy. Solut No. of turns of the solenoid, V Length of solenoid, J Area of eross section, a = 3 em? =3 x 10m’ For air core, 1, Inductance of the solenoid, L 300 x 300 “os = 041375 mH (Ans) x 3x10 x4 x 107 38__Flectrical Machines umple 1.26 Calculate the inductance of toroid, 25 em mean diameter and 6.25 emt circular cross-section wound uniformly with 1000 turns of wire. Hence calculate the emf induced when current init increases at the rate of 100 Adsecond. Son Inductance of the toroid, L= where, No. of turns, 1V = 1000 turns D= Mean length 1 = 25 xm; Area of cross-section, a = 625 x 10-* m? and Relative permeability, 1, L = (1000)? x 625 x 10 x4 nx 10°? x 025 x mH (Ans) Induced emf, e X10 x 100 = O-4 V (Ans.) ample 1.27 The iron core of a choke has mean length 25 cm with an air gap of I mm. The choke is designed for dan inductance of 15 H when operating at a flux density of 1 Wb/n®. The iron core has a relative permeability of 3000 and 8 em? area of cross-section, Determine the required number of turns of the coi Solution: Inductance of the coil, L= NH where 5, is the total reluctance of the magnetic circuit Look ay H, aH 0.25 ,—_1x10* = —— 025, IO L761 at Bx10 x4 1077x3000 BXIO x4 x107 Now. N = VIS x 1077612 1020'S turns (Ans) Example 1.28 Two coils have a mutual inductance of 0-6 H. If current in one coil is varied from 4.10 1 Ain 02 second, calculate (i) the average emf induced in the other coil and (i) the change of flux linking the later assuming that iris wound with 150 turns. Solution: ‘Mutually induced emt, eae Electro Magnetic Cirewits 39. 3 A and dt where, M=06H;d/, 028 06 x 310.2 =9 V (Ans) Now, v, Me 2 dt ewXdt _ 9X0-2 Change of fax with second col, dy = 24 — 22-2 = 12 mWvb (Ans) Example 1.29 Two coils having 100 and 50 turns respectively are wound on a core with w= 4000 pi, Effective core length = 60 cm and core area =9.cm*. Find the mutual inductance between the coils. Solution: Ny Na wa 7 0; = 4000 1,; 1 = 60 em = 60 x 10m; We know that, Mutual Inductance Mf whet 100; N, 100%50% 4000 fy x9%10~* x10? 100 x 50 x 4000 x 4u0 x 9 x 107 377 mH (Ans. 60 x 107 (ans) umple 1.30 Awooden ring has mean diameter of 150mm anda cross-sectional area of 250 mm, Itis wound with 1500 turns of insulated wire. A second coil of 900 turns in wound on the top ofthe frst. Assuming ‘that all flux produced by the first coil links with the second, calculate the mutual inductance. Son Mutual-inductance, —-M Hg xD where, N; = 1500; N,= 900; 1S wm;a=250 x 10° m?; p= 1 1500 900 5. 959 510° x 4a x 10°? x1 = 0-9 mH Ans: M = 15007900 5.250 « 10-6 x 4 10"? 1 = 0-9 mH (Ans) Example 1.31 Two coils A and B of 600 and 1000 turns respectively are connected in series on the same magnetic circuit of reluctance 2 x 10° AT/Wb. Assuming that there is no flux leakage, calculate (i) self- inductance of each coil; (ii) mutual inductance between the two coils. What would be the mutual inductance ifthe co-efficient of coupling is 75%. Solution: Self inductance of eoil A, wiis 40 Electrical Machines where 1, = 600 and S = 2x 108 ATIWb, = (6007/2 x 10° = 0-48 H (Ans) Similarly, 1000)"/2 x 106 = 0-5 H (Ans.) Mutual inductan M= {hb when k=1;M=1 V0.18 0.5 =0-3H (Ans) when k= 075, M=075 VO. x05 = 0225 H (Ans) Two air-cored coils are placed close to each other so that 80% of the flux of one coil links with the other. Each coil has mean diameter of 2 cm and a mean length of 50 cm. If there are 1800 turns of wire on one coil, calculate the number of turns on the other coil to give a mutual inductance of 15 mH Solution: 1 0-5 Ha Hr Fx(@- 02)? x4 x10 x1 Reluctance, 2665 x 10° ATIWb Now L,= NPIS andL,= NBS ly =N,Nys Also M= kJ Ely =kN,NJS where M = 15 x 10 H; N, = 1800; k= 0-8; 15 x 10 = 08 x 1800 x N,/12665 x 10° 153x107 x1 - 266510" or AAO TOSS AIO" = 13193 turns (Ans) Example 1.33 Two coils with negligible resistance and of self inductance of 02 H and 0-1 H respectively are connected in series. If their mutual inductance is 0-1 H, determine the effective inductance of the combination. Solution: ‘Total inductance of the (wo coils when connected in series; £2M=02+0142x0- 1S H or 0-1 H (Ans) The combined inductance of two coils connected in series is 0-6 H and 0-1 H depending upon the relative direction of currents in the coils. Ifone of the coils when isolated has a self inductances of 02H, calculate the mutual inductance of the coils and the self inductance of the other coil. Electro Magnetic Cirewits 41 Solution: ‘The combined inductance of the two coils when connected in series; “ io) Subtracting equation (i) from (i), we get, 4M = 05 or M= 0425 H (Ans.) From equation (ij L, +1, -2 0125 =04 or L, +1, =035 H Self inductance of one coil, Ly = 02H Self inductance of second coil, L, = 025-02 = 048 H (Ans) xample 1.35 Two coils of selfinductance 120 mH and 250 mH and mutual inductance of 100 mH are connected in parallel. Determine the equivalent inductance of combination if) mutual flux helps the individual fluxes and (ii) mutual flux opposes the individual fluxes. Solution: When mutual flux helps the individual fluxes; Ljt,-M? _ 120x250 ~ (100) T¥ b= 2M 12+ 250-2100 17-65 mH (Ans) Gi) When mutual flux opposes the individual fluxes, 120 x 250 = 100) 120+ 250-42 x100 35-088 m H (Ans) 1.23 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field ‘When some electrical energy is supplied to a coil, itis spent in two ways: © A part of itis spent to meet? R Joss which is dissipated in the form of heat and cannot be recovered (i) "Theremaining partis used to create magnetic feld around the coil andis stored inthe magnetic field. When this field collapses, the stored energy is released by the coil and is returned tothe circuit ‘The energy stored in the magnetic field is given by the expression: Energy stored in magnetic field = 517° xample 1.36 A solenoid of I m in length and 10 cm in diameter has 5000 turns, Calculate the energy in the ‘magnetic field when a current of 2A flows in the solenoid. 42__Flectrical Machines Solution: Inductance of the solenoid, AP X aah, where, N= 5000; a =n d2/4 = 25 mx 10- m?; P= 1 mu, = L= ($000)? x 25 nx 10-4 4 x x 10-7 x 1/1 = 02467 H Energy stored = 4934 J (Ans) typed 2 SUP = 4x0. 246700)? = 1.24 AC Excitation in Magnetic Circuits ‘To magnetise the magnetic circuits of electrical devices such as transformers, AC machines, electromagnetic relays, ete., AC supply is used, The magnetisation of magnetic circuits is called their excitation, The magnetic circuits are never excited by DC supply, because in case of DC excitation the steady. state current is determined by the impressed voltage and resistance of the circuit, The inductance ‘of the coil comes into picture only during transient period i,, when the current is building-up or decaying during switching (ON or OFF) instants. The magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit adjusts itselfin accordance with this steady value of current so thatthe rlationship imposed by magnctisation (B-H) curve in satisfied. However, with AC excitation, inductance comes into picture even at steady. state condition. As a result for most of the magnetic circuits (not fr all) the flux is determined by the impressed voltage and frequency. Then the magnetisation current adjusts itself in accordance with this flux so thatthe relationship imposed by the magnetisation (B-H) curve is satisfied Usually, for economic reasons, the normal working flux density in a magnetic circuit is kept beyond the linear portion of the magnetisation curve thus accurate analysis cannot be predicted for determining self inductance. However, for all practical purposes the parameters of the magnetic circuit are considered to be constant. Magnetic ‘The reactive effectof the alternatively fux set- reat up by the exciting current can readily be shown as per Faraday’ laws ic, Ring of magnetic ‘material dy Na Consider & magnetic core which is excited by a coil (winding) having turns and carying a current of i ampere as shown in Fig. 139. A ragnetic flux gis set-up by the exciting current ‘i. Let the magnetic flux 9 varies sinusoidally with respect to time then its instantaneous value is gig. 1.39 Magneticcore excited by AC sien bythe relation: = 4, sin oF = 4, sin 2m ft “ Electro Magnetic Circuits 43 where, §,, = maximum value of alternating flux f= frequency of supply impressed across the col The induced emf'in the coil 0 _yd tov, sin2x f) AN 4, cos ft = 2nfN 4 sin (2nft + 2) “i “The value of induced em will be maximum when cos 2nft= I therfore B= 201 by Its effective orm. vale, Fy _28INe aap Egy = ene 7 by Equation (i) and (i) reveal that the induced em leads the flux and hence the exciting current by J Tadian or 90°, This induced emy and the coil resistance drop oppose the applied voltage. In case of electrical machines, usually the drop in resistance in only a few percent of applied voltage and therefore, neglected for lose approximation. Thus, the induced em E and applied voltage V may be considered equal in magnitude. umple 1.37 For the AC excited magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 40. Calculate the excitation current and induced emf ofthe coil to produce a core flux of 06 sin 314 1 mWb, gegen = 15mm #5 em —— Fig. 1.40 Magnetic core excited by AC Son 6 sin 3141 mWb Here, #=¢, sin © Maximum value of flux, , Area of x-section, a Flux density, B, 44 Flectrical Machines Smm=15x 107 m Length of air gap, f, Length tion pth, = 25-23 45-233) 2 018 ~ 107-85em 0785 m Bay Ba, Total ampere-turns required, AT, I I Hy * Hob 0-657x1- 5x10" | 0-671 0785 4nx10 4mx107 x3775, 163 + 151 ‘Maximum value of excitation current required, 948 1,> Te S8 = 1996.4 RMS value of excitation current, 1.896 ns ee) RMS valuc of induced emt inthe coil, Ey, = 444 /N ty 314 449> 270° @ o Fig. 1.46 Torque development at various positions of soft iron plece placed in the magnetic field IF the soft iron piece is rotated through an angle @ (@-< 90°), then by magnetic induction ends A ‘and B become North and South poles respectively. A force of attraction acts on the two ends and the soft iron piece will try to come in line with the main field ie., the position of least reluctance path, This anticlockwise torque tries to decrease the angle @ and is considered as negative. [See Fig. 1.46 (@)]. When soft iron piece is rotated through an angle @= 90°, an equal force of attraction and repulsion acts on each end of short iron piece [see Fig. 1.46 ()], therefore, torque produced is Electro Magnetic Cirewits $1 zer0, This isthe unstable position of the soft iron piece, because a slight change in angle @in either direction wall ereate a torque in that direction. When soft iron piece is rotated through an angle @ (@> 90°), then by magnetic induction ends A and B become South and North poles respectively. A force of attraction acts on the ends and soft iron piece will try to come in line with the main field ‘This clockwise torque tries to inerease the angle and is considered as positive [See Fig. 1.46 (0 ‘When soft iron piece is rotated through an angle @= 180°, then by magnetic induction ends A and £B will obtain South and North polarity respectively [see Fig. 146 (d) There isa force of attraction tends A as well as at B of soft iron piece which being equal and opposite cancel each other. In this position, torque produced is zero. This is the stable position, because any change in angle 0 will create a Corque which will tend to restore it position Following the similar explanation, the torque produced in the soft iron piece for various positions between 180° 10 360° ie, 180° < 8< 360° can be determined. ‘When 270° > > 180°, torque produce is negative (anticlockwise) as shown in Fig. 1.46 (0) ‘When 9= 270°, torque produced is zero, and itis an unstable position as shown in Fig. 1.46 (/. When360° > @> 270", torque produced is positive (clockwise) as shown in Fig. 146 (g) When 8= 360°, torque produced is zero and itis a stable position In fact, when a solt iron piece is placed in the magnetic field, by magnetic induction iron piece is magnetised, The magnetised iron piece produces its own field, the axis of that field is shown by arrow head F, The axis of the main magnetic ficld is shown by the arrowhead F,,. The rotor field F, tries to come in line with F,, due to which torque develops. Hence, it can be said that torque is developed by the alignment of two fields, The angle between two magnetic fields on which torque depends is called torque angle. This torque angle is measured with respect to the direction to the direction of rotation of soft iron picce. "Thus, iis concluded that the torque is a function of torque angle 8, The variation of torque with respect to angle 0s shown in Fig. 147. T Fig. 1.47 Wave diagram of torque produced in sot iron piece 1.27.2 Permanent Magnet Placed in the Magnetic Field Consider a permanent magnet capable of free rotation, placed in the magnetic Field of wo permanent ‘magnets as shown in Fig, 1.48 (@). There isa force of attraction on north and south pole ofthe rotating ‘magnet, which being equal and opposite cancel each other. In this position, torque produced is zero S2__Flectrical Machines because the field of rotating magnet Frand the field of stationary permanent magnet Fim ate in line with each other. When the rotating magnet in rotated through in angle 6 @ being less than 90, equal to 90° more than 90° but less than 180°), its north pole will be attracted towards the south pole and south pole will be attracted towards the north pole of permanent stationary magnets [see Fig. 1.48 (b), (©) and. @ respectively) In other words, we can say thatthe rotor field F, tries to come in line with main field F,, and torque is developed. This anticlockwise torque is considered as negative, because it is decreasing the torque angle 6, ‘When the permanent rotating magnet is rotated through an angle 0 = 180°, the two field F, and F, are in Tine with each other but acting in opposite direction [see Fig, 1.48 (@)], therefore, torque developed is zero but this isthe unstable position because slight change in angle @in cither direction ‘will ereate a torque in that direction and the rotor will not regain its original position, ip 148, Coma Electro Magnetic Circuits $3 -s Fig. 1.48 Permanent magnet in magnetic field ‘When the permanent rotating magnet i rotated through an angle @more than 180°, but less than 360° (1c, Bis ess than 270°, equal to 270", more than 270°), its north and south poles will be attracted towards the south and north poles of the permanent stationary magnets respectively [see Figs. 48 (),() and (t respeotvely- In other words, F, will ry to come inline with F, and thus torque is

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