Moog technical report

Key takeaways

Electro-hydrostatic actuation
∑

combines the advantages of

hydraulic and electric actuation:
high force capabilities, energy
efficiency and fail-safe options
ELECTRO-HYDROSTATIC ACTUATION Electro-hydrostatic actuators
∑

are designed in compact and

modular units with self-contained
hydraulic systems characterized
Dr.-Ing. Achim Helbig by environmental cleanliness
as well as easy integration,
Moog commissioning and maintenance
Innovation Projects Manager As an experienced manufacturer
∑

of all components of an electro-

hydrostatic actuator, we are able
to customize the technology to
best meet our clients‘ specific
needs

June 2012

1. Introduction

Actuators are used in machinery, plant manufacturing and

transportation in order to move parts of a machine. Typically,
this means extending or retracting an axis. There are three main
techniques to carry out the motion: electro-mechanic, hydraulic
and electro-hydrostatic.
The aim of this White Paper is to give an overview of actuation
technologies with a focus on electro-hydrostatic actuation for
linear motion. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of each actuation system, aiming at providing guidance for
technology selection from a technologically neutral point of
view. The ultimate decision for an actuation technology strongly
depends on the specific application.
When deciding on an actuation technology, investors usually take
the following technical requirements into consideration:
• Force, velocity capability
• Energy efficiency
• Safety and reliability
• Environmental cleanliness
• Actuator weight and dimensions
Recent trends in engineering and machinery have triggered the
development of new actuation solutions. From our perspective, the
most important of these trends is an increased focus on total cost
of ownership. Operating costs and especially energy costs play a
crucial role when planning investments and selecting a technology.
For this reason, energy efficiency is one of the most important
decision criteria.

WHAT MOVES YOUR WORLD

In response to these developments, we recognize a trend mechanical power. This makes hydraulic systems highly
towards integrated hydraulic and electric systems as the dynamic. The high supply pressure level is maintained even
most energy efficient solution. Such solutions are often when only part load is required or when the axis remains
designed in a modular and compact way with self-contained static. Hydraulic power which is not used as mechanical
hydraulic systems. power is being absorbed by the hydraulic oil in form of heat.
Consequently, hydraulic systems lack energy efficiency and
In this White Paper, we explain the functionality of electro-
usually require active cooling.
hydrostatic actuation and how this technology combines
most of the advantages of electro-mechanical and hydraulic
actuation. For many applications it is crucial that a system 2.3 Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation
works even in the event of unforeseen circumstances such as Electro - Hydrostatic Actuation

power failures. In response to this, we provide an overview

of possible methods to implement a fail-safe operation. L1
L2
~ =

Moreover, we give brief insights into possible applications

L3 = ~
PE

Electric Power Supply

focusing on the energy generation and machinery businesses.
At the end of this paper, we outline Moog’s approach Frequency Converter Servo Motor Pump Cylinder & Axis Axis

to developing customized actuation solutions in close

Movement:
cooperation with our clients. Electric to Mechanic
Power Conversion Hydrostatic Transmission Extend/
Retract

Figure 2.3: Principle of electro-hydrostatic actuation

2. Actuation Technologies
The electro-hydrostatic actuator (EHA) converts power
from electric to hydraulic to mechanic. An electric servo
In the following, we give a brief overview of the most
motor drives a bidirectional, variable speed pump which
important actuation technologies: electro-mechanical,
is connected to the two chambers of a hydraulic cylinder.
hydraulic and electro-hydrostatic. At the end of this
Depending on the flow, the axis is extended or retracted. In
paragraph, we summarize the advantages and disadvantages
contrast to the hydraulic system, the power control is done
of each system.
by the pump. Varying the speed of the pump means varying
the flow and thus the hydraulic power. The pressures in the
2.1 Electro-Mechanical Actuation chambers are load-dependent. This enables the electro-
Electro – Mechanical Actuation
hydrostatic actuator to use energy most efficiently and
deliver power on demand.
L1
L2
L3
~
=
=
~
Due to the energy efficiency of the system, the hydraulic
PE

oil only absorbs little heat. Heating is typically in the range

Electric Power Supply

of only 40°C. Convection cooling is usually sufficient for

Frequency Converter Servo Motor Gearbox Ball Screw Axis
an electro-hydrostatic actuator. This allows designers to
Movement:
build compact, modular units with a self-contained hydraulic
Electric to Mechanic
Power Conversion
Mechanical Transmission Extend/
Retract system. The oil of such an actuator ages very little and does
not usually need to be changed during the entire lifetime of
Figure 2.1: Principle of electro-mechanical actuation
the system.
Due to the compressibility of the hydraulic fluid, it shows
The electro-mechanical actuator extends or retracts the
less stiffness than an electro-mechanical system. However,
axis electrically. The rotary movement provided by the
the design is highly flexible, various layouts are possible and
electric servo motor is transmitted by mechanical gearing
it can be adjusted to carry out serial movements of several
and converted into linear movement by a ball or roller screw.
axes.
As with all mechanical gearings, there is the drawback of
backlash and the risk of jamming.
2.4 Comparison of the actuation technologies
2.2 Hydraulic Actuation
Hydraulic Actuation
In the table below, we have summarized the advantages and
disadvantages of the three main actuation technologies.

Type of Actuator Electro-Mechanical Electro-Hydrostatic Hydraulic

Electric Power Supply

• High energy • High energy • High forces

efficiency efficiency • No backlash
Motor Pump & Reservoir Control Valve Cylinder Axis
• Easy mounting/ • High power density • High reliability
installation & com- • Environmental • Energy storage
Movement:
Electric to Hydraulic Hydraulic to Mechanic missioning cleanliness
Power Conversion Power Conversion
Extend/
Retract
• Possibility of
Advantages • Easy maintenance • Easy mounting/ parallel move-
• Low noise emission integration & ments
Figure 2.2: Principle of hydraulic actuation • Well suited for commissioning
rotary actuation • Low noise
emission
An asynchronous motor drives a pump, thus converting • No backlash
electric power to hydraulic power. A proportional valve • Mechanical • Limited stiffness • Energy efficiency
gearbox can block
controls the flow to the chambers of a hydraulic cylinder. • Single or serial • Additional power
Disadvantages • Backlash movements only unit needed
Depending on the flow direction, the axis is extended or • Single movement • Complex piping
retracted. The system supply pressure is kept constantly at only • Risk of leakage
a high pressure level which is necessary to realize maximum
Table 1: Comparison of actuation technologies

2 Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation I Achim Helbig

3. The Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation and Fail-safe (blue) is connected to chamber B. The pressure difference
Techniques results in forces moving the axis. To move the axis to the
left, the pump’s direction of rotation is reversed, resulting in
This paragraph describes the functionality and possible reversion of pressure line and suction side.
layouts of an EHA. The easy implementation of fail-safe
functions is a future feature of an EHA. Therefore, we are 3.2 Unbalanced electro-hydrostatic actuator
emphasizing on the illustration of possible techniques to
implement fail-safe operation modes. Chamber A Chamber B

1
3.1 Balanced electro-hydrostatic actuator
Chamber A
Unbalanced EHA
Chamber B
F
1 1 Hydraulic cylinder
2
3
Radial piston pump
Motor
F 2

4 Check valve
5 Low pressure reservoir
2
High pressure 2 1
MediumBalanced
pressure
Low pressure
EHA Unbalanced EHA
F
1 Hydraulic
Gas low pressure cylinder
reservoir 1 Hydraulic cylinder
3 3
2
Gas fail safe Radial piston pump
accumulator 2 Radial piston pump
2
3 Motor 3 Motor
4 Check valve 4 Check valve
5 Low pressure reservoir 5 Low pressure reservoir
High pressure 3 High pressure
4
Medium pressure Medium pressure
4
Low pressure Low pressure
Gas low pressure reservoir Gas low pressure reservoir
Gas fail safe accumulator Gas fail-safe accumulator
5
4
5

Figure 3.1: Balanced electro-hydrostatic actuator Figure 3.2: Unbalanced electro-hydrostatic actuator

5
A balanced electro-hydrostatic actuator as shown in Figure Figure 3.2 shows an EHA whose chambers A and B have
3.1 is characterized by a hydraulic cylinder with two or more unequal volumes. Such unbalanced actuators are used in
chambers (A and B) with equal volumes. A bidirectional, variable most applications. The functionality is principally the same
speed, fixed displacement pump is driven by an electric servo as of the balanced actuator. There is just one difference:
motor. The hydraulic system is self-contained: the hydraulic since the volumes of the chambers are unequal, hydraulic oil
oil is contained in a closed circuit and stored in a pre-charged needs to be stored into and supplied from the accumulator in
accumulator which is partly filled with oxygen. The axis velocity greater quantity. The flow balance of a differential cylinder
is proportional to the speed of the radial piston pump. In order can be realized by a double stage pump.
to realize a hydrostatic gearbox, a four quadrants pump is
In order to e.g. extend the axis, both pumps are connected to
needed. The pressures in the cylinder chambers depending on
chamber A. Pump number 1 moves hydraulic oil from chamber
the load force.
B to A, pump number 2 supplies the missing oil volume from
In order to move the axis to the right, the pressure line (red) the piston accumulator to chamber A.
of the pump is connected to chamber A while the suction side

Facts about Pumps

Slipper pads and pistons Star-shaped cylinder block

Mounting flange Stroke ring

Drive shaft

Control piston Bias piston

Control Journal Housing
Shaft bearing Pressure compensator

High pressure Low pressure Control pressure

A radial piston pump that is commonly used in Moog’s electro-

hydrostatic actuators.

The energy efficiency of an electro-hydrostatic system largely Comparison of two motor and pump systems at zero, part and maximum load [5]
depends on the characteristics of the pump. For this reason, we give
a short summary of pump and motor systems’ efficiency.
This chart shows that the combination of an electric servo motor and a variable
In order to control the power output of an electro-hydrostatic system, speed, fixed displacement pump has a
it is necessary to control the flow. better efficiency in most cases. This especially occurs for zero load and part
This can be done in two ways: using either a fixed speed variable load situations. For this reason, Moog’s electro-hydrostatic actuation systems
displacement pump or a variable speed fixed displacement pump. are equipped with variable speed, fixed displacement pumps.

3 Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation I Achim Helbig

3.3 Fail-safe techniques Fail-safe mode

For many applications, it is crucial to ensure operability of Chamber C Chamber A Chamber B

the system even in the event of unforseen circumstances, e.g.
1
electric power failures. A mode of operation
Balancedwhich
EHA is supposed x
to work under any conditions is called fail-safe operation.
Fail-Safe Movement

An example to illustrate the idea: In the1electric power

Balanced cylinder
F
generation business, steam turbines need to with
bethird chamber
protected
from damage by overspeed e.g. in case of 2 generator power
2/2 way valve 11
grid failure. In this case, the steam supply
3 has
3/2to be
way stopped
valve
7
immediately. Fail-safe process valves accomplish
4 Throttle the task:
3 2
they close even when electric power supply5 is interrupted.
Radial piston pump 5
Motor
Regarding fail-safe modes of operation,6 there are three
different types of behaviors of the axis: Pilot operated pressure
7
4
relief valve 6
8 1
• Firstly, the axis can be moved to a targeted
8 position.
Check valve In a Balanced EHA
hydraulic or electro-hydrostatic system,
9 it ispressure
Low e.g. possible
reservoir Fail-Safe Movement
to fully extend or retract an axis using
10theFail
power of a pre-
safe accumulator 1 Balanced cylinder
charged hydraulic accumulator. 11 Pilot pressure line with third chamber

10 9 2 2/2 way valve 11

• Secondly, for some applications it is necessary to passivate
3 3/2 way valve
the axis. This is achieved by connecting the chambers A and 4 Throttle
B of a hydraulic cylinder, resulting in the elimination of all Unbalanced
5 RadialEHA
piston pump
3

forces on the axis. Unbalanced

6 1
Motor EHA
Balanced EHA 1
7 Hydraulic
Pilot cylinder
operated pressure
• Thirdly, there are applications where the axis needs to be Fail-Safe Movement relief valve 4
1
2 Hydraulic
Radial cylinder
piston pump
locked in a certain position in the event of a power failure. 1 Balanced cylinder 8
2 Check
Radialvalve
piston pump
3 Motor
with third chamber
In the following, we describe a way to implement fail-safe 9
3
4 Low
Motor
Checkpressure
valve reservoir
2 2/2 way valve 11Fail safe accumulator
operation for a electro-hydrostatic actuator. In our example, 10
4
5 Check
Low valve reservoir
pressure
3 3/2 way valve 11 Pilot pressure line
the desired fail-safe movement is the full extension of the 4 Throttle
5 Low pressure
Fail-safe reservoir
pressure
High 10
axis. 3 pressure 2
5 Radial piston pump 5
Medium pressure
6 Motor
Low pressure
7 Pilot operated pressure
Gas low pressure reservoir
3.4 Modes of operation relief valve 4 6
Gas fail-safe 8accumulator
8 Check valve
9 Low pressure reservoir
This paragraph describes an EHA which is designed for a fail-
Figure 3.3:10 Fail safe
Balanced accumulator
electro-hydrostatic actuator: fail safe mode of operation
safe operation. In order to carry out the fail safe movement – 11 Pilot pressure line
fully extending the axis – the actuator is equipped with a high- 10 9
pressure piston accumulator. The hydraulic cylinder has three Figure 3.3 shows an actuator in the fail-safe mode of
chambers, one of which is only used for fail-safe purposes. operation. In this mode, the main functionality is connecting
This paragraph describes the modes of operation of such a the high-pressure accumulator to chamber C of the hydraulic
system: cylinder. In chamber C the pressure is now higher than in the
• Fail-Safe mode: extending the axis using power from the other two chambers, resulting in forces which extend the axis.
high-pressure accumulator The connection of the high-pressure accumulator and chamber
C is done by a 3/2 way valve which is in spring position.
• Standard mode: extending or retracting the axis using
electric power The advantage of the layout lies in the independence of the
fail-safe circuit from the rest of the hydraulic system. A
• Charging mode: refilling the high-pressure accumulator possible damage to the chambers A and B, the pump or the
motor does not affect the fail-safe functionality.

4 Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation I Achim Helbig

 Standard mode Charging mode
Chamber C Chamber A Chamber B Chamber C Chamber A Chamber B

1 1
x
Balanced EHA
Accumulator Recharge F
1 Balanced cylinder
F
with third chamber
11 2 2/2 way valve 11
3 3/2 way valve
7 7
4 Throttle
3 2 Radial piston pump 3 2
p 5 5 5
6 Motor
ssure 7 Pilot operated pressure
4 6 relief valve 4 6
8 1 8 1
8 Check valve
Balanced EHA x
Balanced EHA
voir Low Movement
9Fail-Safe pressure reservoir Fail-Safe Movement

tor 101 Fail safe accumulator

Balanced cylinder 1
F
Balanced cylinder
11 with pressure
Pilot third chamber
line with third chamber

10 9 2 2/2 way valve 11 10 9 2 2/2 way valve 11

3 3/2 way valve 3 3/2 way valve
7
4 Throttle 1 4 Throttle
3 3
FEHA
Unbalanced
5 RadialEHA
piston pump 1 2 Unbalanced
5 RadialEHA
piston pump
5

Balanced EHA
Unbalanced
6
1
1
Motor EHA
Hydraulic cylinder Balanced EHAx
Unbalanced
6
1
1
Motor
F
Hydraulic cylinder
7 Pilot operated pressure 7 Pilot operated pressure
Fail-Safe Movement 4 Fail-Safe Movement 4
1 Balanced cylinder
1
2
8
2
3
relief
Radial
Check
valve
Hydraulic
Radialvalve
Motor
cylinder
piston pump
piston pump 1
28 F
Balanced cylinder
6 1
2
8
2
3
relief
Radial
Check
valve
Hydraulic
Radialvalve
Motor
cylinder
piston pump
piston pump
2
with third chamber Low pressure with third chamber
9
3
4 Motor
Check valve reservoir 9
3
4 Low
Motor
Checkpressure
valve reservoir
2 2/2 way valve 10 11Fail safe accumulator 2 2/2 way valve 10 11Fail safe accumulator
4
5 Check
Low valve reservoir
pressure 4
5 Check
Low valve reservoir
pressure
3 3/2 way valve 11 Pilot pressure line 3 3/2 way valve 11 Pilot pressure line
5 Low pressure
Fail-safe reservoir
pressure 5 Low pressure
Fail-safe reservoir
pressure
72
4 Throttle 4
10 Throttle 9 10
High
3 pressure 2 High
3 pressure
5 Radial piston pump 2 5 Radial piston pump 2
Medium pressure 5 Medium pressure 5
6 Motor 6 Motor
Low pressure Low pressure
3
7 Pilot operated pressure 7 Pilot operated pressure
4 Gas low pressure reservoir 3 valve 4 Gas low pressure reservoir
relief valve 6 relief 6
Gas fail-safe 8accumulator Gas fail-safe 8accumulator
8 Check valve 8 Check valve
9 Low pressure reservoir 9 Low pressure reservoir
Figure 3.4: Fail safe accumulator
10 Balanced electro-hydrostatic actuator: standard mode of operation Fail safe electro-hydrostatic
10 Balanced
Figure 3.5: accumulator actuator: charging mode of operation
11 Pilot pressure line 11 Pilot pressure line
4
10 9 10 9
4
In the standard mode of operation as shown in Figure 3.4, In the charging mode, as illustrated in Figure 3.5, the pump
the pump delivers the hydraulic oil from chamber A to B. delivers hydraulic oil from the low-pressure accumulator to
Chamber C is connected to the low-pressure accumulator. the high-pressure accumulator
5 The 3/2 way valve as well as
This connection is established by the 3/2 way valve which is in the 2/2 way valve is5 in energized position. The axis remains
energized position. static.

Figure 3.6: Moog’s electro-hydrostatic actuator

5 Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation I Achim Helbig

Communication Layout

Machine Cabinet Axis Cabinet Actuator

Communication Layout
PLC Motion Control Frequency Converter
Machine Cabinet Axis Cabinet
P Actuator
X0
PLC M0 Motion Control Frequency Converter

P
W-X I L1 ~ =
X1 M0 X0
M1
M0 + L2
L3 = ~
X1 M0 W-X I L1 ~ PE
=
+ L2
X2 M1
D L3 = ~
T0 PE
X2 D
T0

motor temperature, motor position feedback

motor temperature, motor position feedback

hydraulic oil temperature, pressures, axis position feedback

hydraulic oil temperature, pressures, axis position feedback

Client Moog
Figure 3.7: Communication layout and control philosophy for an electro-hydrostatic actuator

Client Moog

3.5 Control of the electro-hydrostatic actuator Electro-hydrostatic actuation technology can be applied for
different applications and e.g. for power generation.
An electro-hydrostatic actuator is powered by electric energy. Beside energy efficiency, one of the crucial needs of the power
The hydraulic system is self-contained there is no need for an generation business is the ability to protect the turbine in the
external hydraulic power supply. case of overload or electric shutdown. Therefore the fail-safe
Figure 3.7 illustrates the communication layout and control option is for these applications mandatory.
architecture for the actuator. At the client’s side, the machine Even if the control of the turbine can also be carried out
cabinet is used to define the parameters for the movement by electro-mechanical or hydraulic actuation, the electro-
of the axis, thus customizing the motion. Moog designed the hydrostatic technology has considerable advantages over both
axis cabinet containing a motion controller and a frequency these alternatives:
converter and the actuator itself.
Advantages of electro-hydrostatic actuation compared to
The control philosophy is based on two interdependent closed- hydraulic actuation:
loop systems:
• Significant energy saving during standard operation
• The frequency converter receives feedback concerning the
• Greatly reduced risk of oil leaks and fire hazards as the
motor temperature and position. Based on this feedback,
system is self contained and the volume of the hydraulic oil
the frequency converter controls the speed of the electric
is reduced compared to hydraulic actuation
servo motor.
• Easy maintenance since the actuator gets a life-time filling
• The motion controller receives feedback concerning the
of hydraulic oil
hydraulic circuit and the axis: temperature and pressure
values of the hydraulic oil as well as the position and velocity Advantages of electro-hydrostatic actuation compared to
of the axis. Based on this feedback, the motion controller electro-mechanical actuation:
gives input to the frequency converter which adjusts the • The fail-safe options of an electro-hydrostatic actuator are
speed of the motor if necessary. more cost and energy efficient
Moog’s EHA are equipped with synchronous motors which are • The fail-safe mode is less maintenance intensive and
characterized by their low motor inertia and high torque, which independent from the standard mode of operation, thus
positively effects the dynamic behavior. providing a real redundancy

4. Applications for Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation 4.1 Applications examples

Technology
In close cooperation with our clients, we are currently
Electro-hydrostatic actuation technology is especially developing actuators for other types of applications; such as:
advantageous in these cases: Gas and steam turbines
• When high forces or high gear ratios are required • Fail-safe options are very important for manufacturers of
• When energy efficiency is important turbines.

• When environmental cleanliness plays a crucial role Plastic machines and die casting

• When fail-safe operation is necessary • Energy efficiency plays a crucial role: since the machines
remain for a considerable amount of time in zero load or
part load modes, electro-hydrostatic actuation is far more
energy efficient than hydraulic actuation.
• Environmental cleanliness is also an advantage as the self-
contained electro-hydrostatic actuation system greatly
reduces the risk of leakages of hydraulic oil.

6 Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation I Achim Helbig

Transportation: tilting trains
• Electro-hydrostatic actuators enable the train to tilt when
driving around bends.
• The fail safe move which returns the train to the upright
position is implemented by connecting the chambers of the
hydraulic cylinder, thus eliminating all forces.
Solar power systems
• The panels of a solar thermal plant need to be directed
towards the sun. This move can be carried out by electro-
hydrostatic actuation which in comparison to a hydraulic
system is easier to maintain and more environmentally
friendly.
6. Conclusion
The electro-hydrostatic actuator technology impressively
combines the advantages of the electro-mechanical and the
hydraulic systems. Main difference to the electro mechanic
technology is the replacement of the mechanical gearbox by
a hydrostatic gearbox. This leads to a system where linear
movements can be realized with very high transmission ratios
and less expensive. Moreover, fail-safe operations can be
implemented very easily. An EHA is a self-contained actuator
with significantly reduced risk of oil leaks and with an electric/
mechanic customer interface.

In the future, we expect energy efficiency and environmental

5. Moog’s Partnership Approach
cleanliness to play an even greater role. Moreover, in machinery
we recognize a trend towards modular and compact systems.
From our perspective, the electro-hydrostatic actuation For our clients it is important that actuation systems are
technology can offer considerable advantages. If and how the customizable, easy to maintain and seamlessly integrated into
technology is beneficial depends largely on the application. their environment. Electro-hydrostatic actuators are well suited
Finding the most suitable actuation technology for each type to meet these current and future requirements.
of application is a challenge that requires close cooperation
between our clients and Moog. We are open to jointly
investigate new ways of applying and perfecting the technology.
In the past, we have successfully developed actuation solutions
for the energy generation business such as gas and wind
turbines as well as for applications in machinery, especially
plastic machines. We are willing to share this knowledge and
experience with our clients.
Our strategy is to support our clients with the aim of finding
the most suitable solution for each specific application. Since
we have experiences with all types of actuators – electro-
mechanical, hydraulic and electro-hydrostatic – our clients can
count on us to be technologically neutral. Whichever solution is
preferred by our client, Moog has the experience.
We manufacture all necessary components for an actuator:
the pump, the valves, the motor, the frequency converter
and the motion controller. We utilize these components to
design compact and modular actuators which are seamlessly
integrated into the client’s environment. This makes it quick and
easy to customize the solution according to individual client
requirements.
If you suspect that electro-hydrostatic actuation could be an
option for your type of application, do not hesitate to contact
us. We are your partner for jointly finding the best solution.

7 Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation I Achim Helbig

 References Author Biography

[1] Berbuer, J. Neuartige Servoantriebe mit primärer Achim Helbig has been with Moog since 2004 in the position
Verdrängersteuerung, Dissertation , RWTH Aachen, of Senior Applications Engineer, Team Manager Hydraulic
1988 Systems and Innovation Projects Manager. Prior joining Moog
he has worked in the Dresden University and did his PhD.
[2] Boes, C. Hydraulische Achsantriebe im digitalen
Regelkreis, Dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 1995
[3] Hahmann, W. Das dynamische Verhalten von
Servopumpen und ihr Verhalten in Regelkreisen,
Dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 1973
[4] Helbig, A. Energieeffizientes elektrisch-
hydrostatisches Antriebssystem am Beispiel der
Kunststoff-Spritzgießmaschine, Dissertation,
Technische Universität Dresden, 2007
[5] Helduser, S., Rühlicke, I. AIF Abschlussbericht Nr.25/
B9953, IFD TU-Dresden, 1996
[6] Lodewyks, J. Der Differenzialzylinder im
geschlossenen hydrostatischen Getriebe,
Dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 1994
[7] Neubert, Th. Untersuchungen von
drehzahlveränderbaren Pumpen, Dissertation,
Technische Universität Dresden, 2002
[8] Waffner, W.D. Design Issues of Electrical Actuation
for Aircraft Primary Flight Controls, Moog Technical
Bulletin 157, 1985

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