ARRB SR41 Into A New Age of Pavment Design

INTO A NEW AGE OF
PAVEMENT DESIGN
A STRUCTURAL DE.SIGN GUIDE
FOR FLEXIBLE RESIDENTIAL STREET PAVEMENTS
:SUPERCEDED:·•
JANUARY 1998 ••
•
by APRG 21 "A Guide to the :
Design of New Pavements for :
· Light Traffic ••
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ._. ,.·• By P. J. Mulholland
Senior Research Scientist ·
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SYDNEY ~LIBRf\l<.Y i
· Special Report No. 41 ~~

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH BOARD ~ ~
' I
INTO A NEW AGE
OF PAVEMENT DESIGN
A STRUCTURAL DESIGN GUIDE FOR
FLEXIBLE RESIDENTIAL STREET PAVEMENTS
COFFEY PARTNERS INTERNATIONAL Pty Uri·•

A.C.N. 0!13 6'12 UJ9
12 \\~terfoo Road North Rvdr WJ
by SYDNEY LIBRARY
P. J. Mulholland
Senior Research Scientist
[~ AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH BOARD

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH BOARD
DIRECTORS 1988 - 1989
Chairman
I.F.X. Stoney, A.A.S.A.,Dip.Bus.Studies, M.A.G.I., F.A.I.M., Chairman and
Managing Director, Road Construction Authority, Victoria
Deputy Chairman
R.J. Payze, B.E.(Hons), M.S.C.E.,
Commissioner of Highways, South Australia
B.G. Dockrill, B.E., B.Ec., M.Eng.Sc., F.I.E.Aust., Director,
Transport and Works Division, ACT Administration
B.G. Fisk, A.R.S.M., B.Sc.(Eng.)(Met.), C.E., M.I.M.M.,
Chief Executive, Roads and Traffic Authority, New South Wales
G.B. Frecker, J.P., BCE. Ph.D., C.E., M.I.E.Aust.,
Senior Vice President, Australian Local Government Association
1.0. Gordon, B.E., M.Eng.Sc., M.I.E.Aust., M.C.I.T.,
Secretary, Department of Transport and Works, Northern Territory
A.H. Tognolini, A.M., B.E., F.I.E.Aust., F.C.I.T.,
Commissioner of Main Roads, Western Australia
W.G. Upton, First Assistant Secretary,
Commonwealth Department of Transport and Communications
P.J. Weffenhall, Dip.C.E., M.I.E.Aust., M.C.I.T., F.A.I.M.,
Director of Main Roads, Tasmania
R.J.E. Wharton, B.E. (Civil), M.I.E. Aust.,
Commissioner of Main Roads, Queensland
P.W. Lowe, B.E., (Civil), M.I.E.Aust.,
Executive Director, Australian Road Research Board
Senior Staff
Executive Director- P.W. Lowe, B.E., (Civil), M.l.E.Aust.,
Deputy Director- J.B. Metcalf, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.G.S., F.I.E.Aust., F.I.C.E.
~~
I 3 I
I ~ I
1 ~ l
AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH BOARD

The Australian Road Research Board is the focal point of road research
in Australia. It undertakes a comprehensive range of road and road
transport research. The results are disseminated to appropriate organi-
sations and to scientists, engineers and associated specialists involved
with the design, location, construction, upkeep and use of roads.
The need for a national research centre was realised by NAASRA,

the National Association of Australian State Road Authorities, which
founded the Board in 1960. In 1965 ARRB was registered as a non-profit
making company financed by Australia's Federal and State Govern-
ment Road Authorities. Each Member Authority is represented on
ARRB's Board of Directors, whose policies are administered by the
Executive Director. The Board also has a system for regularly receiving
external advice.
All research is controlled from the Australian Road Research Centre at

Vermont in Victoria, but, since its inception, the Board has sponsored
research conducted at universities and other centres. The 1988-89
overall program of the Board is budgeted at M$7.0.
ARRB disseminates road research information through conferences,

symposia and its own publications. This journal, for example, is designed
to allow scientist and practitioner to contribute to road literature.
ARRB also maintains a unique library of road literature and operates a

computer-based information seNice called INROADS which collects
and collates all Australian road research findings. It also operates the
internationaiiRRD data base of OECD in Australia.
. ;
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
l.l General l
1.2 Scope l
1.3 Terminology 2
1.4 Abbreviations 3
1.5 Design Considerations 4
2. THE STRENGTH OF THE SUPPORTING SUBGRADE 6
2.1 General 6
2.2 Design CBR for New Construction 7
2.3 Design CBR for Reconstruction and Resheeting 13
2.4 Drainage Considerations 18
3. THE NATURE AND LEVEL OF TRAFFIC LOADING 22
3.1 General 22
3.2 Design Traffic Value for New Construction 23
3.3 Design Traffic Value for Reconstruction and
Resheeting 28
4. PAVEMENT THICKNESS DESIGN 34
4.1 General 34
4.2 Special Points of Note 35
4.3 Design Criteria for Urban Construction 39
4.4 Design Criteria for Rural Construction 42
4.5 Stage Construction 43
5. PAVEMENT MATERIALS 45
5.1 General 45
5.2 Basecourse Materials 45
5.3 Subbase Materials 46
5.4 Other Materials 46
6. PAVEMENT SURFACING$ 49
6.1 General 49
6.2 Sprayed Seals 50
6.3 Asphalt 54
7. CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS 58
7.1 General
7.2 General Earthworks 58
7.3 Subgrade Preparation 58
7.4 Subbase Construction 59
7.5 Basecourse Construction 59
7.6 Pavement Surfacing 60
REFERENCES 61
APPENDIX A - PAVEMENT THICKNESS DESIGN :

WORKED EXAMPLES 66
APPENDIX 8 - ASPHALT OVERLAY DESIGN 80

FOREWORD
In preparing the Design Guide, various comments were received on

the preliminary draft (Mulholland 1987) from a wide source of local
government engineers and design consultants. These comments
brought about numerous minor changes in the draft document and
two major changes.
Reference is made here to the two major changes.
The first highlights the fact that the tables of data assembled from
Project 392 are more to be considered national indicators than specific
local specifications. The data supplied in these tables are best sup-
ported by local information to derive local specifications. This applies
more to Table IV (Correction factors Fto be applied to soaked CBR to
estimate the equilibrium in situ CBR) than to any other table. The point
the Design Guide emphasises is that if councils have used the soaked
CBR successfully as their basis of pavement design in the past then they
should use no less than the soaked CBR in the future.
The second major change shows that the Design Guide is more flexible
in regard to the confidence limit that the designer can use for his
design. The preliminary draft recommended that the following confi-
dence limits be used as the basis for establishing the most appropriate
design curves :
(a) for urban construction, use a 95% confidence limit; and
(b) for rural construction, use a 9CJOk confidence limit.

However, it appeared to some reviewers that the design cuNes based
on a 95% confidence limit were too conseNative. The Design Guide
therefore makes provision for this in the text as follows:
. 'There may be good and valid reasons to vary from the

recommended confidence limit of 95%. For example,
where pavement materials are scarce or they are
particularly costly, the designer has the option of using a
confidence limit of 90% but should not adopt a figure
below this for full urban construction'.
Design examples are given which illustrate application of the latter

cuNes (Fig. l 0) in preference to application of the cuNes based on
confidence limit of 95% (Fig. 7). Importantly, the Guide gives the
designer the flexibility of varying from the recommended confidence
limits.
One final point should be made and that is, that all figures, tables,
formulae and words contained herein will be regularly subject to
review. It will be the aim to carry out this review every two years.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT REPRESENTATION
ARRB'S organisational research structure has amongst its working
groups, one group devoted to assisting Local Government with its
reading problems. This group is known as the ARRB Local Government
Committee. The Committee meets twice yearly to consider research
proposals, assess priorities and oversee progress on existing projects.
Membership of the present committee is shown below.
It is in this manner that ARRB endeavours to maintain a close link with

the needs of Local Government.
In the case of Project 392, the Local Government Committee decided

that there should be a Project Committee working with the project
team to provide guidance through each major stage. A committee
of nine people with a broad cross-section of experience in local
government was chosen to perform this function.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT COMMITTEE
Chairman Mr Colin Pitman, City Engineer,

City of Enfield, South Australia
Committee Members Mr Ray Moore, City Engineer,

City ofToowoomba, Queensland
Mr Don Sheffield, Chief Engineer,
Canterbury Municipal Council,
New South Wales
Mr John Fenwick, City Engineer,
Parramatta City Council,
New South Wales
Mr John King, Deputy City Engineer,
City of Perth, Western Australia
Mr Ken McNamara, City Engineer,
City of Hawthorn, Victoria
Mr Bob Seiffert, City Engineer,
City of Frankston, Victoria
Mr Bill Lawson, Tasmanian Local
Government Industry Training Committee
Mr John Wilson, Regional Manager
Road Construction Authority
East Gippsland, Victoria
Mr Malcolm Smith, Traffic Engineer,
Highways Department, South Australia
PROJECT ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Chairman Mr Ray Moore, City Engineer,

City of Toowoomba,Queensland
Committee Members Mr Skip Tonkin, Consulting Engineer,

B.C. Tonkin and Associates, South Australia
Mr Errol Jones, Materials Engineer,
Brisbane City Council, Queensland
Mr John King, Deputy City Engineer,
City of Perth, Western Australia
Mr Ron Schneider, Planning Engineer,
Warringah Shire Council, New South Wales
Mr Richard Bain, Works Engineer,
Shire of Corio, Victoria
Mr John Price, Senior Design Engineer,
City of Waverley, Victoria
Ex-Officio Members Mr Peter Lowe, Executive Director,

Australian Road Research Board
Dr Jchn Metcalf, Deputy Director
Australian Road Research Board
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many authorities were involved in the production of this Design Guide.
First and foremost. there were the 160 councils and other authorities
which made the project financially viable. Next came the 80 councils
and the Housing Department of New South Wales which actively
participated in the background test program. The five mainland State
Road Authorities should also be mentioned for the assistance they
provided with laboratory and field testing. Certain persons rate a
special mention:
• Mr Peter Armstrong who carried out a great deal of the field testing;
• Mr Peter Morris who. with Dr John Metcalf. formulated the original
research proposal and helped with some very early report
preparation;
• Mr Greg Schofield who compiled the project's computer data
bank;
• Mr Andrew Churchward who assisted with the analysis of the project
data;
• Dr Peter Barnard who verified the form of our interim design cuNes;
• Dr John Oliver who prepared the first draft of Chapter 6 of the
Guide; and,
i .
• Dr John Metcalf and Dr Max Lay who reviewed early drafts of the
Guide.
Others committed time to reviewing earlier drafts of the Guide or

making written contributions:
Road Construction Authority (RCA) of Victoria. Department of Main

Roads (NSW). Main Roads Department (Qid), Australian Asphalt Pave-
ment Association. Cement and Concrete Association of Australia,
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. Department of Housing
(NSW), B. C. Tonkin and Associates. Bornhorst & Ward Consulting
Engineers, Cameron McNamara Consultants, Golder Associates Pty
Ltd, Blacktown Cify Council, Brisbane Cify Council, Caboolture Shire
Council, Camberwell City Council, Coburg City Council, Corio Shire
CounciL Cranbourne Shire CounciL Hornsby Shire CounciL Lake
Macquarie City Council, Sutherland Shire CounciL Toowoomba City
CounciL Townsville City CounciL Warringah Shire CounciL Wollongong
City Council and Southland City CounciL NZ.
A Project Advisory Committee under the Chairmanship of Mr Ray

Moore, City Engineer, City ofToowoomba, met on nine occasions over
the six years of the project. This committee provided excellent
guidance to the project team. Important decision-making matters
were capably handled by the ARRB Local Government Committee
which had supported the project from its inception.
I would take this opportunity to thank RCA Victoria for allowing me the
time to work on secondment with ARRB.
Finally, how far could one go without the efforts of the ladies who
battled away on the word-processor: Alison Whyatt, Mandy King, Julie
Chia, Shirley Lee and Lorene Carter.
My thanks to one and all.
P.J. Mulholland
Project Co-ordinator
Design and Maintenance of Residential Streets
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL AND ABSTRACT
The obstract and keywords on this page are provided in the interests
of improved information retrieval. Each reference card is designed so
that it can be incorporated in the reader's own file.
ISSN 0572- 144X

ISBN 0 8691 0 359 8 Report
ISBN 0 86910 362 8 Microfiche
APRIL 1989
MULHOLLAND, P.J. (1989) : STRUCTURAL DESIGN GUIDE FOR RESIDENTIAL

STREET PAVEMENTS. Australian Road Research Board. Special Report No. 41. 97
pages, including 14 figures, 16 tables and 2 appendices.
KEYWORDS : *Pavement design/*Design guiderStreefi*Structural design/*Local

government/pavement maintenance/urban area/residential area/pavement testing
roadldeflection!California bearing ratio/density/moisture content/thickness/dynamic
penetation testlgrading/Atterberg limitsltraffic/traffte flow/axle/bituminous pavement/
pavement layer
ABSTRACT : ARRB Project 392 research findings are formally implemented through
the publication of this Design Guide. The objective of the Design Guide is to provide
Australian local government authorities with a scientifically-based and consistent ap-
proach to street pavement and design. It covers the six most important phases in street
pavement design: (1) Subgrade Assessment, (2) Traffic Assessment, (3) Thickness
Design, (4) Pavement Materials, (5) Pavement Surfacing and (6) Construction Stan-
dards. Detailed consideration is given to flexible pavements consisting of unbound
component layers, while some passing reference is made to flexible pavements with
bound component layers and to pavements constructed with concrete blocks or paving
bricks. It is intended that the Design Guide bring the pavement designer up-to.<fate with
the latest design procedures pertaining to residential street pavements.
• Major INROADS descriptors
Although this report is believed to be correct at the time of its publication, the
Australian Road Research Board does not accept responsibility for any conse-
quences arising from the use of the information contained in it. People using the
information contained in the report should apply, and rely upon, their own skill and
judgement to the particular issue which they are considering.
Reference to, or reproduction of this report must indude a precise reference to the report.
Wholly set up, designed and printed at the Australian Road Research Board,
Vermont South, Victoria, 1989
! .
. '
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
This Design Guide has been prepared by the Australian Road Research
Board (ARRB) for and on behalf of Australian Local Government
Authorities (LGAs) to assist engineers with the task of designing resi-
dential street pavements. The Guide outlines design procedures relat-
ing to the structural design and overlay of street pavements. These pro-
cedures are based primarily upon the investigations and analyses of
ARRB Project 392: Design and Maintenance of Residential Streets, from
July 1982 to June 1987.
Charts included in the Guide may be revised as ARRB research

progresses and LGAs gain experience in the use of the design
procedures.
The Guide is intended as an aid to professional engineers. It must be

used along with professional judgement and sound engineering prac-
tice in developing any successful design. It is not intended to serve as
a standard design specification and it would be inappropriate to refer
to it in this way. ·
1.2SCOPE
The scope of the Guide is as follows.
• Its design procedures apply to the structural design and overlay of

residential street pavements.
• Design traffic loading is limited to a cumulative figure of 106

equivalent standard axles (ESA). Beyond this figure, any pavement
should be designed as a main road or highway and reference
should be made to the local State Road Authority (SRA) design
manual or to the NAASRA Guide to the Structural Design of Road
Pavements (NAASRA 1987).
ARRB SR 41, 1989
STRUCTURAL DESIGN GUIDE FOR FLEXIBLE RESIDENTIAL STREET PAVEMENTS
• Empirical relationships are used to cover a wide range of subgrade

soil types and Australian climatic conditions.
• Detailed consideration is given to flexible pavements consisting

of unbound granular layers, while some passing reference is
made to flexible pavements with bound layers and to pave-
ments constructed with concrete blocks or paving bricks. Pave-
I ment surfacing can be either asphalt or bituminous spray and
chip seal.
1.3 TERMINOLOGY
Users of the Guide must be careful to read and understand the

terminology which follows, before proceeding to put further Sections
to use. Terminology is consistent with Australian Standard 1348.1, Road
andTrafficEngineering-GiossaryofTerms(SAA 1986). RefertoFig. 7 for
the typical pavement cross-section for residential streets.
Subgrade
In situ natural material or select imported fill constituting the foun-

dation of the pavement, the prepared surface of which is called
·the formation.
Pavement
\ j
I
That portion of a road, excluding shoulders, placed above the sub-
grade for the support of, and to form a running surface for,
vehicular traffic. It consists of one or more layers of material
referred to as surfacing, basecou.rse and subbase.
traffic lane(s) j.
pavement I surfacing
basecourse
subbase
subsurface
subgrade drain
~~(refer fig. 4)
carriageway
Rg. 1- Typical pavement cross-section for residential streets.
2 ARRB SR 41, 1989

Surfacing
Consists of bituminous spray and chip seal or asphalt. The function

of the surfacing is to: provide adequate traction and skid
resistance for traffic, waterproof the pavement, resist traffic
abrasion and, in the case of asphalt, assist in distributing stresses
imposed by traffic. Asphalt is often placed in two courses, the
binder course being the first and the wearing course (usually of
lower maximum particle size) being the second.
Basecourse
That portion of the pavement immediately supporting the surfac-

ing. The thickness and quality of the basecourse contribute most to
the ability of the pavement to distribute stresses imposed by traffic.
The basecourse may be laid in a number of courses each typically
of about 100 - 150 mm in compacted thickness.
Subbase
That portion of the pavement below the basecourse which pro-

vides the additional thickness of material required above the
subgrade. The subbase is generally a granular material of lesser
quality than the basecourse and may be placed in one or
more courses each typically between 100 mm and 200 mm
compacted thickness. It is often used as a working platform
over a poor subgrade.
Kerb and Channel (or Kerb and GuHer)
A border of relatively rigid material, constructed at the edge of the

pavement. Its main function is to carry run-off from the pavement
surface but it also delineates the edge of the carriageway.
Subsurface Drainage System
A drainage system installed within the pavement and/or sub-

grade with the principal objective of controlling subgrade
moisture levels.
1.4ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are used in the Guide:
AADT- Annual Average Daily Traffic

AAPA - Australian Asphalt Pavement Association
ARRB SR 41, 1989 3
...
ARRB - Australian Road Research Board

CACA - Cement and Concrete Association of Australia
CBR - California Bearing Ratio
CV- Commercial Vehicle
ESA - Equivalent Standard Axle(s)
LGA - Local Government Authority
LL - Liquid Limit
NAASRA - National Association of Australian State Road Authorities
PL - Plastic Limit
PI - Plasticity Index
SAA - Standards Association of Australia
SRA - State Road Authority
1.5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Pavement performance depends on many factors, the six most basic

of these being:
( l) the strength of the supporting subgrade under in-service mois-

ture conditions;
(2) the nature and level of the traffic loadings;
(3) the total pavement thickness;
(4) the strength, stiffness and durability of the materials which
make up the pavement;
(5) the type of surfacing, and
(6) the construction standards to which the pavement is built.
These six factors can be seen as analogous to the teeth of a cogwheel

which is located in a massive machine. The cogwheel represents a
single pavement, as shown by Fig. 2, and the machine, which is com-
posed of many such cogwheels, represents a road or street network.
The analogy highlights the importance of the pavement designer
giving full consideration to all six factors in each design. If he fails to do
so, not only is the one pavement affected but also others adjacent to
it and the road network as a whole can be expected to experience
greater wear over a given time. The cost of the added structural
maintenance and reconstruction then becomes a drain on the
community which expects a high level of performance from its roads
and streets.
The environment, above ground and below ground, plays its part by
the effect it has on each of the six factors. It may be seen as the rim of
the cogwheel in Fig. 2.
4 ARRB SR 41, 1989

This Design Guide examines each of the six design factors, along with
the effects of the environment, and provides the designer with guide-
lines by which to maintain a smooth-running, durable and high quality
street network.
Fig. 2 - Analogy of the pavement as a cogwheel
ARRB SR 41, 1989 5

2. THE STRENGTH OF THE
SUPPORTING SUBGRADE
2.1 GENERAL
In designing a new pavement, it is essential that the strength and
stiffness of the supporting subgrade is logically assessed and that
variations are accurately predicted. It is assumed here that the long-
term performance of the new pavement will depend not so much on
the strength achieved at construction, but more on the strength
achieved under equilibrium moisture conditions after most moisture
movements have ceased. A logical procedure for assessing this
"equilibrium· strength is outlined in Section 2.2.
In designing for the reconstruction of an existing pavement, it is

normally assumed that the planned works will bring about little change
in subgrade moisture. Under these circumstances, it can be ex-
pected that the strength of the supporting subgrade will not vary to
any significant degree from the strength existing prior to reconstruc-
tion, and the relevant procedure to assess subgrade strength will be
as outlined in Section 2.3. This may be a conservative assumption in
cases where the existing pavement has been permitting moisture to
. I
enter the pavement structure.
In Sections 2.2 and 2.3, subgrade strength is given in terms of the

Califomia Bearing Ratio (CBR). This is obtained from a standard soil
penetration resistance test (SAA 1979a). In situ CBR refers to a test
performed in the field (see Rg. 3b) and soaked CBR to a test per-
formed on a laboratory sample which has undergone four days
soaking in a test mould.
Drainage is a very important factor affecting the strength and stiffness

of the supporting subgrade. ·Therefore, drainage considerations are
separately covered in Section 2.4.
Subgrade soils are classified in accordance with the Unified Soil Clas-
sification (Table 1). The prefixes of group symbols shown in the Table
indicate six main soil types- gravel (G), sand (S), silt (M), clay (C), fine-
grained organic soil (0) and peat (Pf). The Guide covers the design of
6 ARRB SR 41, 1989
\
l
pavements on all six soil types. The designer is recommended to

undertake further investigation in the special cases of highly expan-
sive clays and frost-susceptible silts. Guidance for such investigations
is given in Lay (1986), Federal Highway Administration (1979), Pitman,
lasiello and Mcinnes (1985), and Indian Roads Congress (1984).
2.2 DESIGN CBR FOR NEW CONSTRUCTION
2.2.1 Site Investigation
A site investigation should be carried out along the alignment of a new

construction to identify the extent and condition of the various soil
deposits likely to be encountered. Here, particular attention needs to
be paid to the soils within close vicinity of the proposed gradeline as
they will provide the supporting strength of the subgrade. Pavement
widenings should be treated as for new construction.
The investigation should be based principally on a series of testholes

from which soil samples are obtained. The frequency of testholes
should vary according to the length and importance of the street
being designed, as shown in Table II, and should also depend on the
variability of the site.
Test holes need not be located over lengths where the depth of fill
exceeds 500 mm; otherwise, they should be randomly located along
the length of and within the width of roadway. Wherever possible, the
depth of the test hole should extend 500 mm below the proposed
subgrade level. Sufficient bulk samples should then be taken of each
subgrade soil to enable it to be classified in the laboratory by field
moisture, liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), linear shrinkage CLS), grading
and soaked CBR*. Soils to be placed in fills and likely to have a
controlling influence on a pavement's performance should be
classified in the same manner. All other soils may be identified by
noting the soil type during a field inspection, and by taking samples
for moisture content determination.
It is desirable that the investigation should also include a limited

amount of testing performed on sealed pavements near to the job
site. These pavements should have similar subgrades to that of the
new construction, be in a similar environment and preferably have
been under traffic for three years or more. The testing itself should
include field moisture contents,Lls, Pls, gradings, soaked laboratory
CBRs, and dynamic cones on subgrade soils sampled from four to
•Further details relating to laboratory sample requirements may be found in the

Methods of Testing Soils for Engineering Purposes, AS 1289 (SAA 1977a). The tests
themselves are described in lay (1985 and 1986).
ARRB SR 41, 1989 7

TABLE I
THE UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Refer to Appendix D of the SAA Site Investigation Code, AS 1726 (SAA 1981) for
further details relating to this Table
Rating of
Description
Sub-group Sub-grade
Division and Field
Sub-Groups Symbol Strength
Identification CCBR Range)
Gravel Composed of materials Well graded gravels or GW Excellent

and less than 60mm. with gravel-sand mixtures. (40- 80)
gravei!Y more than 50% by dry little or no material
soils mass greater than under the
0.06mm. and 0.425 mm sieve.
more than 50% of the Good to excellent
Poorly graded gravels GP
coarse grains greater (30- 60)
or gravel-sand mixtures.
than 2.00 mm.
little or no material
under the 0.425 mm sieve.
~ 0.06 mm is about Silty gravels. gravel- GM Good to excellent
the smallest particle sand-silt mixures. (20- 60)
visible to the naked eye).
Clayey gravels, GC Good to very good
gravel-sand-clay (20- 40)
mixtures.
Well graded sands or sw Good to very good

Composed of material less
gravelly sands, little or (20 -40)
than 60 mm Is size. with
more than 50% by dry mass no material under the
greater than 0.06 mm, and 0.425 mm sieve.
Sands more than 50% of the Fair to good
Poorly graded sands or SP
and coarse grains less than (10- 30)
gravelly sands. little or
sandy 2.00mm. no material under the
soils 0.425 mm sieve.
They feel gritty when Silty sands. SM Fair to good
rubbed between fingers. sand-silt mixtures. (10- 30)
Clayey sands. sc Fair

sand-clay mixtures. (5- 20)
Composed of material Silts (inorganic). ML Fair to poor

less than 60 mm in size, rock flour. silty (15 or less)
with more than 50% by fine sands with
Fine- dry mass less than slight plasticity.
grained 0.06mm.
soils Clayey silts CL Fair to poor
having Not gritty between (inorganic). gravelly (15 or less)
low fingers. clays, sandy clc ;s.
plasticity silty clays.
(silts)
Uquid Umit less than 50%.. Organic silts and OL Poor
organic silty clays of (7 or less)
low plasticity.
8 ARRB SR 41, 1989

TABLE I (Cont.)
Rating of
Description Sub-grade
and Field Sub-group
Division Sub-Groups Strength
Identification Symbol
(CBR Range)
MH Poor
Soils with liquid limits Highly compressible
(10 or less)
Fine- greater than 50. Can micaceous or
grained be readily rolled into diatomaceous soils.
soils threads when moist.
having Greasy to the touch. Clays (inorganic) Fair to very poor
high CH
They show considerable of high plasticity. (15 or less)
plasticity shrinkage on drying
and are all highly
compressable soils. Organic clays of OH Very poor
medium to high (15 or less)
plasticity.
Peat and other highly

Organic organic swamp soils which Extremely poor
pt
soils are usually brown or black (3 or less)
in colour. Very compressible.
Easily identifiable visually.
TABLE II
RECOMMENDED FREQUENCY OF TESTHOLES
FOR INVESTIGATING NEW CONSTRUCTION
Purpose of Short Streets Long Streets

Test hole (<120m) (>120m)
Laboratory testing Sampling to be Sampling to be performed at

performed on each performed at 2 or 3• one site every f:IJ to 100 m•;
different subgrade sites; laboratory laboratory testing carried out on
soil sampled testing carried out relevant materials. The aim
(Soaked CBRs and on relevant materials. should be to perform tests on
Soil Classification The aim should be to three samples of the one soil
Tests) perform tests on type
three samples of
the one soil type.
I
• Note that the statistical confidence with which
results con be assessed increases three to fourfold
when the more frequent testing interval Is adopted;
this must be weighed against a 50 per cent
increase in cost.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 9

five different sites. Test results will give a comparison of in situ CBR*
measured under equilibrium moisture conditions and soaked labora-
tory CBR. It is important to keep a record of such comparisons for use
in future designs.
Sizes of field samples should be determined directly from laboratory

test sample requirements. Relevant requirements are as summarised
in Table Ill.
2.2.2 Delineation of Subgrade Areas
Test rE?sults must be analysed carefully to indicate how the subgrade

is likely to vary along the job length, under equilibrium moisture condi-
tions. This analysis needs to take into account significant changes in
soil type, an assessment of drainage and how it will vary along the job
length.
The first step normally taken is to list the results on each subgrade
sample something like as follows:
Soil Classification (Table{)

Drainage Rating (Good, Fair or Poor)
Field Moisture Content
Grading Results % passing 2.36 mm
% passing 425 ~m
% passing 75 ~m
Grain Size Classification
Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
Plasticity Index
Linear Shrinkage
Lab. Soaked CBR
Results are listed with samples taken in order of running chainage.

Each cut or section of low fill (< 500 mm) is represented by the subgrade
soils sampled during drilling. Sections of higher fill (> 500 mm), on the
other hand, deseNe special consideration. For each of these, it is usual
to assume that one soil type will control design and unless some action
is taken to be selective in the filling process, the soil from the adjacent
cut with lowest soaked CBR should control design.
*In situ CBRs will usually be estimated from an in situ CBR/dynamic cone penetration
relationship established by the designer (see Section 2.3.3). The penetration itself is
measured by a dynamic cone penetrometer, a simple metal device with steel rod
which is driven into the soil by the drop of a large hammer (see Fig. 3a).
10 ARRB SR 41, 1989

TABLE Ill
REQUIRED SIZE OF FIELD SAMPLES FOR
LABORATORY SOILS TESTING
Type of soil
Laboratory Test Fine Grained Medium Grained Coarse Grained
Not less than 80% passing

-2.36 mm sieve -19.0 mm sieve -37.5 mm sieve
Moisture Content 250gm 500gm 2.5 kg
LL. PL. LS 750gm 1.5 kg 2.5kg
Grading 250gm 10 kg 45 kg
Compaction and 20 kg 30kg Not Applicable

Soaked CBR
Consecutive samplesarethencompared inorderofrunning chainage.

This process of comparison aims at identifying any significant change
in soil type or drainage. The process proceeds until the results of the
final two samples are compared and delineation of the job length into
sections of similar subgrade and drainage pattern is achieved. Sec-
tions must be of sufficient length to conform with practical and
economical construction practice.
Note should be taken of very poor and wet subgrade material

(CBR < 3) and of the need to have this material removed, stabilised
or drained.
2.2.3 Subgrade Strength Achieved under Equilibrium

Moisture Conditions
The most vital step to be taken in the pavement design procedure is

to accurately predict the subgrade strength achieved under equilib-
rium moisture conditions. Common practice in the past has been to
assume that the constructed subgrade will, over a period of several
years, reach an equilibrium state approximating that of a soil sample
undergoing four days soaking in a laboratory mould. Pavement
design has therefore been based on the laboratory soaked CBR of the
subgrade material.
The prediction of ·equilibrium subgrade strength" has since been

shown to be not quite so simple. Recent research shows that it
should take into account subgrade soil type, climate and drainage
ARRB SR 41, 1989 11
i
f
(Mulholland 1986). It is suggested that this be done in the following

ways;
(a) Where no test data are available from nearby pavements,

estimate the equilibrium subgrade strength as a factor (F) times
the laboratory soaked CBR. The appropriate value ofF to use is
shown in Table !Vas a function of soil type, climate and drainage.
(b) Where test data are available from nearby pavements, com-
pare in situ CBRs taken on the different subgrades with their
corresponding laboratory soaked CBR values. Determine in
this manner the factor which is appropriate to use for each
soil type relating equilibrium subgrade strength to laboratory
soaked CBR. All testing on nearby pavements should be done
in the outer wheelpath, at the most critical time of the year,
and on at least three subgrade sites .
In either (a) or (b) above, an "estimated" laboratory soaked CBR may

be used in place of the measured laboratory soaked CBR. However,
if this is done, the formula used to compute the estimated value should
be one previously derived by the designer from earlier testing of his
own local soils, and not merely a formula taken from a general
pavement design text. Should the material being tested have a PI
greater than 20, then laboratory soaked CBRs should be undertaken
on at least one sample in three.
TABLE IV
CORRECTION FACTOR, F, TO BE APPLIED TO SOAKED CBR*
TO ESTIMATE THE EQUILIBRIUM IN SITU CBR (Mulholland 1986)
Soil Type
Climatic Zone
Soils with PI < 11 Soils with PI > 11
Rainfall ~ 600 mm 1.0- 1.5 1.4- 1.8

1CXX> mm 2! Rainfall> 600 mm 0.6- 1.1 1.0- 1.4
Rainfall > 1CXX> mm 0.4-0.9 0.6- 1.0
The lower values apply to a situation where

drainage is expected to be poor. water table
high, etc. and the higher values to the situation
where a well drained site can be assured.
*Where the soaked CBR has been used successfully as the basis for pavement
design in the past, there should be no reason to discontinue using an F value of less
thanl.O in the future.
12 ARRB SR 41, 1989

2.2.4 Defining Subgrade Areas According to Design CBR
At this stage in the design procedure, each subgrade area has been
classified according to its particular soil type and assessed drainage
rating; and predictions have been made of its strength under equilib-
rium moisture conditions by applying a factor to laboratory soaked
CBRs (or estimated laboratory soaked CBRs). The design CBR for each
subgrade area is computed by using one of the following formulae:
Design CBR = Least of estimated equilibrium CBRs (for less

than five results),
Design CBR = lOth percentile of all estimated equilibrium CBRs
(for more than four results).
= c- 1.3 s
where
C is the mean of all estimated equilibrium CBRs, and
S is the standard deviation of all values.
The 1Oth percentile method can be very misleading if delineation of

subgrade areas is not performed as per Section 2.2.2. Particular care
must be taken to exclude any single high or low CBR result, a so-called
"outlier". For example, if CBR results on a clay were 5, 4, 7, 8 and 15:
C - 1.3 S = 2.2 if CBR 15 is included, or

C- 1.3 S = 3.6 if CBR 15 is excluded.
The latter should apply, illustrating the need to exclude an outlier from
any subgrade strength assessment.
'. Design CBRs should then be reported as follows:
CBR Range Value Reported to Nearest
<5 0.5
5-20 1
20-50 5
>50 10
2.3 DESIGN CBRs FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND RESHEETING
2.3.1 Site Investigation
Reconstruction refers to the removal of an existing pavement and its

replacement to about the same final level and alignment. Resheet-
ing refers to the addition of a new layer of base quality material over
the existing pavement.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 13
When either reconstruction or resheeting of a street length is being

considered, deflection testing should be carried out to define the
nature and extent of the necessary work (refer to Appendix B and
particularly to Fig. 78). This deflection testing should cover all
wheelpaths and be performed at a test interval of 15 m to 30 m over
urban construction and 30m over rural construction (see Section 4. l ).
The site investigation should be based on a series of test holes exca-

vated through the existing pavement. The testing will need to
concentrate on the subgrade and for this a practical size of hole will
be 300 x 300 mm, although these dimensions may be reduced to
200 mm diameter through use of a suitable auger. The frequency of
test holes should vary according to the length and importance of the
street, as shown in Table V. All holes should be randomly located along
the length but avoiding areas of surface cracking wherever possible.
Within each hole, the following steps should be taken:
(i) clean the surface of the subgrade; and

(ii) perform two dynamic cone tests or in situ CBR tests, a
maximum distance apart.
Then at certain holes (see Table \;), a third step should be taken:
(iii) continue excavation to a depth of 500 mm below the new

gradeline and sample each different soil type for laboratory
classification and moisture content determination.
TABLEV
RECOMMENDED FREQUENCY OF TEST HOLES
FOR INVESTIGATING RECONSTRUCTION
Frequency
Purpose of Short Streets Long Streets I Roads I.
Test Hole (< 120m) (> 120m)
1. Field Testing Four tests to be One test ot be

performed on performed on the performed on the
the subgrade subgrade. subgrade every 40 m.
(Dynamic Cone
and Field Moisture
Contents)
2. Laboratory Routine soil tests Routine soil tests

Testing (Section 2.2.2) (Section 2.2.2)
performed on carried out on carried out on each
each subgrade subgrade sampled different subgrade
soil sampled. from at least two soil - at least two sets
of the above sites. of results per soil type.
14 ARRB SR 41, 1989

The depth of excavation in each hole is determined by the location

of the new gradeline with respect to the existing subgrade, although
two common exceptions can occur:
(a) where the subgrade becomes too hard to excavate and it

is not practicable to reach the limit of 500 mm below the
level of the new gradeline; or
(b) where the excavation exposes very soft material (CBR < 3)
and there is a need to excavate beyond the 500 mm limit
to define this material's extent.
Where the pavement layers need to be sampled to examine the

possibility of salvaging some or all of the component materials, the size
of the test hole should be increased to 500 mm x 500 mm. A
minimum of three samples of each different layer should be taken for
laboratory testing. This testing should include field moisture, LL PL LS,
grading and soaked CBR.
The sizes of all samples taken for laboratory testing should be deter-
mined from Table Ill.
2.3.2 Delineation of Subgrade Areas
Extreme care must be exercised when delineating subgrade areas of

different soil type and different drainage rating, This is done following
much the same procedure as outlined in Section 2.2.2.
• List the results on each subgrade sample as follows:
Soil Classification(See Table ()

Drainage Rating (Good, Fair or Poor)
Field Moisture Content
Grading Results % passing 2.36 mm
% passing 425 llm
% passing 75 Jlffi
Grain Size Classification
Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
Plasticity Index
Linear Shrinkage
In situ CBR
(Note: Laboratory CBR~ are not required.)
• Compare each pair of subgrade samples in turn, in order of

running chain age, to identify any significant change in soil type
or drainage.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 15
• Continue this process of comparison until the results of the final

two samples are compared, and delineation of the job length
into sections of like subgrade and drainage pattern is achieved.
Sections of similar subgrade and drainage pattern must be of

sufficient length to conform with practical and economical construc-
tion practice.
2.3.3 Subgrade Strength Achieved Under Equilibrium Moisture

. Conditions
With reconstruction or resheeting, the subgrade will usually vary little
from its state existing prior to work commencing*. In such cases, the
in situ CBR provides a good estimate of the subgrade strength that
will be achieved under equilibrium moisture conditions.
In situ CBRs can either be measured directly using the standard field-
in-place method (Test method 1289 Fl.3, Methods of Testing Soils for
Engineeering Purposes, SAA 1977a), or be estimated from a plot of in
situ CBR v dynamic cone penetration using the standard dynamic
cone penetrometer as the measuring device in the field CTest method
1289 F3.2, SAA 1977a).
The dynamic cone is much simpler to use and has the advantage of
being able to record subgrade strength as a function of depth
(compare Fig. 3a with Fig. 3b). However, before the "cone" can be
considered an effective device for estimating in situ CBR, a plot of in
situ CBR v dynamic cone penetration must firstly be established based
on a local soil testing program. This plot must not only show the two
variables to be well correlated but also show the standard error of
estimate to be within reasonable bounds for the particular range of
CBRs being measured.
The dynamic cone is not suitable for use in coarse-grained

materials.
• If this is not the case, a sample of the subgrade should be tested in the laboratory
and its soaked CBR determined. The subgrade strength achieved under equilibrium
moisture conditions should then be assessed in much the same way as outlined in
Section 2.2.3.
16 ARRB SR 41 1989
I
Fig. 3a - Pictorial view of the dynamic cone penetrometer
Fig. 3b - Pictorial view of the in situ CBR apparatus
2.3.4 Defining Subgrade Areas According to Design CBR
In the case of reconstruction or resheeting, the assessment of design

CBR is reasonably straightforward; one or other of the following
equations should be used for each different subgrade area:
Design CBR = least of estimated equilibrium CBRs (for less

than five results)
Design CBR = 1Oth percentile of all estimated equilibrium
CBRs (for more than four results)
= c -1.3 s
where:
Cis the mean of all estimated equilibrium CBRs, and
S is the standard deviation of all values.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 17
Estimated equilibrium CBRs are usually made equal to the estimated

in situ CBRs (see Section 2.3.3). In the case where the design CBR is
computed as the 1Oth percentile of all estimated equilibrium CBRs, any
·outliers· must firstly be eliminated from the computation (see
Section 2.2.4).
2.4 DRAINAGE CONSIDERATIONS
2.4. 1 Drainage Factors Affecting Design
Drainage and its effect on pavement performance should be consid-

ered from two different but related viewpoints.
Firstly, a best estimate is made of how drainage will affect the "equilib-
rium· strength of the subgrade. Section 2.2.3 of the Guide indicates the
way in which this should be done, by estimating the equilibrium
subgrade CBR dependent upon subgrade material type, climate and
drainage conditions expected to exist at the site.
Secondly, steps should be taken to improve any poor drainage cur-

rently existing at the site. The nature of the terrain and the rainfall
pattern at the site will both be critical factors to consider.
?oorly drained pavements are most often associated with:
• sites in flat or gently-undulating country;

• sites where a shallow water table exists;
• sites where irrigation or excessive garden watering occurs;
• sites where active springs or aquifers exist;
• sites which are known to be subject to flooding; and/or
• high rainfall.
For new construction, therefore. the soil survey should include the
location of any springs, zones of seepage or water-bearing strata.
When subsurface water is encountered during investigatory drilling,
the borehole(s) should be cased so that the maximum height of the
water table can be determined.
In the case of reconstruction, particular attention should be directed

to assessing the moisture conditions existing within the old pavement
and the subgrade. and to gauging the effectiveness of the various
elements of the existing drainage system. Areas of surface cracking
are natural locations where moisture will tend to congregate in pave-
ment layers and/or the subgrade. Site evaluation should include
therefore making a comparison of field moisture contents with respec-
tive plastic limits or optimum moisture content values. Should field
18 ARRB SR 41. 1989
moisture contents of subgrade samples exceed plastic limits or opti-

mum moisture contents by 10 per cent, this would indicate that the
subgrade will need drying out during construction. Also, notes should
be taken describing the condition of kerb and channels, the type,
width and condition of pavement surfacing, pavement crossfall, and
the effectiveness of any subsurface drains present (i.e. whether they
are still working or not).
2.4.2 Drainage Factors Affecting Construction
For new streets the aim should be to construct the pavement as far
above the water table as practically or economically possible. The
minimum difference between the subgrade and the level of the water
table should be 600 mm. If a pavement cannot be built to meet this
requirement, consideration should be given to the installation of
subsurface drains to lower the water table by the required amount.
Drainage problems are often encountered where a high water table

is found to exist adjacent to a cutting, particularly where the original
water table is at a higher elevation than the pavement surface. In
such situations, provision of subsurface drains must always be consid-
ered.
On flat or gently-sloping ground, strict level control should be

maintained during the construction process. Subsurface drains along
the lower edge of the pavement may also be warranted in these
circumstances.
The following guidelines apply to overall pavement drainage, given

the availability of suitable pavement materials;
(a) No pavement layer should be entirely surrounded by

materials of lower permeability (see Fig.4a).
(b) The flow path to the subsurface drain should proceed
through materials of increasing permeability (see two
alternatives in Figs 4b and 4c).
(c) The capacity of the subsurface drainage system should be
adequate to dispose of estimated quantities of water from
surface infiltration or other sources. Gerke(1987) provides
a comprehensive guide to the design of subsurface
drainage systems.
Other factors required to maintain good drainage ore:
• regular observations to be made of the drainage system

afterperiods of prolonged rainfall.
• quick action to be taken to flush out blocked subsurface
drains and to clean blocked outlet structures.
..
l
ARRB SR 41, 1989 19
!
Kerb & Channel
Fig. 4a - Unsatisfactory subsurface drain arrangement: water from

the basecourse is unable to reach the subsurface
drain through the subbase
I more permeable
I I than base
I I
I I
I Q 1 Alternative drain
L - - - ..1 placement
Fig. 4b - Satisfaction subsurface drain arrangement: water from the

basecourse is able to reach the subsurface drain through
the subbase
~~ttr;;-~~~1-~io~I~~f~%1~~ 1111 l!!!li!l!iil:! li!l~

Subsurface::
::::c:::
Fig. 4c - Alternative satisfactory subsurface drain arrangement
to Fig. 4b: water from the basecourse is given direct
access to the subsurface
20 ARRB SR 41, 1989
.'
• pothole repair and sealing of cracks in an existing pavement to

be an integral part of any maintenance program to minimise
moisture infiltration.
Finally, care should be taken in the selection of trees and/or shrubs to

be planted close to any street pavement. Some types of vegetation
will cause drying out of the subgrade which, in expansive clays leads
to significant distortion of the pavement surface (Mcinnes 1986 and
Barry 1986). These two references outline the problem, provide a list
of suitable shrubs and trees, and specify planting clearances.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 21

:.
3. THE NATURE AND LEVEL OF
TRAFFIC LOADING
3.1 GENERAL
The performance of the residential street pavement is affected by the

nature and level of traffic loading encountered over its design life. In
this Design Guide, for the purposes of determining the composite
effect of traffic, two major assumptions are made.
The first assumption concerns the means of computing load equiva-

lents between different axle configurations. For this, standard axle
loads need to be identified for the various configurations. Such stan-
dard axle loads are set by regulation:
• for a single axle consisting of single tyres,

the standard load= 5.4 t,
• for a single axle consisting of dual tyres,
the standard load = 8.2 t, and
• for a tandem axle consisting of dual tyres,
the standard load = 13.6 t.
These loads are considered to be equivalent because they produce

the same maximum surface deflection and each is assumed to cause
approximately the same damage to a pavement. One pass of a
standard load is taken to be an equivalent standard axle (ESA).
The second assumption concerns the means of computing equivalent

standard axles for a particular axle configuration carrying other than
its standard load. It is assumed here that the "fourth power law· applies.
The application of this law means that an axle or axle group of load P
and standard load P5 has as much damaging effect on a pavement
as (P /P5) 4 equivalent standard axles (ESA).
The composite effect of a traffic stream consisting of different axle

types and loads can therefore be found by converting all axle
passes to ESA and determining the total. The Design Traffic Value is
then the total number of ESA occurring over the design life of
the pavement.
22 ARRB SR 41, 1989
The following Sections indicate, step by step, how to compute the

Design Traffic Value taking into account:
• present or predicted commercial traffic volumes,

• commercial traffic growth,
• street capacity, and
• design life of pavement.
Two separate cases are treated herein:
(a) new construction (Section 3.2); and

(b) reconstruction and resheeting (Section 3.3).
3.2 DESIGN TRAFFIC VALUE FOR NEW CONSTRUCTION
3.2.1 Construction Traffic
Construction traffic is brought on by the construction of new houses

during the staging of a subdivision. During this staging, each com-
pleted pavement must take its share of the total number of construc-
tion traffic movements generated. The usual assumption made is that
construction traffic can be equated to:
(Number of houses serviced by the street) x

(Number of ESA generated by the average house)
Various figures are quoted in relation to the number of ESA generated

by the construction of the average housing residence: 16 ESA (Drew
1981) through to 24 ESA (Schofield 1985). Construction traffic caused
by the later installation of in-ground swimming pools, etc. should also
be considered. In the absence of evidence of a need for special cal-
culations, it is recommended that a value of 20 ESA per residence be
adopted.
The number of residences serviced by each street is not always easily

determined, particularly where streets are set out in a grid system,
because of the many points of access. Traffic studies have shown that
traffic generated in residential streets varies between 4 and 12 trips per
day per residence (Schofield, Mulholland and Morris 1984). By assum-
ing a number of vehicle trips per day per residence, an estimate of the
number of dwellings serviced by each street can be made from the
annual average daily traffic (AADD. By adopting a figure of seven
vehicle trips per day per residence, the following equation can be
used to predict construction traffic:
Construction traffic ESAs =(AADT/7) x 20 =3 AADT

ARRB SR 41, 1989 23
The staging of the subdivision will determine the number of days over
which the construction traffic will apply.
3.2.2 In-service Traffic
In-service traffic takes into account all traffic other than construction
vehicles, buses and garbage services. In-service traffic is given by the
following general formula:
In-service traffic ESAs =N 5• 365. Y
where:
Ns = ESA per day per lane for commercial vehicles other
than buses and garbage vehicles
y = p for r =0
(l+r)P-1
y = for r > 0 and Q =P*
ln(l+r)
( l + r )Q - l
y = + ( P - Q ) ( l + r )Q- 1
ln(l+r)
for r > 0 and Q < P
r = traffic growth rate
P = design life in years
Q = time in years for traffic to reach saturation level.

The three basic variables which influence in-service traffic are Ns, r
and P, which are now discussed in more detail.
Ns can be arrived at either by adopting an ESA value from
Table VII or by using the AADT, percentage commercial
vehicles (% CV) and ESA/CV figures given in Table VII and
calculating Ns as:
AADT %CV
N= X x ESA /CV
s 2 100
For streets expected to take industrial trafficking, computa-
tions should be done using figures approaching the higher
values in the table. Allowance must also be made for
•See Table VI for values of Y as a function of P and r
24 ARRB SR 41, 1989

double trafficking in the case of narrow pavements having

widths less than 5.0 m or in the case of pavements having
widths less than 9.0 m with consistent levels of kerbside
parking.
r: is usually dependent on the level of traffic. If traffic increases

cannot be predicted, an appropriate value taken from
Table VII should be adopted.
P: may need to be adjusted to take into account the build-up

in traffic in the early years of subdivision construction. Collec-
tors and distributors in particular would take some time
(between five and ten years) to service all traffic generated
from adjacent subdivisions. It would be expected that traffic
on these roads would start at a zero level and build up to a
near maximum over the five to ten-year period. For traffic
calculation, therefore, P should be reduced effectively by
one-half of the assumed build-up period.
TABLE VI
VALUES OF THE GROWTH FACTORY AS A FUNCTION OF P and r.
~I 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
o.cro 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00
0.005 5.06 10.24 15.57 21.02 26.61 32.36 38.22 44.25
0.010 5.13 10.51 16.18 22.13 28.38 34.95 41.87 49.14
0.015 5.19 10.78 16.80 23.29 30.28 37.82 45.93 54.65
0.020 5.26 11.06 17.47 24.55 32.35 40.98 50.50 61.03
0.025 5.32 11.34 18.15 25.85 34.57 44.48 55.60 68.21
0.030 5.39 11.63 18.88 27.28 37.00 48.28 61.36 76.54
3.2.3 Bus Traffic
The formula for estimating bus traffic is as follows:
Bus traffic ESAs =N b" 365. Y
where:
Nb= bus ~ (no. of services/day/lane x ESA per

types ~ bus)
ARRB SR 41, 1989 25

Y = as defined previously for in-seNice traffic. (This assumes that

bus traffic varies directly with in-seNice traffic over the
design life of the pavement).
To estimate N b requires a study of the planned use of buses by bus type

and a determination of the ESA per bus for each bus type. The latter
range between 0.6 and 1.4 ESA for light duty buses and 1.3 to 3. 7 ESA
for heavy duty buses. -
TABLE VII
TRAFFIC STATISTICS FOR RESIDENTIAL STREETS
Updated figures from Mulholland (1986)
Figures in brackets are mean values.
Street Type
AADT %CV ESA I CV ESA I Day
Limits Per lane
Minor <150 1.0- 15.0 0.01 - 0.70 0.03-5.0 0.00

(3.6) (0.20) (0.40)
Local Access 150- 1000 1.0-25.0 0.10- 1.00 0.2- 15 0.01

(5.0) (0.50) (4.0)
Collectors 1000-3000 2.0-20.0 0.10- 1.20 5-90 0.015

(7.0) (0.50) (30)
Dstributors >3000 2.0-8.0 0.20-0.90 20- 190 0.025

(3.7) (0.50) (60)
3.2.4 Garbage Traffic
Two principal assumptions are made in estimating garbage traffic in

terms of ESA. It is assumed that:
(i) garbage traffic will remain reasonably constant over the

design life of the pavement; and
(ii) garbage trucks in local access and minor streets will traffic
the outer wheel path only 50 per cent of the time.
Garbage traffic is then estimated according to:
Garbage traffic ESAs = N9 • 52. P

where:
N9 =ESA per garbage truck x no. of passes per week x f
26 ARRB SR 41, 1989

f = proportion of the time garbage trucks traffic the outer

wheel path
= 0.5 for minor and local access streets
= 1.0 for collectors and distributors.
A two-axle garbage truck has an average loading of 2. 14 ESA and a

three-axle garbage truck has a value of 3.04 ESA (Schofield 1985).1fthe
loading is not known, an appropriate value to use would be 2.6 ESA.
3.2.5 The Design life in Terms of ESA
The Design Life in years (P) should only be specified after a cost study
has been made of different design-maintenance options. Neverthe-
less, it is common practice to adopt:
20 years < P < 40 years for urban (fixed level) construction; and
l 0 years < P < 30 years for rural (non-fixed level) construction.
It may be necessary to adjust the P value to take into account the

build-up in traffic in the early years of subdivision traffic (refer to the
note regarding P given in Section 3.2.2).
Using an appropriate value for P~ the Design Traffic Value can be

computed in terms of ESA as the sum total of:
• Construction traffic ESAs I
• ln-seNice traffic ESAs~

• Bus traffic ESAs andI
• Garbage traffic ESAs.
A final check should be made to ensure that the computed Design

Traffic Value is of the right order for the street type concerned. Table VIII
provides a basis for this final check.
TABLE VIII
RANGE OF ESA FOR A TYPICAL STREET (BASED ON A 20 YEAR DESIGN LIFE)
Street Type Range of Computed ESA
Minor 2 X 1()3 - 6 X 1()4

Local Access 3 X 1()3 - 3 X 1()5
Collector 6 X 1Q4- 2 X 1()6
Distributor above 3 X 1Q5
ARRB SR 41, 1989 27

i
f"
Use the NAASRA pavement design manual (NAASRA 1987) for over 1Q6
ESA. The street types are defined by the AADT limits given in Table VII.
3.3 DESIGN TRAFFIC VALUE FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND RESHEETING
3.3. 1 Traffic Count Procedure
The traffic count procedure defined below assumes that little traffic
loading data are available for the pavement to be reconstructed or
resheeted and that no weigh-in-motion devices are available.
The steps to be taken to acquire traffic loading data from a one-day

manual count of commercial vehicles by number and load distribution
follow.
Step 1 Establish a set of vehicle configurations by which the person

counting can clearly distinguish the different vehicle types
by axle arrangements. A useful set is shown in Fig. 5.
Step 2 Classify each vehicle by estimated per cent fully loaded.
Where there is no indication of the load within an enclosed

truck, assume 50 per cent laden.
Step 3 Record the number of commercial vehicles each hour in

both directions during the count and classify each commer
cial vehicle according to vehicle type and estimated per
cent loading. A proforma such as that shown in Fig. 6should
suffice for this purpose. Hours of recording could probably be
restricted to 8 hours, 7.00 a.m. to 11.00 a.m. and 2.00 p.m. to
6.00 p.m., to cover both peak periods during the day.
The results from the one day manual count should be summarised
thus:
TABLE IX
COMMERCIAL VEHICLE COUNT BY VEHICLE TYPE AND ESTIMATED % LOADING

Light Truck Two Axle Three Axle Articulated
or Van Heavy Truck Heavy Truck Vehicle Buses
• E 25 50 75 F E 25 50 75 F E 25 50 75 F E 25 50 75 F E 50 F
Totals
over8 2 3 3 2 1 2 2
hours (Sample values only)
• E = Empty 25 = 25 per cent laden 50 = 50 per cent laden

75 = 75 per cent laden F=Full.
28 ARRB SR 41, 1989

TARE (T) DESCRIPTION
T<3 RIGID TRUCK: light two axle truck with dual

rear wheels
~· GJ
I
Tare 1.0 1.0

Net 1.0 1.5
Gross
. 2.0 2.5
GVM 4.5 t
II 3<T<6 RIGID TRUCK: Heavy two axle trucks with dual

rear. wheels used by councils or carriers of goods
Tare 3.5 2.5

Net 1.9 6.0
Gross 5.4 8.5
GVM 14t
Ill T>6 RIGID TRUCK: Three axle highway trucks used

by quarries or highway carriers
Tare 3.5 3.5

Net 1.9 11.5
Gross 5.4 15.0
GVM 20t
Rg 5- Set of vehicle configurations to be used in manual traffic

loading count GVM = gross vehicle mass; T =tare mass
ARRBSR41, 1989 29
IV SEMI-TRAILER Any heavy articulated vehicle,

5 axle configuration assumed
Tare 4.0 4.0 4.0

Net .0 11.0 11.0
Gross 4.0 15.0 15.0
GVM 34 t
v BUS Any heavy duty bus
e& I~
Tare 4.0 7.0
Net 2.5 1.5
Gross 6.5 8.5
GVM 15 t
Fig 5 (Cont).- Set of vehicle configurations to be used in manual

traffic loading count GVM = gross vehicle mass; T =tare mass
Desirably, three days of such counts should be recorded, say on a

Monday, a Wednesday and a Saturday of a typical working week and
these counts should take in at least one day of the garbage collection.
A seven day traffic count by automatic traffic counterwould be useful

information to have on hand to determine the distribution of traffic
over a week and to estimate the per cent CV for the street under
examination.
30 ARRB SR 41, 1989
ARRB Residential Street Traffic Survey
ARAB PROJECT NO. 392 : Design and Maintenance of Residential Streets
Name of Street :
Location: Suburb:
)>
' .
Width of Pavement (m) · Date·
:::v Estimated No. of Allotments Serviced
-- · ~
:::v Vehicle (CVtare) T<3 3s T < 5 T~ 5
AJ
CP Semi-trailers Buses c
type Non-CV (cars) (CV net)
en 2.5 8.0 13.5 22.0 4.0 Comments • ()
:::v -1
c
........
.to.
........
Time E 25 50 75 F E 25 50 75 F E 25 50 75 F E 25 50 175 F E 50 F AJ
)>
-o I
(X) 0
-o m
(f)
:::0 (j)
co z
o- (j)
c
a
I
0
m
11
3l
() t---- 0
AJ
() 11
0 I
m
c X
::J OJ
-+ I
"'0 m
a AJ
m
0' (f)
0
3
0
m
z
-1
)>
I
(f)
-1
;;;:)
m
m
-1
u
)>
<
m
~
Total m
z
w Note : Traffic shall be counted in both directions CJi
• Special note shall be taken of whether CVs share IWPs.
3.3.2 Calculation of ESA from the CV Traffic Count
To convert the traffic count data into ESA, it is necessary to make use
of the fourth power law and the different axle equivalencies (refer to
Section 3.1):
Axle Load 4
No. of ESA =(
Standard Axle Load
)
where:
Standard Axle Load = 5.4 t for a single axle consisting of single
tyres,
= 8.2 t for a single axle consisting of dual tyres,
=13.6 t for a tandem axle consisting of dual

tyres.
Application of this rule makes it possible to produce a table of values

giving ESA as a function of vehicle type and per cent estimated
loading. Table X shows these values of ESA.
The conversion of CV into ESA may be illustrated by using the sample

figures given in Section 3.3.1:
Total ESA = 2 X 0.001 + 3 X 0.028 + 3x 0.19 + 2 X 0.66

for 8 hours + 1 X 1.22 + 2 X 2. 15 + 2 X 0.32
= 8.06
Total ESA for 24 hours are then computed on the basis of assuming that
commercial vehicles effectively traffic residential streets over a 12 hour
period.
12x8.06=12.1
Total ESA =
for 24 hours 8
Assuming this to be Monday's count, Wednesday's count to be 10.7

ESA and Saturday's count to be 4.3 ESA, the average daily count could
be arrived at as follows:
Average daily = _§_ (12.1 + 10.7) + 2 (4.3)

7 2 7
= 9.4.
This should be the figure used to compute the design life of any
reconstruction/resheeting in terms of ESA, that is, unless it is anticipated
that the reconstruction/resheeting will significantly alter the pattem of
traffic.
32 ARRB SR 41, 1989
.,'
TABLE X
ESA AS A FUNCTION OF VEHICLE TYPE

AND PER CENT LOADING (Schofield 1985)
Light Two Axle Three Axle Articulated Large

Truck Load
Truck Heavy Heavy Vehicle Buses
Truck Truck
Tare (t) T<3 3~T<5 T~5 Semis Buses
Net (t) N=2.5 N=8.0 N = 13.0 N = 22.0 N=4.0
E 0.001 0.19 0.18 0.32 0.83

25% 0.004 0.35 0.34 0.42
50% 0.008 0.66 0.67 0.78 1.73
75% 0.016 1.22 1.33 1.62
F 0.028 2.15 2.48 3.26 3.21
3.3.3 Design Life in Terms of ESA
The adopted design life in years (P) is converted to total ESA by use of
the following formula:
Design Traffic Value= (Average Daily ESA Count) x 365 x Y
where:
Y= p for r = 0
Y= for r > 0 and Q = P*

ln(l+r)
Y= +(P-Q)( 1 +r)Q-l
In (1 + r)
for r > 0 and Q < P
r = traffic growth rate (refer Table VI)
P =design life in years
Q = time in years, for traffic to reach saturation level.
Any future traffic increases expected over and above those given by
the value r should be allowed for by reference to Section 3.2.3 (for
buses) and/or to Section 3.2.4 (for garbage services).
•(See Table V1 for values)
ARRBSR 41, 1989 33

i.
4. PAVEMENT THICKNESS
DESIGN
4.1 GENERAL
The principal requirement in pavement design is to provide a pave-

ment with structural integrity and a good riding surface over its design
life. There should be every chance of the pavement serving out its
design life without requiring any form of structural rehabilitation and
only a small chance of structural failure occurring within that time:
Structural failure is dependent on the surfacing appearing with exten-
sive cracking and/or it having undergone deformation greater than
20mm.
To minimise the possibility of premature failure each individual pave-
ment component must satisfy certain quality criteria (Sections 5 and 6)
and be constructed to appropriate standards (Section 7). Further-
more, the pavement structure must be designed as a composite entity
to limit the stresses and strains in the subgrade and the basecourse, that
is sufficient total pavement thickness must be used over the subgrade,
particularly over those sections of lowest strength.
In the following paragraphs, Pavement Thickness Design is considered ~. . '
for:
• urban construction,
• rural construction, and
• stage construction.
Urban construction is otherwise known as fixed level construction.

Here, the road carriageway is constructed without shoulders and
having its finished surface constrained on either side to match with the
lip of the kerb and channel. Because such physical constraints are
imposed, the structural design of the pavement is based on a high
confidence of the pavement structure achieving its full design life.
Recommended criteria are given in Section 4.3 in the form of the
design curves shown in Rg. 7. . .
34 ARRB SR 41, 1989

Rural construction is otherwise known as non-fixed level construction.

Here, the road carriageway is constructed with shoulders or in such
other way that its finished surface can be altered with practical ease.
In this case, there is still need to adopt a high confidence of the
pavement structure achieving its full design life; however, the con-
fidence level need not be as high as for urban construction. Recom-
mended criteria are given in Section 4.4 in the form of the design
cuNes shown in Fig. 70.
Stage construction relates to the situation where the pavement is con-

structed in stages for programming or other reasons. The stages can
be a combination of rural construction and urban construction but are
usually all of the one type. Further details are provided in Section 4.5.
Design examples illustrating all three construction modes are given in

AppendixA. The designcuNesused-Figs7and 7Q-relate to unbound
flexible pavements. However, there are particular points which the
designer must consider before applying these cuNes. These points
are outlined in the following Section.
4.2 SPECIAL POINTS OF NOTE
4.2.1 Composition of Total Pavement Thickness
The value of design thickness taken from the design cuNes in Fig. 7 or
Rg.lO is the total pavement thickness required to carry the design
traffic volume for the design subgrade CBR. This total thickness
normally comprises the pavement surfacing, base and subbase layers
as a composite entity. One exception is where the pavement
surfacing takes the form of a bituminous seal. In this case, the
bituminuous seal is assumed to· contribute nothing to the overall
strength of the pavement and the design pavement thickness is
taken to comprise the combined thickness of the base and subbase
layers.
4.2.2 Variations in Total Pavement Thickness
Variations in total pavement thickness are taken into account in the

design cuNes by assuming that a construction tolerance of± 25 mm
will be satisfied. Where variations outside this tolerance are expected
this should be allowed for il"' the design process.
Further material on the subject of variations in total pavement thick-

ness is provided in Auff (1983 and 1986). This work highlights the need
for good suNey level control.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 35
4.2.3 Thickness of Pavement Components
For practical reasons it is recommended that the following minimum

layer thicknesses be adopted:
Loyer Minimum Thickness
Asphalt Surfacing 25mm
Bose Loyer lOOmm
Subbase Layer lOOmm
The total pavement thickness is computed from Fig. 7 or Fig. 70, asap-
propriate, to provide adequate cover over the subgrade. The
thickness of bosecourse plus asphalt surfacing is computed in similar
manner to provide adequate cover over the subbase. For this, the
design CBR of the subbase is usually assumed to be 30 (see Section 5.3).
4.2.4 Deflection Check on Fatigue Cracking
For pavements with a design traffic value greater than lOS ESA, a
deflection check is incorporated in the thickness design procedure
with the intent of precluding fatigue cracking in the asphalt surfacing.
Details of this deflection check can be found in Section 2.2 of the
NAASRA Interim Guide to Pavement Thickness Design (NAASRA 1979).
The deflection check is illustrated in Appendix A l, Worked Example
No.2.
It is anticipated that this deflection check will be developed further as

research continues to improve the criteria for evaluating pavement
structural integrity (see Appendix B). There may be a need to consider
. setting a limit on surface cuNature as well as setting a limit on total
surface deflection. Future revisions of the NAASRA Guide will advise of
such changes.
4.2.5 Design of Bound Pavements
Where Figs 7 and 70are applied to the design of bound pavements,

the designer may conseNatively assume that the bound materials are
equivalent to the unbound materials, unless he has sufficient confi-
dence to apply pavement layer equivalency factors defined by:
Equivalent thickness of unbound material =
Equivalency Factor x Thickness of bound material
Preferably, equivalency factors should be established by testing
previous construction work or be obtained from some reputable
extemal source.
36 ARRB SR 41. 1989
r ,
I
It is strongly recommended that any bound pavement designed

using Fig. 7 or Fig. 70 be checked against the NAASRA Guide to the
Structural Design of Road Pavements (NAASRA 1987).
Other design documents may also be referred to:
• the Australian Asphalt Pavement Association's Design Manual

(AAPA 1983)- for design of any bitumen-bound pavement.
• the Main Road Department Queensland's Interim Manual for

Design of Flexible Pavements CMRD 1981) - for design of any
cement-stabilised pavements. (see Section 4.2.6).
• NAASRA's Guide to Stabilisation in Roadworks (NAASRA 1986)

- for stabilisation works in general.
4.2.6 Design of Cement-Treated Pavements
Cement is commonly regarded as the most effective additive for

treating sand and fine crushed rock, and can also be useful for treating
clayswhenused incombinationwithlime(NAASRA 1986). The correct
proportion of cement to use in any particular situation is best deter-
mined by the controlled laboratory testing of specimens of the
material containing varying additive concentrations (Dunlop 1980).
The cement treatment of materials for pavement construction can be

divided into two general types:
(a) Cement Modification: in which the cement, up to about 3

per cent by weight of soiL is added to a soil to alter its
properties to meet specification requirements.
(b) Cement Stabilisation: in which sufficient cement, commonly

between 3 and l 0 per cent, is added to a soil to produce a
material having usable tensile strength when compacted
and cured.
Pavements consisting of cement-modified materials can be charac-
terised and designed as unbound. However, pavements consisting of
cement-stabilised materials must be designed specifically as bound
pavements (see Section 4.2.5 and the following paragraph).
Special precautions should be taken to minimise the risk of shrinkage

cracks in the basecourse reflecting through to the wearing surface.
For instance, practical difficulties occur with clean well-graded grav-
els where high strength develops with the addition of cement (Metcalf
1977). A good check is to have samples of the cement-treated
material tested in the laboratory to ensure that the seven-day
ARRB SR 41, 1989 37
unconfined compressive strength does not rise above 2 MPa. Mini-

mum cover is another important aspect that should be investigated
(Dunlop 1980 NAASRA 1979). Then for all types of material, careful
construction control is essential to achieve thorough mixing, ade-
quate compaction and proper curing (Lay and Metcalf 1983).
Further information on each of these particular points is available

from the Cement and Concrete Association of Australia.
4.2.7 Design of Lime -Treated Pavements
Lime is commonly regarded as the most effective additive for treating

clayey soils, and can also be useful for treating plastic quarry materials
(NAASRA 1986). The correct proportion of lime to use in any particular
situation is best determined by the controlled laboratory testing of
specimens of the material containing varying additive concentrations
(Dunlop 1980).
The lime treatment of materials for pavement construction falls into

the two categories:
(a) Lime Modification whereby small amounts of lime, l/2 to 1

per cent by weight in the case of granular material and 2 to
3 per cent in the case of clay soils, are added to bring the
material to within specification.
(b) Lime Stabilisation whereby greater amounts of lime, 2 to 4 per

cent in the case of granular material and 3 to 6 per cent in
the case of soils are added to provide structurally adequate
material for use within the pavement.
Pavements consisting of lime-modified materials can be character-

ised and designed as unbound, while pavements consisting of lime-
stabilised materials are best designed on a structural basis utilising the
tensile strength of the stabilised layer(s) in accordance with NAASRA
(1987).
4.2.8 Effect of Vehicle Behaviour
The design cuNes (Figs 7 and 1{]) take no account of the effect of
vehicle behaviour on the performance of a pavement. There are two
common cases where vehicle behaviour may be critical:
• Near to or at traffic signals, where it may be necessary to

provide stronger and stiffer surfacings to withstand both
the stationary loadings and the horizontal forces due to
traffic stopping and starting.
38 ARRB SR 41, 1989
r .
• At bus stops, where it may be advantageous to use a concrete

pavement construction to withstand the effects of large buses.
4.2. 9 Design of Concrete Slab Pavements
The design of concrete pavements is adequately covered in the

NAASRA Design Guide (NAASRA 1987) and in two Cement and Con-
crete Pavement Association of Australia publications: T 33 (CACA
l984a) and TN 52 (CACA 1984b).
4.2. 10 Design of Segmental Pavements
The design of segmental pavements is adequately covered in the

references:
• Interlocking Concrete Road Pavements - A Guide to Design

and Construction, T 35 (CACA 1986a).
• Guide Specification for Construction of Interlocking Concrete

Road Pavements, TN 56 (CACA 1986b).
• Specification for Concrete Segmental Paving Units, MA 20

(CMAA 1986).
The design of clay brick pavements is adequately covered in the single

reference:
• Clay Segmental Pavements (Knapton and Mavin 1987).
4.3 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR URBAN CONSTRUCTION
For urban construction, pavement thickness design is based on the

design curves of Fig. 7. These relate the design thickness to the design
CBR and the design traffic value, assuming that there be high confi-
dence (95 per cent likelihood of the pavement serving out its full
design life). Structural integrity to this high degree is considered
appropriate to urban construction.
The design curves of Fig. 7 resulted from an extensive program of

testing whereby Project 392 was able to compile a computer data
bank consisting of test data from 200 residential street pavements -
one of the largest of its kind in the world. A data bank of this extent
enabled ARRB to analyse the data sample in two different ways. A
set of interim design curves was first established by means of a
graphical approach (Mulholland et al 1986). The shape of these
curves was then later to be confirmed by a more rigorous mathemati-
cal analysis (Barnard 1986). In both analyses, the design curves
ARRB SR 41, 1989 39

0
.L· l r r T NAASRA
r .•.•. r J.c_T_·r .. r Design
MINIMUM BASE THICKNESS k
f f l j .·. Curves
100
.... I I ....
· ......... >F· . .
I•
indicated
by dashed
,....,
E ... CBR30
-CBR20
lines
E
'-'
- BR15
r-- (CBR20)
~ 200 csR12-
- r-
-... t-- (CBR15)

(j)
c
-
.::.:.
t-CBR9- ~- '- (CBR12)
()
+--
1'-1-
r--
- - r-
-
~ 300
- t-
r--
-
,_ CBR7
-- -
(CBR9)
- -
r--. r- ,..... (CBR7)
(j)
r-- CBR5"'=""
-- -
t-- t-
E r- r-_ r- "- 1-
~ f..~CBR4-
1-- r--
r--- f--- (CBR5)
,_._
- - --
®0
"-....- 1---
r-
-· Subgrades with CBR < 3
....... (CBR4)
-- -
"-CBRJ•
500
I--
- should be designed as per
subgrades with CBR ; 3
I'
but with the initial subgrade (CRR3)

I--
layer stabilised to a depth
.....
I--
600
I-- of 100- 150 mrr I I I
2 3 4 5 6 78 9 2 3 456789 2 3 4 56789
ld3 Hf ld' ld'

Traffic: ESA
Fig. 7 -Interim thickness design cuNes for residential street

pavements, based on a 95 per cent confidence limit
(Mulholland 1986; Barnard 1986)
showed some differences from the NAASRA (1987) design curves

within the range of 1OS to 1Q6 ESA and particularly at low CBR values.
However, the NAASRA design curves at lOS ESA correspond closely to
the rural construction cuNes of Fig. 10 based on a 90 per cent
confidence of the pavement serving out its design life. This is not
unexpected, as the NAASRA cuNes are based on historical data gath-
ered generally from rural pavements and supported by SRA experi-
ence on these pavements.
In addition, factors such as:
• different construction practices and standards
• different traffic patterns,
• different subgrade and drainage conditions, and
• existence of and provision for underground seNices

support the more conservative design for fixed-level urban streets.
Note: There may be good and valid reasons to vary from the recom-
mended confidence limit of 95 percent. For example, where pave-
40 ARRB SR 41 1989 I
ment materials are scarce or they are particularly costly, the designer
has the option of using a confidence limit of 90 per cent but should not
adopt a figure below this for full urban construction. When using a
confidence limit of 90 per cent the designer should refer to the cuNes
of Fig. 70.
Three worked examples are given in Appendix A.l to illustrate the use
of the design method as it applies to urban construction;
• The first example considers the design of a new pavement in

a cui- de-sac where design traffic is less than 105 ESA. Design
cuNes are based on the confidence limit of 90 per cent.
• The second example illustrates the further check that should be

made to prevent fatigue cracking occurring in an asphalt
surfacing layer which is more than 25 mm thick, and where
the design traffic value exceeds 1OS ESA. Design cuNes are
based on the confidence limit of 95 per cent
• The third example illustrates the design of an existing local

access pavement which is to undergo total reconstruction.
Design cuNes are based on the confidence limit of95 per cent.
Typical cross-sections for urban construction are shown in Figs 8 and 9.
Fig.8 -Typical cross-section for an urban pavement with asphaltic

concrete surfacing
Rg. 9- Typical cross-section for an urban pavement with spray and

chip seal surfacing
ARRB SR 41, 1989 41
4.4 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RURAL CONSTRUCTION
Much of Section 4.3 applies also to rural construction. The major

difference is that pavement thickness design may be based on a
higher failure probability level because rural construction can accom-
modate resheeting and asphalt overlays with greater ease than urban
construction.
0 ..
! I I T r r Corresponding
I 1 J ___ ]_L_r NAASRA
MINIMUM BASE THICKNESS Design
Thicknesses
·.0. -, __
100 CBR30 at 106 ESAs
-CBR15- -- -
:Qi!R20
1-
.........
- -
- -- -
CBR12 (CBR20)
E 200 CBR9-
E (CBR15)
'-J
~-
..._
-
._CBR7
---- . -- - (CBR12)
<I>
c
.::,{.
--:c
()
300
-- -...
r-- _,_
.._CBR4 -
--- -
C!!_R5-
~
1-
1--
... ...
(CBR9)
(CBR7)
-- -
c
-f-. ....
<I> 400
CBR3•..
.... ..... r--
r-- (CBR5)
E r-- ....
~ .... (CBR4)
0
a. 500 ~
r-----· Subgrades with CBR < 3
should be designed as per
,....
r----- subgrades with CBR = 3
(CBR3)
f-- but with the initial subgrade
1-- layer stabilised to a depth
1-- of 100 - 150 m't"
600
2 3 4 56 789 2 3 456789 2 3 4 56789
lo3 lo4 l(f l(f>

Traffic: ESA
Fig. 10 -Interim thickness design cuNes for residential steel

pavements, based on a 90 per cent confidence limit
(Barnard 1986)
The design cuNes of Fig. 10 are based on achieving structural integrity
to a probability level of 90 per cent (i.e. 10 per cent chance of reha-
bilitation being required before the end of the design life). These
curves have been derived by ARRB using a rigorous statistical analysis
of the Project 392 test data (Barnard 1986). Such analysis follows in line
witf:l the most recent approaches being adopted by overseas organi-
sations (Lister 1984 AASHTO 1985).
A worked example (No. 4) is given in Appendix A.2 to illustrate the

outlined design criteria. Because the example assumes a design
traffic value of less than 1OS ESA, the deflection check for fatigue
cracking in the asphalt layer is not carried out (see Worked Example
No.2).
Typical cross-sections for rural construction are shown in Rgs 77and 72.
42 ARRB SR 41, 1989
It must be remembered that in using Fig. 70 or any other set of design

cuNes, the design CBR is computed to be on the low side of recorded
subgrade strengths (see Sections 2.2.4 and 2.3.4), and the design
traffic value is estimated to come within close range of the actual
traffic figure, if anything on the conseNative side. The other design
variable to consider is the confidence limit which determines the
actual set of design cuNes put into use. Sensitivity analysis will show
that the design thickness is much more dependent on the design CBR
or the confidence limit value than it is on the design traffic value
(Mulholland 1988). The design CBR should not be altered from the
computed figure unless the designer has very good reason for doing
~However, there may be circumstances in rural construction where
a different set of design cuNes con be used other than the set based
on a confidence limit of 90 per cent. Stage construction or temporary
works could be examples of this. See Worked Example No.6, which
follows in Appendix A.6, where a confidence limit of 80 per cent is
adopted for the first stage of stage construction. The relevant design
cuNes ore given in Fig. 77.
Fig. 11 -Typical cross-section for a rural pavement with asphaltic

concrete surfacing
Fig. 12- Typical cross-section for a rural pavement with spray and
chip seal surfacing
4.5 STAGE CONSTRUCTION
Two of the most common examples of stage construction ore illus-

trated in Appendix A.3 as Worked Examples Nos. 5 and 6.
• Worked Example No. 5 considers the design of a cul-de-sac

pavement which is to be constructed initially with a spray and
chip seal below the lip of kerb and channel then several years
ARRB SR 41, 1989 43
• later with asphalt flush with the lip of kerb and channel. Design
cuNes are based on a confidence limit of 90 per cent .
• Worked Example No. 6 considers the design of a local access

pavement which is to be constructed initially to non-fixed level
standards, then later improved to fixed level standards. Design
cuNes for the non-fixed construction are based on a confidence
limit of 80 per cent and the cuNes for the fixed level construction
are based on the confidence limit of 95 per cent.
Typical cross-sections for these types of stage construction are shown

in Figs 13 and 14.
Fig. 13- Typical cross-section for an urban pavement which is to be

constructed in two stages
2nd stage comprising additional pavement,

subsurface drains and kerb channels
r;
j(L_
~-
1st stage comprising the sealed pavement
and unsealed shoulders
-::.-=-= = =- - - =-=--=---=-= =--=--=--=r -../'';

I I
I I
I I
I
12 L9J
Rg. 14- Typical cross-section for a rural pavement which is later to

be improved to urban standards
!.
44 ARRB SR 41, 1989
,.-
,.
5. PAVEMENT MATERIALS
5.1 GENERAL
The prime function of the pavement layers is to distribute. wheel load

stresses over a sufficiently wide area to reduce transient and perma-
nent deformation to acceptably low levels. For unbound materials to
perform this function effectively in the long term they must satisfy
certain quality standards.
Up until Project 392 there has been no significant testing of residential

streets in Australia and very little elsewhere in the world. From its
testing of residential streets in· Project 392, ARRB has been able to
establish initial quality standards for such materials which appear to
distinguish good performance from bad performance (Mulholland
1986). These standards are outlined below for base materials, subbase
materials and other materials in that order. The standards must still be
considered interim and may be modified in the light of future perform-
ance data.
5.2 BASECOURSE MATERIALS
Quality standards for continuously-graded base materials are as

follows:
Grading - to conform with the limits specified in Table XI for

crushed rocks and Table XII for Natural gravels.
Plasticity - :::; 6 for climatic zones where rainfall greater than

Index 600mm.
- sl 0 for climatic zones where rainfall less than 600 mm.
Laboratory - in excess of 80 for urban-type construction.

Soaked CBR -in excess of 60 for rural-type construction*.
• This Iotter standard is based on verbal comment received from numerous shire
engineers and has yet to be validated by any research findings.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 45

Note that no durability requirements are specified here. For durability

requirements for high traffic situations, the designer should refer either
to local State Road Authority specifications or to the Draft Australian
Standard for Aggregate and Rock for Engineering Purposes (SAA
1977b).
The suitability of different types of geological material as basecourse

aggregate is discussed in Lay (1986). The principal advantage of
crushed rocks normally comes in that they have sharp angular faces.
This feature enables natural interlock to develop between the par-
ticles and therefore higher strength to be achieved over rounded
gravel for the same compactive effort.
5.3 SUBBASE MATERIALS
Quality standards for subbase materials are as follows:
Gradings - to conform with the limits specified in Table XIII

for crushed rocks and Table XIV for natural
gravels.
Plasticity - :::;; 12 for all subbase materials.

Index
Laboratory - in excess of 30.

Soaked CBR
Reference to Lay ( 1986) should also be made when considering the

suitability of a particular stone or gravel as pavement subbase.
5.4 OTHER MATERIALS
Materials not conforming with the above grading and plasticity stan-
dards may be permitted as basecourse or subbase provided they
meetthe CBR requirements and where sufficient experience has been
gained with the material's performance in practice.
The designer should note that, under certain conditions, the use of
bound materials may prove economically viable. For details regard-
ing the required qualities of bound materials, the designer should use
the following references:
• A Guide to Stabilisation in Roadworks (NAASRA 1986)

• Structural Design of Flexible Pavements (AAPA 1983 )
46 ARRB SR 41, 1989

TABLE XI
RECOMMENDED GRADING LIMITS FOR BASES:

CRUSHED ROCKS (SAA 1983)
Permitted Grading of Production

(%Passing)
Sieve Size
(mm) Nominal Size (mm)
40 30 20
53.0 100
37.5 97- 100 100
26.5 90-95 96- 100 100
19.0 93- 100
9.50 48-67 58-75 64-85
4.75 31 -48 37-56 44-64
2.36 22-34 28-42 32-47
0.425 lO- 18 ll- 20 13-22
0.075 4- 10 4- 11 3- ll
TABLE XII
RECOMMENDED GRADING LIMITS FOR BASES:

NATURAL GRAVELS (NAASRA 1974)

(%Passing)
Sieve Size
40 30 20
53.0 100
37.5 95- 100 100
26.5 86-95 98- 100 100
19.0 93- 100
9.50 50-74 60-82 71-87
4.75 35-59 42-66 47-70
2.36 25-46 30-52 35-56
0.425 10-26 12-30 14-32
0.075 4- 17 4- 18 6-20
ARRB SR 41, 1989 47

TABLE XIII
RECOMMENDED GRADING LIMITS FOR SUBBASES:

CRUSHED ROCKS (SAA 1983)

C% Passing)
Sieve Size
Cmm) Nominal Size Cmm)
40 30 20
53.0 100
37.5 90- 100 100
26.5 80-87 90- 100 100
19.0 90- 100
9.50 47-62 52-66 68-78
4.75 32-48 35-51 46-62
2.36 22-38 24-40 32-38
0.425 8- 21 9-22 12-26
0.075 3- 11 4- 12 5- 14
TABLE XIV
RECOMMENDED GRADING LIMITS FOR SUBBASES:

NATURAL GRAVELS (Mulholland 1986)

(%Passing)
Sieve Size
40 30 20
53.0 100
37.5 95- 100 100
26.5 80-97 93- 100 100
19.0 96- 100
9.50 48-85- 57-87 65-89
4.75 35-73 42-75 47-80
2.36 25-58 30-60 32-67
0.425 10-33 13-37 14-42
0.075 3-21 5-24 6-26
48 ARRB SR 41, 1989

6. PAVEMENT SURFACING
6.1 GENERAL
The surfacing is an important part of the residential street pavement.ln

addition to its technical function, which is discussed in more detail
below, the appearance of the surfacing is the means by which users
and taxpayers judge the quality of the entire pavement. It is important,
therefore, that a residential street surfacing should remain free from
obvious imperfections and not require frequent maintenance. The user
and adjacent residents also require it to have a pleasing appearance,
provide good riding quality, be suitable for pedestrian use and pro-
duce a low tyre/road noise level.
The technical requirements for the surfacing are that it should:
(a) be impermeable to air and moisture,
(b) have a long seNice life and be maintenance free for a

considerable period,
(c) be flexible and need not have the high resistance to rutting
required of more heavily-trafficked pavements,
(d) be of acceptably low level of longitudinal roughness, and
(e) have adequate low speed skid resistance but not necessarily the
high surface macrotexture which is required by high speed traffic.
Two surfacing types commonly satisfy these requirements - the spray

and chip seal and the thin asphalt surfacing. Under normal circum-
stances, the designer must decide between these for the residential
street pavement. Some of the broad factors that may affect his choice
are as follows.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 49
SPRAY AND CHIP SEALS
Advantages
• Low cost (approx. 1/3 that of 25 mm asphalt) (NAASRA 1985)

• Good skid resistance and light reflectance, even in the wet
• Reasonable seNice life (7 to 12 years) (NAASRA 1985).
Disadvantages
• Stone loss likely at areas of high traffic stress (e.g. stop lines)
• Rough surface for pedestrian and bicycle traffic
• Tracking of precoat or bitumen on tyres onto driveways, etc.
• Loose stones from the construction process can be a problem.
ASPHALT
Advantages
• Long seNice life ( 12 to 20 years) (NAASRA 1985)

• No stone loss likely
• Pleasant appearance.
Disadvantages
• For overlays, increased height can be a problem with gutters and

under bridges
• Higher cost than spray and chip seal.
Thin asphalt surfacings, rather than spray and chip seals, are most com-
mon in residential streets in the large urban centres. This may be due
more to the desire of residents to have an aesthetically pleasing street
surfacing which adds to the value of their property, rather than to
technical considerations.
Further details relating to the spray and chip seal and the thin asphalt
surfacing are given in the Sections which follow.
I..
6.2 SPRAYED SEALS
6.2. 1 Design References and Procedures
Full information on the selection of materials and on the design and

construction of sprayed seals is given in the NAASRA publication:
Bituminuous Surfacing Vol. l - Sprayed Work (NAASRA 1984a) The
50 ARRB SR 41 1989
I
information given below is intended to supplement this and to draw

attention to important areas. Dickinson (1984) further assists the de-
signer's understanding of the subject.
The design procedure used in Australia is based on the method first

developed in New Zealand (Hanson 1935).1t depends on the assump-
tion that, after rolling and particle orientation by traffic, the aggregate
particles in a seal will lie close packed as a single layer with their least
dimension vertical. The average thickness of this layer is the average
least dimension of the stones (ALD).The design intention is to fill a
predetermined proportion of the voids in this layer with bitumen.
The essential features of the design method are as follows.
(1) The average least dimension (ALD) of the sealing aggregate is

determined using a simple sieving procedure.
(2) The percentage of the theoretical surface voids to be filled by

bitumen depends on the degree of traffic compaction the sur-
facing will receive. This percentage is obtained from a table
(NAASRA 1984a). For the normal residential street situation, a
value of 90 or 95 per cent should be used.
(3) The bitumen application rate, expressed in L/m 2 , is then calcu-

lated from a simple expression involving the ALD and per cent
voids filled.
(4) Adjustments to the application rate are then made to allow for
the texture and absorptivity of the surface to be treated.
(5) For traffic flows of less than 500 veh/ d, a fluxing oil, normally dieseL
may be added to the bitumen to soften it and help to ensure that
the seal is adequately compacted by the low level of traffic.
(6) The aggregrate application rate is calculated from the ALD with
an allowance being made for imperfect spreading and initial
losses due to traffic action.
The calculated application rates may be modified further, depend-

ing on local experience with the materials used.
There may be situations where a two-coat seal should be considered
-despite the added cost involved.Two-coat seals provide longer life,
smoother surface texture, (similar to that of an asphalt) and less loss of
aggregate in areas where traffic stresses are high such as at stop lines.
While guidance on the design of such seals can be given (NAASRA
1984o), some experience is always necessary to judge the correct
application rates.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 51
6.2.2 Material Specification
To achieve a good result in the field, the designer must carefully specify
the right type of aggregate and the right class of bitumen. Guidelines
are provided below.
Aggregate
Crushed rock is normally used for sealing aggregate but in some areas
natural gravel may be the only material available.ln this case, it is
normal to specify that at least 75 per cent by mass should have two or
more faces produced by crushing.
It is important that the aggregate should be relatively single sized and

fairly cubical in shape.Simple tests are used to measure and control
particle shape and grading (NAASRA 1984o). The aggregate must be
able to resist decomposition on exposure and must have sufficient
strength and resistance to wear for the expected traffic conditions. For
areas where high values of skid resistance must be maintained or
where the aggregate will be subject to severe traffic polishing, a
material with a high Polished Aggregate Friction Value should be used
(SAA 1984a and b).lnformation on the range of aggregate tests used
is given by Dickinson (1984).
Sealing aggregate is normally precoated with diesel fuel, tar, bitumen

or an oil-based proprietary agent.The main purpose of this is to wet any
dust on the surface of the aggregate and to allow adhesion of the
bitumen binder to the surface of the aggregate after spraying. The rate
of application of precoat depends on the size, cleanliness, type and
dampness of the aggregate being used. For diesel fuel the rate is
normally in the range 6 to 12 L/m 2.Adhesion agents should be added
if there is a possibility of rain during or shortly after construction.These
agents are preferably added to the precoat but may be added to the
bitumen shortly before spraying.
Bitumen
i.
Class 170 bitumen is normally used for sealing and the required prop-
erties are given in AS 2008 (SAA 1980o). If the aggregate used in a
sprayed surfacing is durable and the base remains structurally sound,
then the life of the surfacing may be determined by the durability of the
bitumen. Bitumen hardens by oxidation until it rprv... hes a level where it
cracks or fails to hold the surface stones and surfacing distress occurs.
The resistance of a bitumen to oxidation hardening is measured by the

ARRB Durability Test (SAA 198Gb). Road trials have shown the relation-
52 ARRB SR 41, 1989
ship which exists between the Durability Test result and hardening on
the road (Oliver 1984). A minimum durability value of nine days is
commonly required for Class 170 bitumen and should be specified to
ensure adequate seal life.
6.2.3 The Construction Process
To place a durable seal with a satisfactory surface requires care,

experience and skill on the part of the laying crew and the supervising
personnel. Most problems with seal performance can be traced back
to lack of care or attention to detail during the construction process.
It is not possible to describe the process in detail here and the

reader is referred to the appropriate publications (NAASRA 1984o;
Dickinson 1984).
Some important points are as follows.
• For an initial seal the preparation of the surface which is to receive

the seal is most important. Any irregularities will reflect through the
seal and subsequent reseals.
• When an initial seal (not a primerseal) is being placed, the surface

should be primed and sufficient time left for the prime to cure.
• Bitumen sprayers should be regularly calibrated. The jets should

be undamaged and properly aligned and frequent checks for
blocked jets should be made.
• The correct bitumen application rate, cutter content and spray-

ing temperature should be used. If the sprayer calibration is
suspect, this can be checked relatively easily in the field using
the carpet tile method (Tredrea 1985).
• The correct aggregate application rate should be used. Insufficient

coverage results in "fatty" areas. Over-application restricts opti-
mum stone orientation, results in wastage and creates a poten-
tial traffic hazard.
• Field measurements need to be taken at the completion of each

sprayer run to ensure that the specified bitumen and aggregate
application rates are within acceptable tolerances. Standard
daily record sheets are readily available for this purpose.
• Traffic speeds should be kept low for the first hour or so after laying,
possibly by leading traffic through behind a roller. The important
particle orientation process is started by rolling but is completed
by the action of low speed vehicle tyres. If high speed traffic
ARRB SR 41, 1989 53

travels over the surface before a reasonable degree of particle

interlock has occurred, then the seal may be permanently dam-
aged through stone loss.
6.3 ASPHALT
6.3. l Design References and Procedures

The primary reference on the subject of asphalt mix design is the
NAASRA publication: Bituminuous Surfacing. Vol. 2 - Asphalt Work
(NAASRA 1984b). Personnel concerned with the specification and
placement of asphalt surfacings should also use the Asphalt (Hot Mix)
Paving- Guide to Good Practice, AS 2734 (SAA 1984a) when preparing
the actual construction specification. Further background information
on the subject is given in Dickinson (1984).
Two procedures are used to design asphalt mixes in Australia. The most
commonly used is the Marshall method.ln New South Wales, however,
the modified Hubbard Field method is often preferred.Both proce-
dures are described in detail in NAASRA (l984b). In order to design a
mix using either method, it is necessary to have access to a properly
equipped laboratory staffed by experienced personnel. For this rea-
son, few Local Government Authorities have designed their own
residential street mix, and the more common practice has been to
specify State Road Authority (SRA) - designed mixes because these
mixes are readily available and are able to be specified by adopting
the SRA standard specification.
A note of caution is given here that these mixes do not always perform
under light traffic conditions. ARRB research (Oliver 1979) has shown
that highway-type mixes, particularly when laid as a thin layer, can
have a high air void content immediately after placement and heavy
traffic is necessary to produce post-construction densification.When
such mixes are laid on residential streets the traffic is usually not heavy
enough to compact them further and a high air void content
remains.The result is that there is an increased access of air to the
interior of the mix and therefore a greater possibility of the bitumen
hardening prematurely. Oliver suggests that there may be a substan-
tial benefit in terms of seNice life achieved by a more critical look at mix
design and mix selection for residential streets and it is suggested
(Oliver 1986) that there may be the potential to double seNice life.
6.3.2 Mix Design

In highway-type mixes, experience over decades has established, with
a fair degree of confidence, the relationship between laboratory
compaction and field compaction (i.e. the compaction at construc-
tion plus the further compaction under traffic).This is not the case in
residential mix design. Here, experience is presently lacking to enable
54 ARRB SR 41, 1989
the determination of the correct number of blows in the laboratory to

replicate field compaction. In residential streets. the degree of com-
paction at construction is maintained over life. with little if any further
compaction by traffic.
As well as asphalt mixes. there are other mixes which have often been
found to be very satisfactory in seNice in overseas environments. Many
contain more bitumen and sand than asphalt and may lead to rutting
in hot environments. Examples include: hot rolled asphalt. gap-graded
mixes and stone filled sheet asphalts. There is no approved Australian
design method for these mixes and yet they may provide adequate
seNice.Therefore, they must be assessed in particular localities and
their performance obseNed under the relevant conditions of climate.
traffic, etc. and their performance compared with more conventional
Australian mixes.
Two types of mix recommended here are as follows:
ARRB Gap-graded Mix
ARRB developed a gap-graded design because such mixes are easy

to compact, so a low air void content is obtained at construction and
no traffic compaction is necessary (Oliver 1986).1n addition less of the
voids in a gap-graded mix are interconnected than in a continu-
ously graded mix with the same air void contents and this helps
reduce the rate of bitumen hardening.lt is possible to manufacture a
similar mix by approximately matching the aggregate composition
and bitumen content given in Table XV. Since the properties of the
fine aggregate are very important in this type of mix, the propor-
tion of (angular) crushed rock fines to (rounded) sand is given, rather
than a combined aggregate grading. Approximately 7 per cent of
the combined aggregate should pass the 0.075 mm sieve so the
amount of added filler will need to be adjusted depending on the
proportion of material, in the sand and crusher dust fractions, which
passes the O.Q75 mm sieve.
The bitumen content can be varied by a small amount depending on
experience with the laid materiai.Some experimentation may be nec-
essary to determine the best compaction procedure as gap-graded
mixes are more prone than dense-graded mixes to shove in front
ofthe roller and produce cracks if rolled attoo high a temperature. The
compacted mix has a smooth and dense surface texture with a sandy
appearance.
High Bitumen Content Mixes
The Road Construction Authority of Victoria (RCA) has designed a
series of mixes by modifying the conventional highway mix to be
more suitable for lightly-trafficked streets. The main change has been
ARRB SR 41, 1989 55
TABLE XV
AGGREGATE COMPOSITION OF THE ARRB GAP-GRADED MIX

(OLIVER 1986)
Component % by Mass ofTotal Aggregate
10 mm aggregate 31
Crusher dust 32
(5mm or3 mm minus)
Dune Sand 32
Mineral Filler Approx. 5%
(to obtain about 7% of
the combined aggregate
passing the 0.075 sieve)
Bitumen Content
( % mass of total mix 6.8
Class 170 bitumen )
to reduce the design air void content by 1.3 per cent. These mixes are
available from most asphalt mixing plants in Victoria. Although each
mix is individually designed, it should be possible to approximate the
RCA design for a quarry outside Victoria by taking a conventional
dense graded mix and increasing the bitumen content byO.S per cent.
Such mixes should be trialed first before being used; some problems
may become evident with bleeding, particularly in the warmer cli-
mates of Australia.
Irrespective of the mix type adopted, it must be recognised that

bitumen content is only one of the factors influencing compaction
achievement. Other factors such as aggregate particle shape and
texture and particle size distribution will have an influence on workabil-
ity, as will the hardness of the bitumen.
6.3.3 The Construction Process
Construction practice is described in NAASRA (1984b). Laying crews

usually obtain a good surface appearance and generally roll to a set
pattern to cover the area as well as possible. ThA net result in terms of
compaction achieved is vital to the good performance of the asphalt
surface because surfaces which have been property compacted
have higher strength values and lower air voids than surfaces with poor
compaction.
56 ARRB SR 41, 1989
The two factors which have the greatest effect on compaction are:
• the temperature of the surface on which the mix is being placed

(the substrate) and the temperature of the mix, and
• the number of roller passes and the pattern used, and how soon
these passes are applied after the mix has been spread.
The aim of the compaction process is to produce a mat with an air void
content not much greater than 5 per cent.The values given in Table XVI
show how this is best achieved under normal conditions. Where tem-
peratures are low, the more easily compacted mixes described in
Section 6.3.2 should be used.
TABLE XVI
ASPHALT LAYING TEMPERATURES BASED

ON RESEARCH INFORMATION (DICKINSON 1984)
Minimum Mix Temps

(degree C)
Road Surface
Temps in Shade
(degree C)· Thickness of Layer (mm)
25 30 35 40 >40
5to 10 t t t 145 145

10 to 15 t t 150 140 140
15 to 25 t 160 140 135 135
>25 160 150 130 130 130
t If a conventional mix is placed under these conditions, the air void

content is likely to be greater than 5 per cent and the service life will
be reduced. A mix designed for residential street use should be
employed or the layer thickness increased so that approximately 5
per cent air voids is achieved.
The following factors also affect the degree of compaction achieved.
(a) Type of rollers- properly controlled vibrating rollers generally give

improved compaction.
(b) Elastic deformation of the pavement- if the deflection is low, the

"anvil'" effect predominates producing improved compaction.
(c) Wind speed - high winds produce more rapid temperature loss
and poorer compaction.
It is important, therefore, that sampling and testing of asphalt for

compliance with specified mix design and compaction should be
carried out on a regular basis.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 57
•
7.CONSTRUCTION
STANDARDS
7. 1 G"ENERAL
The quality of construction, to a very large extent, will determine the

performance of a flexible pavement structure. This quality must
commence from the outset with the preparation of the subgrade
and any underlying fill, and continue through to the completion of
the laying of the pavement surfacing.
An essential part of the design process, therefore, is a description of

the construction standards or controls to ensure the realisation of the
assumptions made as the basis of the final design. These standards
must relate to general earthworks, subgrade, subbase, basecourse
and pavement surfacing ,that is , to the total construction process,
as outlined in the paragraphs which follow.
7.2 GENERAL EARTHWORKS
As a first step to general earthworks, clearing and grubbing should I.
be carried out and all top soil removed. Any fill should then be
placed in layers to achieve a minimum density of 95 per cent
standard compaction (AS1289 of SAA 1977o).
Proof rolling may be used to ensure that no soft spots occur within
the fill. This should be done following on closely from the completion of
normal rolling. A fully ballasted self-propelled three wheel steel- wheeled
roller, heavy pneumatic tyred roller with high contact pressure or
loaded truck should be used for this exercise.
7.3 SUBGRADE PREPARATION

The top 150 mm of the subgrade formation should be compacted
to 100 per cent standard compaction.
Care must be taken to ensure that no discontinuities exist across the

width of the subgrade. A typical example would be an existing
unsealed road of narrow width with table drains, which is to be
widened and reconstructed to urban-type standards. with its
58 ARRB SR 41, 1989
subgrade levels at or near the existing surface. In this case, the mode
of construction must pay particular attention to achieving uniform
compaction of the subgrade across the pavement width.
Under proof rolling, the subgrade should exhibit no visible signs of

deformation or instability. As an alternative to proofrolling, Benkelman
beam testing can be carried out in a regular pattern over the
surface of the subgrade to locate weak spots and assess the degree
of uniformity.
The subgrade should be constructed to a tolerance of + 15 mm to

-30 mm of the design level.
7.4 SUBBASE CONSTRUCTION
Construction of the subbase should proceed on the basis of achieving

the following:
Characteristic 95% Modified compaction

Density: ( AS 1289 of SAA 1977 a).
Moisture Field moisture content should permit ade-

Content quate compaction. The lower the moisture
content below the optimum moisture con-
tent, usually the higher the compactive
effort required to achieve the characteristic
density.
Levels: Finished levels to be within ±20 mm of design

levels.
Shape: The surface of the subbase should not devi-

ate from a 3 m straight- edge laid in any
direction by more than 25mm.
Deflection testing may be used to indicate the uniformity of
construction following the completion of compaction of the subbase
layer. This should be done along the wheel paths at a test interval of
20 m. Where deflection testing is carried out on the completed
subbase layer, the coefficient of variation in recorded deflection
readings should not exceed 50 per cent (Scala 1970).
7.5 BASECOURSE CONSTRUCTION
Corresponding construction standards for the base course layer are

as follows:
• Characteristic 98% Modified compaction ( AS 1289 of
SAA 1977).
ARRB SR 41, 1989 59

Moisture Field moisture content should permit adequate

Content: compaction. The lower the moisture content
below the optimum moisture content, usually
the higher the compactive effort required to
achieve the characteristic density. Prior to
sealing the moisture content should be less
than optimum moisture content.
Levels: Finished levels to be within ± 10 mm of design

levels.
Shape: The basecourse should be constructed to a

minimum layer thickness equal to the design
layer thickness and its finished surface should
not deviate from a 3 m straight-edge laid in any
direction by more than 15 mm.
Deflection testing may be used to indicate the uniformity of con-

struction following the completion of compaction of the base layer.
This should be done along the wheelpaths at a test interval of 20m.
Wheredeflectiontesting is carried outon the completed base layer,
the coefficient of variation (CV) in recorded deflections should not
exceed 30 per cent (Scala 1970).
7.6 PAVEMENTSURFACING
Construction standards for the finished surfacing should be meas-

ured in terms of levels and roughness.
Finished levels should be within ± 10 mm, and the finished surface

should notdeviate from the bottom ofa 3metre long straight.:edge
laid in any direction by more than 7 mm (SAA 1984o). Any asphalt
surfacing layer should be constructed to a minimum layer thickness
equal to the design layer thickness.
Roughness standards as measured by the NAASRA roughness meter

(Scala and Potter 1977) should vary in accordance with street type:
Collectors and distributors - roughness not to exceed

10 counts/100m.
Minor and local access streets - roughness not to exceed

12 counts/100 m.
60 ARRB SR 41, 1989

REFERENCES
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTA-

TION OFFICIALS (1985). Proposed AASHTO guide for design of
pavement structures. Volumes 1 and 2. NCHRP project 2Q-7 /24.
AUFF, A.A. (1983). Quality control of dimensions in road construc-

tion. Australian Road Research Board. Special Report SRNo. 25.
_ _ (1986). The selection of statistical control schemes for con-

struction quality control. Australian Road Research Board. Special
Report SRNo. 30.
AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1983). Structural

design of flexible pavements. Manual No. 1. AAPA,Melbourne.
BARNARD, P. (1986). Data collection and statistical analysis

tecniques for deriving pavement design curves. Australian Road
Research Board. Internal Report, AIR 392-5.
BARRY, I.M. (1986). The influence of trees and shrubs on pavement

loss of shape. Road Construction Authority of Victoria. Technical
Report 75. RCA, Melbourne.
CEMENT AND CONCRETE ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA( 1984a).

Concrete street and parking area pavement design. T33. CACA,
Sydney.
_ _ (1984b). Single lane bus bays. TN52. CACA, Sydney.
_ _ ( 1986a). Interlocking pavements -a guide to design and

construction. TN35. CACA, Sydney.
_ _ (1986b). Guide specification for construction of interlocking

concrete road pavements. TN56. CACA, Sydney.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 61

CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA (1986). Specifi-

cation for concrete segmented paving units. MA 20. CMAA, Sydney.
DEPARTMENT OF MAIN ROADS, NEW SOUTH WALES (1983).

Pavement thickness design. M.R. Form No. 76. DMR, Sydney.
DICKINSON, E.J. (1984). Bituminous Roads in Australia. Australian Road

Research Board.
DREW, P.J. (1981). Flexible road pavement thickness design for resi-
dential streets. Final year Project Report to Dept Civil Engineering,
Univ. of Newcastle, NSW.
DUNLOP, R.J. C1980). A review of the design and performance of

roads incorporating lime and cement stabilised pavement layers.
Australian Road Researdh Board ARR Journal, Sept.1980, Vol10, No.3
FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION (1979). Technical guide

lines for expansive soils in highway subgrades. Report No. FHWA-RD-
79-51. FHWA, Washington, D.C.
GERKE, R.J. (1987). Subsurface drainage of road structures. Australian

Road Research Board. Special Report SRNo. 35.
HANSON, F.M. (1935). Bituminous surface treatment of rural highways.

Proc. New Zealand Soc. Civ. Eng. 21 (1934-35), pp. 247-59.
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS (1984). Guidelines for the design of flexible

pavements. IRC, New Delhi.
JONES, E.A. and MALLON, P. (1983). Pavement analysis and design by

Benkelman Beam. Proc. 2nd Nat. Conf. on Local Government Eng.,
pp. 325-29, Brisbane. t .
KNAPTON. J. and MAVIN. K.C. (1987). Clay segmental pavements.

Brick Development Research Institute/Australian Clay Brick Asso-
ciation/Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology.
LAY, M.G. and METCALF, J.B. (1983). Soil stabilisation in Australia.

Proc. 2nd Nat. Conf. on Local Government Eng. pp. 346-51, Brisbane.
_ _ (1985). Source Book for Australian Roads: Third Edition. Austra-

lian Road Research Board.
_ _ (1986). Handbook of Road Technology.

Gordon and Breach: London
62 ARRB SR 41. 1989

l
I .
MAIN ROADS DEPARTMENT, QUEENSLAND (1981). Interim manual for

the design of flexible pavements.
METCALF, J.B. (1977). Principles and application of cement and lime

stabilisation. Australian Road Research Board, Research Report
ARR No. 49.
MciNNES, D.B. (1986). Drying effect of different verge planted tree

species on urban roads. Proc. 13th ARRB Conf. 13(4), pp. 54-66.
MULHOLLAND, P. J., (1988), Pavement design variable and street

construction cost, Proc. NSW LGEA Conf., Sydney
_ _ SCHOFIELD, G.M. and ARMSTRONG, P. (1986). Structural de-

sign criteria for residential street pavements: interim report based
on Stage 1 of ARRB Project 392. Australian Road Research Board.
Research Report, ARR No. 140.
_ _ (1987) Structural design guide for residential street pavements:

preliminary draft. Australian Road Research Board. Research Report
ARR No. 150
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIAN STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES:

(1974). A guide to the selection and testing of gravel for
pavement construction. NAASRA, Sydney.
_ _ (1979). Interim guide to pavement thickness design.

NAASRA, Sydney.
_ _ (1984a). Bituminous surfacing. Vol. 1 - Sprayed Work.

NAASRA, Sydney.
_ _ (1984b). Bituminous surfacing. Vol. 2 - Asphalt Work. NAASRA,

Sydney.
_ _ (1985). Guide to the selection of bituminous surfacing for

pavements. NAASRA, Sydney.
_ _ (1986).Guide to stabilisation in roadworks.

NAASRA, Sydney.
_ _ (1987). Pavement design: A guide to the structural design of

road pavements. NAASRA, Sydney.
OLIVER, J.W.H. (1979). Asphalt mixes for residential streets. Fourth Int.
Conf. of Aust. Asphalt Pavement Assoc., Melboume.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 63
_ _ (1983). Road trials laid to evaluate mixdesigns for resurfacing

lightly trafficked residential streets. Australian Road Research
Board. Research Report, ARR No. 125.
_ _ (1984). An interim model for predicting bitumen harden-

ing in Australian sprayed seals. Proc. 12th ARRB Conf. 12(2), pp. 112-
20.
_ _ (1986). Road trials to evaluate mix designs for resurfacing resi-

dential streets: results after 6 years. Australian Road Research Board.
Internal Report AIR 305-2.
PITMAN, C.J., IASIELLO, W.N., MciNNES, D.B. (1985). Investigations into

residential street pavements on expansive clay subgrades. Proc. 3rd
National Conf. on Local Government Eng., pp. 130-33, Melbourne.
SCALA, A.J. (1970). The use of Benkelman beam deflection test in

control of construction and work. Proc. 5th ARRB Conf., 5(5),
pp. 181-94.
_ _ and POTTER, D.W. (1977). Measurement of road roughness.

Australian Road Research Board. Technical Manual ATMNo. l.
SCHOFIELD, G.M. (1985). Traffic as a design variable for residential

street pavements. Australian Road Research Board. Internal Report,
AIR 392-4.
_ _ ,MULHOLLAND, P.J. and MORRIS, P.O. (1984). State of the art

report. Design and maintenance of residential street pavements.
Australian Road Research Board. Internal Report, AIR 392-1.
STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA ( 1977a). Methods of testing

soils for engineering purposes. AS 1289. SAA, Sydney.
_ _ (1977 b). Draft Austra lion Standard for aggregate and rock for
engineering purposes. Part 3- pavement base and subbase. DR
83181. SAA, Sydney.
_ _ (1980a). Residual bitumenforpavements.AS2008.SAASydney.
_ _ (198Gb). Methods of testing bitumen and related road

making products. AS2341 Section 13. Durability of bitumen. SAA,
Sydney.
_ _ (1981). The site investigation code. AS 1126. SAA, Sydney.
_ _ (1984a). Asphalt (hot-mixed) paving- guide to good practice.

AS 2734. SAA, Sydney.
64 ARRB SR 41, 1989
I
_ _(1984b). Laboratory polishing of aggregate using the verti-

cal road wheel machine. AS 1141.40. SAA, Sydney.
_ _ (1984c). Laboratory polishing of aggregate using the hori-
zontal bed machine. AS 1141.41. SAA, Sydney.
_ _ (1986). Road and traffic engineering- glossary of terms, Partl

-Road design and construction. AS 1348.1. SAA, Sydney.
TREDREA, P.F. (1985). Measurement of the application rates of scrap

rubber modified bituminous binders. Australian Road Research
Board. Internal Report, AIR 286-12.
ARRB SR 41. 1989 65

APPENDIX A
PAVEMENT THICKNESS DESIGN: WORKED EXAMPLES
A.1 DESIGN FOR URBAN CONSTRUCTION
Three worked examples are given:
• Worked Example No. 1 considers design of a new pavement in

a cul-de-sac where design traffic is less than 1OS ESA (Section
A.l.l).
• Worked Example No. 2 illustrates the further check that should be

made to prevent fatigue cracking occurring in an asphalt
surfacing layer which is more than 25 mm thick, in the particular
instance where the design traffic value exceeds 1OS ESA
(Section A. 1.2).
• Worked Example No. 3 illustrates design of an existing local

access pavement which is to undergo total reconstruction
(Section A.1.3).
A.1. 1 Worked Example No. 1:
A new pavement of urban-type construction where the design

traffic value is s1 05 ESA. Design cuNes are based on the confidence
limit of 90 per cent
DATA:
Street Description Cul-de-sac of 100 m length
Subgrade Heavy clay (CH) along entire length

with Laboratory soaked CBRs recorded
of 3.0, 4.5 and 4.0; PI =25.
Dynamic cone results from three year old pavements located

nearby gave in situ CBRs on the same heavy clay of 5, 4, 7, 8
and 15.
66 ARRB SR 41, 1989
Rainfall = 800 mm
Drainage = Good site with subsoil drains to be pro-
vided
Traffic = Anticipated AADT 150
Design Life (P) = 30 years
DESIGN CALCULATIONS
(i) Design CBR = Least of Lab. CBRs x Factor from Table IV

for PI> 11
= 3.0 X 1.4
= 4.2, say, 4.0
Importantly, this value is confirmed by the results obtained from the

pavements nearby.
(ii) Design Traffic = Construction ESAs + ln-seNice ESAs

+ Garbage ESAs
= 3.AADT + N5 .365.Y + N9 .52.P
AADT = 150 (from given data)

Ns = 0.4 (from Table VII)
y = P =30 (Section 3.2.2)
Ng = 2.60 x 1 x 0.5 = 1.3 (Section 3.2.4)
Design Traffic = 3 X 150 + 0.4 X 365 X 30 + 1.3 X 52 X 30

= 450 + 4380 + 2028
= 6860, say, 6.9 x 1Qa ESA
Note that this value is within the range given for Minor Streets in
Table VIII.
(iii) Design Thickness from Fig. 70 = 265 mm
(iv) Pavement to be composed of, say:

Asphalt Surfacing = 25 mm
Base Layer = 100 mm
Subbase Layer = 140 mm
For a design traffic of 6. 9 x l Q3 ESA and a design CBR of 30 (see Fig. 70),
the required depth of cover over subbase is 100 mm which is satisfied
by the above.
A.1.2 Worked Example No. 2:

A new pavement of fixed level construction where the design
traffic value > 105 ESA. Design cuNes are based on the confidence
limit of 95 per cent.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 67
DATA:
Street Description = Collector of 1500 m length.
Subgrade
1st 500 m = Silty clay (CL) with Lab. soaked CBRs

recorded of 5, 7, 6, 8 and 4.5; PI= 17.
2nd 1000 m = Clayey sand (SC) with Lab. soaked

CBRs recorded of 14, 18, 12,9 and
12; PI =10.
Rainfall = 1200 mm
Drainage = Fair with subsoil drains to be provided
Traffic = 500 veh/ d at year 0

2500 veh/d at year 5
then increasing by 2% per annum
No. of light buses = 10

per day, per lane
No. of garbage = 5
trucks per week
N.B. Traffic capacity assumed not to be exceeded in the 30

years.
DESIGN CALCULATIONS:
(i) Design CBR

for 1st 500 m = lOth percentile of 5 Lab. CBRs x
0.8 (Factor from Table IV for PI > 11)
= (6. 1 - 1.3 X 1.27) X 0.8
= 3.6,say,M
DesignCBR
for 2nd 1000 m = 1oth percentile or 5 Lab. CBRs x 0.65
(Factor from Table IV for PI < 11)
= (13.0- 1.3 X 2.97) X 0.65
= 6.5, say,Z
68 ARRB SR 41, 1989
J
(ii) Design Traffic = Construction ESAs + ln-seNice ESAs

+ Bus ESAs + Garbage ESAs
= 3.AADT + N5 .365.Y + Nb.365.Y + N9 .52.P
Ns = 30 (from Table VI{)
p = 28 years (to take into account

initial build-up in traffic)
(1 + 0.02)28 -1
y =
In (1 + 0.02)
0.7410
= = 37.4 (Section 3.2.2)
0.0198
Nb = 10 x 1.0 = 10 (Section. 3.2.3)

Ng = 2.60 x 5 x 1.0 = 13 (Section 3.2.4)
Design Traffic = 3 X 2500 + 30 X 365 X 3 7.4 + 10 X

365X 37.4 + 13 X 52 X 28
= 7500 + 409 530 + 136 510 + 18 928
= 572 468, say, 5.7 x 105 ESA
Note that this value is just within the range given for Collectors
in Table VIII.
(iii) Design Thicknesses from Fig. 7:
For 1st 500 m = 495mm

For 2nd 1000 m = 310 mm
(iv) Pavements to be composed of, say:
1st Section Asphalt Surfacing = 30 mm
Base Layer = 100 mm
Subbase Layer = 365mm
2nd Section Asphalt Surfacing = 30 mm
Base Layer = 100 mm
ARRB SR 41, 1989 69

For a design traffic of 5. 7 x 1OS ESA and a design CBR of 30 (see

Fig. 7), the required depth of cover over subbase is 130 mm which
is satisfied by the above.
(v) For pavements with a design traffic value greater than 105 ESA,
a deflection check is incorporated in the thickness design proc-
edure to preclude fatigue cracking in the surfacing. Refer to Sec-
tion 2.2 of the NAASRA Interim Design Guide (NAASRA 1979).
For the purpose of illustration, this check is carried out on the 1st
pavement section only.
The 1st pavement section comprises the following three layers:
30 mm Asphalt
465 mm Granular Material
Subgrade of CBR =3.5

i
I
Assume this to be:
495 mm Granular Base
Subgrade of CBR = 3.5
According to Fig. 15, such a two-layered system has a stiffness fac-

tor (SF) of 4.0, and according to Fig. 16, it has a maximum surface
deflection (d 1) under an axle load of 1 ESA of:
d 1 =0.95mm
The corresponding deflection of the three-layered system (the l st I.

pavement section) can be estimated by reducing d 1 by 5 per cent
for each 25 mm of asphalt surfacing:
94
d = - - . d 1 =0.89 mm
100
The deflection is "tolerable" in accordance with the standards set by

Fig. 19 where for a Design Traffic Value of 5.7 x lOS, the maximum
tolerable deflection = 1.05 mm.
The conclusion therefore is that the given pavement thickness de-

sign should preclude fatigue cracking in the surfacing.
70 ARRB SR 41, 1989

. .,.;'
11
10
7
Stiffness
factors.
6
SF
1==~~~--~--~--~--~--~~
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Thickness Cmm)
Fig. 15 -Stiffness factor as a function of subgrade CBR and thickness

NAASRA Interim Design Guide (NAASRA 1979)
0.3
0.4
! . 0.5 CBR
0.6 20
0.7 10
Deflection 0,8
(mm) 5
0.9
~-- '"'3--
1.0
2
1.5
2.0
2.5
100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Thickness. T mm
Fig. 16- Prediction of surface deflection under a standard axle load

NAASRA Interim Design Guide (NAASRA 1979)
ARRB SR 41, 1989 71

A. 1.3 Worked Example No. 3:
An existing pavement of fixed level construction to be recon-

structed. Design cuNes are based on the confidence limit of 95 per
cent
DATA:
Street Description = Local Access of 220 m length
Subgrade = Silty fine sand (MI) along entire

length with in situ CBRs estimated
as 1ll 91 151 161 91 12 •
Rainfall = 750 mm annually
Drainage = Good with subsoil drains to be

provided; in situ CBRs taken to be
representative of strength at equi
librium moisture conditions.
Traffic = 320 veh/d present day
Average Commercial = 2 empty Light Vans

vehicle count over 1 SOO/o loaded Light Van
three 24 hour days 3 full Light Vans
2 50% loaded Two-axle Heavy Trucks
1 full Two-axle Heavy Truck
Design Life = 25years

(i) DesignCBR = 1Oth percentile of all six estimated

in situ CBRs
= 12.0- 1.3 X 2.7
= 8.51 sav~2
(ii) Design Traffic = Nt 365.Y
Nt = (2 X 0.001 + 1 X 0.008 + 3 X 0.028 + 2

X 0.66 + 1 X 2. 15) + 2
= 1.78 (Sec. 3.3.2)
y = 28.4 (from Table VI)
Design Traffic = 1.78 X 365 X 28.4

= 18516, say, 1.9 x 104 ESA . - I
72 ARRB SR 41, 1989

Note that in calculating Nt, it was not necessary to apply a factor of

1.5 because the counts covered the full 24 hour day and not 8
hours. Assumed traffic growth factor of 1 per cent was taken
from Table VII.
Asphalt Surfacing = 25mm
Base Layer = 100 mm
Note: One cannot use 80 mm layer thickness for a subbase

since its specified minimum thickness = 100 mm (see Sec-
tion 4.2.3).
For a design traffic of 1.9 x 1Q4 ESAs and a design CBR of 30 the
required depth of cover over the subbase should be 100 mm,
which is satisfied by the above.
A.2 DESIGN FOR RURAL CONSTRUCTION
A single worked example is given hereunder (Section A.2. 1). Be-

cause the example assumes a design traffic value of less than 105
ESA, the deflection check for fatigue cracking in the asphalt layer
is not carried out (Section A.1.2).
A.2. 1 Worked Example No. 4: .

; .
A pavement of rural-type (non-fixed level) construction where. the
design traffic s1 OS ESA. Design cuNes are based on the confdence
DATA:
Subgrade = Clayey silt CCL) along entire length

with Lab. CBRs recorded of 10, 7, 12,
9 and 7; PI = 15.
Rainfall = 600mm
Drainage = Poor with no subsoil drains provided.
ARRB SR 41 1989
I 73
Traffic = 400 veh/d anticipated AADT; 5%

expected commercial vehicle rate,
with traffic growth rate of 1% per an-
num.
(i) Design CBR = 10th percentile of 5 Lab. CBRs x 1.4

(Factor from Table IV for PI > 11)
= (9.0 - 1.3 X 1. 90) X 1.4
= 9.1, say,2
(ii) Design Traffic = Construction ESAs + In-service ESA's

+ Garbage ESAs
= 3.AADT + N5 .365.Y + N9 ·52.P
AADT = 400 veh/d (from given data)
ESA/CV = 0.40 (from Table VI{)
400 5
Ns = -X- x 0.04 =4.0 (Sec. 3.2.2)
2 100
y = 22. 1 (from Table V{)
Ng = 2.60 x 1 x 0.5 = 1.3 (Para. 3.2.4)
Design Traffic = 3 X 400 + 4.0 X 365 X 22.1 + 1.3 X 52 X 20

= 1200 + 32412 + 1352
= 34964, say, 3.5 x 104 ESA
Note that this value is within the range given for Local Access ... ,
Streets in Table VIII.
Bituminous Seal = lOmm
Base Layer = 175 mm
The thin bituminous seal is assumed here not to contribute to the

overall strength of the pavement.
74 ARRB SR 41. 1989
A.3 DESIGN FOR STAGE CONSTRUCTION
Two worked examples of stage construction are given hereunder.
• Worked Example No. 5 considers design of a cul-de-sac pave-

ment which is to be constructed initially with a bituminous seal
below the lip of kerb and channel, then several years later
with asphalt flush with the lip of kerb and channel (Sec.A.3.l).
• Worked Example No. 6 considers design of a local access

pavement which is to be constructed initially to non-fixed level
(low structural integrity) standards, then a decade later to fixed
level standards (Section A.3.2).
A fixed level pavement initially constructed with bituminous seal

and several years later, covered with asphalt surfacing layer to
complete construction. Design cuNes are based on a confidence
DATA:
Street Description = Cul-de-sac of 80 m length
Subgrade = Heavy clay (CH) along ~ntire

length with Lab. soaked CBRs
recorded of 2.5 and 3.5; PI = 32.
Rainfall = 1000 mm
:.·. :
Drainage = Fair site with subsoil drains provided
Traffic = 120 veh/d anticipated AADT

2% commercial vehicles
1st Stage of Construction to achieve a Design Life

= 3 years
2nd Stage of Construction to achieve a further Design Life
= 20years

for PI> ll
= 2.5 X 1.2 = 3.0
ARRB SR 41, 1989 75
. i
(ii) Design Traffic = Construction ESAs + In-service ESAs

+ Garbage ESAs
= 3.AADT + N5 .365.Y + Ng.52.P

ESA/CV = 0.40 (from Table VI{)
120 2
Ns = - X - X 0.40 = 0.48 (Sec. 3.2.2)
2 100
y = P = 3 for first stage (Sec. 3.2.2)

y = P = 20 for second stage
Ng = 2.6 x 1 x 0.5 = 1.3 (Para. 3.2.4)
Design Traffic for 1st 3 years

= 3 X 150 + 0.48 X 365 X 3 + 1.3 X 52 X 3
= 450 + 526 + 203
= 1179, say, 1.2 x 1Qi ESA
Design Traffic for1st 23 years

= 1179 + 0.48 X 365 X 20 + 1.3 X 52 X20
= 1179 + 3504 + 1352
= 6035, say, 6.0 x 1Qi ESA
(iii) Design Thickness for 1st Stage, from Fig. 70 = 275 mm

Design Thickness for 2nd Stage, from Fig. 70 = 305 mm
(iv) First Stage pavement to be composed of: . i
Bituminous seal = 10mm
Base layer = 100 mm
Subbase layer = 175mm
The bituminous seal is assumed not to contribute to the pavement's

structural strength.
.·
Second Stage pavement to be composed of:
Pavement as above = 285mm

+Asphalt 30 mrr.
The latter is aimed at increasing the structural stiffness to the required

degree and also allowing any surface irregularities to be smoothed
76 ARRB SR 41, 1989

out, following the termination of construction traffic. Under such

circumstances of light traffic, an additional 30 mm of asphalt should
provide the second stage pavement with adequate total design
thickness. Deflection testing would be carried out in, say, Year 3 of the
First Stage's trafficking to confirm:
(a) the actual timing of the overlay; and

(b) the adequacy of a 30 mm overlay.
The overlay design method as outlined in Appendix B would be used

for this.
A pavement constructed in its first stage to non-fixed level standards,

then in its final stage to fixed level standards. Design curves for the
non-fixed level construction are based on a confidence limit of 80 per
cent and the curves for fixed level construction are based on the
confidence limit of 95 per cent.
DATA:
~
Subgrade = Highly compressible silt (MH) along en-

tire length with Lab. soaked CBRs re-
corded of 4, 3, 3 and 4.5; PI= 20.
Rainfall = 700 mm annually
Drainage = Fair site with subsoil drains not provided

in the first stage but in the second stage
Traffic = 300 veh/d anticipated AADT

3% commercial vehicles
l st Stage of Construction to achieve a Design Life

= lOyears
2nd Stage of Construction to achieve a further Design Life

= 30years

for PI> 11
= 3.0x 1.2
= 3.6, say, 3.5
ARRB SR 41, 1989 77
(ii) Design Traffic = Construction ESAs + In-service ESAs +

Garbage ESAs
= 3.AADT + Ns_365.Y + Ng.52.P
ESA/CV = 0.40 (from Table VI[)
300 3
= - x x0.40 = 1.80
2 100
= 10.5 (from Table V{)
= 49.1 (from Table V{)
= 2.6 x 1 x 0.5 = 1.3 (Section 3.2.4)
Design Traffic for 1stl0 years

= 3 X 300 + 1.8 X 365 X 10.5 + 1.3
X 52 X 10
= 900 + 6964 + 676
= 8540, say 9 x 1()3 ESA
Design Traffic for full40 years

= 3 X 300 + 1.8 X 365 X 49. 1 + 1.3
X 52 X 40
= 900 + 32456 + 2704
= 36060, say, 3.6 x 1Q4ESA
(iii) Design Thickness for 1st 10 years, from Fig. 77*

= 230 mm
Design Thickness for full 40 years, from Fig. 7

= 400mm
(iv) First Stage non-fixed level pavement to be composed of:
Bituminous seal = 10mm
Base Layer = 100 mm

The bituminous seal is assumed not to contribute to the pave
• The design curves of Fig. 17 are used to design pavements for low structural integrity.
These curves correspond to a confidence limit of 0.80, compared with Fig. 10 where
curves correspond to a confidence limit of 0. 90.
78 ARRB SR 41. 1989

ment' s structural strength.

'- Second Stage fixed level pavement to be composed of:
Asphalt = 25mm
Base Layer = 245mm
Subbase Layer = 130mm
This assumes that the surface seal will be stripped off and that the base
layer of the First Stage will become part of the ultimate base layer.
Deflection testing would be a helpful exercise carried out in YearlO of

the First Stage's trafficking. Deflection results could be used along with
condition data to indicate whether other design options were avail-
able based on overlay design (see Appendix B).
,..... lt..,
E ==
\
~
E
.........
~
c
200
- r--. -r-
-'-DM 5 '
-- ~
~ (CBR20)
- (CBR15)
1-- (CBR12)
~ (CBR9l
~ 300t=::=t::j:j:jJtittt====t==t=jJ~~~~~:t:=t=~~~~~
-- (CBR7)
c
(])
E 400 t----+-+--+--t-i-+t+t----+--t--t-T-t-+-H-t---t--t---t-+-t,-H-t-i~ (CBR5)
~
R_ (CBR4l
_ • Subgrades with CBR <
500 - should be designed as per
-
-
subgrades with CBR = 3
but with the initial subgrade 1-+-t------t---t---t-t--+-+-iH-t----t--t---t--t-+-+t-H
r---- (CBR3)
r---- layer stabilised to a depth
r-- of 100- 150 mm
600L----L--~~~_L~~-~-~~~~~---~--~~~~~-----~
2 3 456789 2 3 456789 2 3 4 56 789
lo3 lif l(f lei>
Traffic: ESA
Fig. 17 - Interim thickness design curves for residential streets,

rural construction of low structural integrity. The curves
are based on a 80% confidence limit.
(Barnard 1986)
ARRB SR 41, 1989 79

APPENDIX B
ASPHALT OVERLAY DESIGN
PRELIMINARY NOTES TO THE DESIGN PROCEDURE
Overlays on residential streets are usually asphalt although on occa-

sions where a thick overlay is called for, an unbound layer may be used
or the alternative of cement, lime or bitumen stabilisation of the
basecourse may be adopted. For design using thick overlays of
granular materials, the designer is referred to Section 10.5 of the
NAASRA Guide to the Structural Design of Road Pavements (1987).
In its Project 392 research, ARRB gathered some test data from which
it could outline a procedure for asphalt overlay design. This procedure
is based upon deflection analysis, details of which follow in Sections B. 1
to B.5.
However, the designer must be warned that certain sections of this

procedure are based on sketchy information. These sections are:
(a) Section B.2.2 - Corrections for Temperature and Moisture;

.. \
(b) Section B.4 (c), Fig. 20- Design Deflection as a function of I
Cumulative ESA for Bound Pavements; and,
(c) Section B.4 (d), Rg. 27- Overlay Design CuNes for
Residential Street Pavements.
In-house derived relationships should be used in preference to these.
One final precautionary note must be given in regard to use of

deflection testing for overlay design. Deflection testing must be ac-
knowledged purely as a non-destructive test and therefore as indicat-
ing little about the quality of individual pavement components. Con-
sequently, there could be occasions where deflection testing showed
the pavement to be sound or in need of a small depth of asphalt
overlay, when the basecourse and/or subbase was actually of poor
quality and in r.eed of replacement or modification. For this reason, full
pavement testing is sometimes used for design of overlays just as it is
used for design of reconstruction works (refer Section 2.3). Cost and
speed of testing are usually the overriding factors.
80 ARRB SR 41, 1989

8.1 GENERAL
Proper design procedures and good construction practice should

lead to a satisfactory pavement. However, even an initially-sound
pavement deteriorates in time -with the wear and tear of traffic and
the action of environmental forces. Sooner or later the pavement
requires more than simply routine maintenance and to maintain its
structural integrity and/or surface shape, it will require an asphalt
overlay. The important factor here is to have the means of evaluating
the structural integrity of the pavement before signs of distress show in
the surface.
This Section of the Guide provides a general procedure for evaluating

the structural integrity of a pavement so that preventative mainte-
nance can effectively be brought in play. Fig. 78 illustrates this
procedure in flow chart form.
Evaluation of structural Determination of tolerable

integrity via deflection for particular
corrected deflections pavement 1ype
(Section 8.2) (Section 8.3)
Corrected deflections
>
Tolerable deflection?
Does surface condition Does surface condition

appear good ? appear good ?
Overlay with if not Consider

Generally Remove asphaltic possible reconstruction;
no action surfacing concrete proceed as
required and overlay if possible per
(Section 8.4) Section 2.3
Fig 18 - General procedure for evaluating structural integrity

of a pavement
ARRB SR 41, 1989 81

The boxes shown in heavy print illustrate the logic of the asphalt overlay
design procedure:
• The existing structural strength of the pavement is characterised
by its recorded deflections, suitably corrected to account for
temperature and seasonal variations (see Section 8.2)
• The deflection which the pavement can tolerate, the so-called
"Tolerable Deflection", is determined from aTolerable Deflection
cuNe according to the nature of the pavement and its surfacing
(see Section 8.3).
• A pavement generally requires strengthening when its corrected
deflections exceed the Tolerable Deflection and its surface is in
fair to good condition.
····-
• Strengthening of the pavement, where necessary, is achieved

by an asphalt overlay of design depth (see Section 8.4).
An example illustrating the asphalt overlay design procedure is given

in Section B.S.
The overlay design cuNes in Fig. 21 relate to asphalt overlays of 70 mm

or less. For overlays above 70 mm in thickness, the designer is referred
to the NAASRA Guide to the Structural Design of Road Pavements
(1987).
8.2 EVALUATION OF STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY

In overlay design, proper care must be exercised to delineate the
project length into statistically homogeneous units. This process of
delineation should take into account variation of:
(i) pavement deflections;
(ii) pavement condition;
(iii)pavement and/or surfacing type; and
(iv) traffic.
Each one of these factors can lead to the requirement for different
design depth of asphalt overlay.
Delineation of the test length into homogeneous units is discussed in

the following paragraphs, with particular reference to deflection
testing. Within each homogeneous unit, structural integrity is measured
in terms of the characteristic deflection, equal to the mean deflection
plus a factor times the standard deviation of deflections. Although
other test equipment can be used for measuring deflection, (e.g. the
Falling Weight Deflectometer or the Deflectograph), it is assumed that
all deflection measurements will be taken using the simpler and
cheaper Benkelman beam (see Rg. 79).
82 ARRB SR 41, 1989
. I
B.2.1 The Deflection Test Procedure
Deflection testing should be carried out in all wheel paths, at 15m to 30

m inteNals over urban-type construction and at 30 m inteNals over
rural-type construction (see Section 4.1 ). Where little is known about
the structure of the pavement from records, etc., a 15m test inteNal is
to be preferred. Where resources or time are limited, the testing can
be done by alternating from inner to outer wheelpaths in sequence.
Dial indicator .Olmm applied load
J toe of
probe
0.54m 1.22m 2.44mm

ELEVATION
PLAN VIEW
Fig. 19- The Benkelman beam
The test vehicle should conform with the following.
(a) It should be suitably ballasted to impose a load on the single axle

used for testing of 8.2 t.
(b) It should be fitted with dual wheels having 10.00 x 2o-12 ply tyres,
each dual wheel being spaced to give a centre distance be-
tween tyres of 330 mm.
Notes should be made of any deterioration that arises, such as cracks

that may affect the deflection results. Changes in road type, surfacing
type, drainage and topography should also be noted.
For asphalt surfaced pavements (asphaltthickness > 30 mm), the tem-

perature at one-third the depth of the surfacing should be recorded.
This should be done several times during a day's testing and for each
job if only of short length.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 83

8.2.2 Corrections for Temperature and Moisture
For pavements with asphalt surfaces more than 25 mm thick, some . !;

allowance should be made for the effect of temperature on recorded
deflections. The usual practice is to adjust deflections to a standard
temperature (T) so that all deflections are multiplied by a factor which
depends upon the asphalt layer thickness (t) in mm and the difference
between the test temperature and the standard temperature (T - T)
in oc. For example, the Department of Main Roads, NSW ( 1983) uses the
temperature correction factors given in Table XVII. These temperature
correction factors can be used when local figures are not available.
It is strongly recommended that the designer use correction factors
which have been compiled as relevant to the particular region.
i:
TABLE XVII
APPROXIMATE FACTORS TO BE APPLIED TO DEFLECTIONS TO CORRECT FOR

SURFACE TEMPERATURE AS PER DMR NSW MR FORM 76 (1983)
(T 0 - T) °C To-
-25°C
t(mm)
;~
-15 -10 -5 5 iO 15
30 0.95 0.97 0.98 1.02 1.03 1.05

40 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.02 1.04 1.06
50 0.92 0.95 0.97 1.03 1.05 1.08
60 0.91 0.94 0.97 1.03 1.06 1.09
70 0.89 0.93 0.96 1.04 1.07 1.11
If at all possible, pavements should be tested in their most critical

moisture condition, that being:
during September to January in the southern part of Australia,

or
during January to May in the northern part of Australia.
If they are not, a correction for moisture must be introduced, such as 1_·
that adopted by the Department of Main Roads, NSW (1983) (see

Table XVIII). Again it is strongly recommended that the designer
develop his own correction factors for moisture as a function of
subgrade soil type, rainfall and drainage conditions existing at the site.
If the total width of pavement exists in a saturated condition, then the

correction for moisture should be applied to all wheel paths; otherwise,
it should be applied to the outer wheelpath only.
84 ARRB SR 41, 1989
/.·
I
t"
TABLE XVIII
APPROXIMATE FACTORS TO BE APPLIED TO DEFLECTIONS TO CORRECT

FOR MOISTURE AS PER DMR NSW MR FORM 76 (1983)
Deflection Test at Time or Year
Rainfall CR in mm) Sept to Jan (1) Feb to Aug (1)

Jan to May (2) June to Dec (2)
R~750mm 1.0 1.3

750< R~ 1200mm 1.0 1.45
R> 1200 mm 1.0 1.60
Water-Table < 3 m 1.0 1.0
(l) Winter. Spring rain (2) Summer rain
8.2.3 Determination of Characteristic Deflection(s)
After the necessary corrections for temperature and moisture have

been made, deflections should be -plotted, with results from each
wheelpath identified separately. Such plots should enable one to
\!
judge how the test length should be divided into homogeneous units
on the basis of structural strength. Significant changes in deflection
should be apparent.
A further subdivision of these structural units may become necessary

after consideration is given to any noted changes in pavement
condition, pavement type, surfacing type and/or traffic.
Within any homogeneous unit, at least ten deflection results should be

available from each wheelpath.
Each homogeneous unit should be treated separately for the purposes

of overtay design, with a characteristic deflection calculated for each
wheel path*.
·N.B. If some exceptionally high deflections and the road conditions indicate the
need for patching prior to overlay, account should be taken of this by disregarding
these deflections in the computation of the wheelpath characteristic deflection
value.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 85
. i
The formula to be used is as follows:
d = x + fs
where d = the characteristic deflection (mm),

X = the mean deflection (mm),
s = the standard deviation of deflections (mm),and
f = 1.0 for an upper bound confidence limit of 84
per cent, or
f = 1.65 for an upper bound confidence limit of 95
per cent.
The value adopted for f should correspond to the degree of reliability

required in the overlay treatment: a value of f = 1.0 provides good
reliability, while a value of f = 1.65 provides excellent reliability. Consid-
eration could be given to using f = 1 for local access and minor roads,
and f = 1.65 for distributor and collector roads. . ,'
The highest characteristic deflection of all wheelpath values then

becomes the deflection Cdrr) value representing the structural strength
of the homogeneous unit concerned; and the need for overlay
strengthening is judged on the basis of comparing this value (d,) with
the unit's tolerable deflection.
8.3 DETERMINATION OF TOLERABLE DEFLECTION

'•
The deflection observed atthe road surface when a wheel load passes
..
is the sum of component deformations in the various pavement layers )
and in the subgrade. When this deflection exceeds a tolerable value

(dt), the strain in the pavement or the subgrade reaches such a level
that large permanent deformation can be transmitted through to the
surface and failure can ensue. The objective, therefore, is to keep
actual deflections (or the greater percentage of them) below the
+"lornhlo Hrth 10 nnrf ~I"\ 1"'1"\n~+rnin
1 ~~--~ ................ . _ • I.... 'II"""'' I normnnon+
.._,,._ ._. ~~ I I '"""'
,._ V-
~~ 1rfrtl"'o
I---- rfofl"\rmaftons
--· _.....,,.....,.I
f'""....,l
to
1-1 II V-1
an acceptable level.
Tolerable deflection is known to be a function of not only traffic

loading, but also of pavement type and of surfacing type. For ex-
ample, unbound materials are able to withstand greater deflections
than bound materials because of their greater flexibility and likewise
bituminous seals are able to withstand greater deflections than as-
phalt.
Table XIX indicates how tolerable deflection should be varied ac-
cording to street type, depending on pavement structure (bound
versus unbound) and pavement surfacing (asphalt versus bituminous
seal).
86 ARRB SR 41, 1989
( .!
•
TABLE XIX
TOLERABLE DEFLECTION AS A FUNCTION OF ROAD TYPE AND PAVEMENT TYPE

(Mulholland 1986)
Unbound Pavement
Bound
Road ESA/day Pavement
Type Asphalt Bituminous
Seal
Distributor 40-380 0.65 1.00 1.20
Collector 1Q-150 0.80 1.25 1.45
r Local Access 0.4-30 1.00 1.70 1.85
Minor 0.1-10 1.20 2.05 2.20
The need for pavement strengthening is judged on the basis of

comparing the maximum characteristic deflection (dm) with the value
of tolerable deflection (d,) as taken from Table XIX and the extent of
asphalt overlay determined as per the procedure outlined in Section
8.4.
8.4 EXTENT OF ASPHALT OVERLAY
Taking each homogenous unit in turn, the procedure for determining

the thickness of asphalt overlay is as follows:
(a) Ascertain whether dm > d~ if it does, then decide on the design

life in years for the pavement to be overlaid.
(b) Estimate the design traffic loading in terms of cumulative ESA

(refer Section 3.3).
(c) Select the design (tolerable) deflection from the estimated

design traffic loading; Fig. 20 shows the design deflection (dd) as a
function of cumulative ESA for both bound and unbound pave-
ments.
(d) Determine the overlay thickness required to reduce dm to dd by

plotting (dm- dd) versus dm on Fig. 2 7
This procedure is simple, but several important points must be kept in

mind. · ·
• When an overlay is needed, the minimum thickness used should

be25mm.
• In normal fixed level construction, where the required overlay

thickness exceeds 50 mm, reconstruction rather than asphalt
overlay may be the preferred treatment.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 87

3.0 I I
1- 1----
1-
- unbound pavement
I . -
2.5
1- I
2.0
- - --- -- bound pavement
-
-
~
-
Tolerable - -
deflection _ r- :
15
~
Cmm)
--- -- ----
-
1.0
r-
f--------
~
--- --- --
- -
.......
0.5
r- -
>--
=
5x10 3 5x10 4
5x10 5
I
-
-
-i
Traffic: ESA
Fig. 20 - Design (tolerable) deflection as a function of cumulative

ESA for both bound and unbound pavements (Mulholland 1986)
1.0 1------+-----+-----+----
Reduction in
deflection
dm-dd
cmm)
0.0 '--.l..-.L.-.J~--L..--1--1--'---'--...l.--.J....._..J..._.L..-\---L--L---L..-1--1--'---'---'--.L..-I--1
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Maximum characteristic deflection
dm(mm)
Fig. 21 - Overlay design cuNes for residential street pavements

(Mulholland 1986)
88 ARRB SR 41, 1989
• Before any overlay is placed, areas of failed pavement should be

excavated and replaced with basecourse asphalt.
• Milling prior to overlaying may be a consideration where an

irregular surface exists, or where surface (oxidation) cracking
prevails.
... _ • To achieve good overall compaction, each layer comprising

the overlay should have a thickness within the limits of one to
three times the nominal aggregate dimensions.
• The contract specification should be written (and construction

control exercised) to ensure that the design overlay thickness
occurs uniformly across the width of the pavement.
• After several weeks trafficking, the completed overlay should

be tested to check that the design criteria have in fact been
satisfied; .where they have not, redesign may be warranted,
leading to the placement of an additional overlay.
8.5 EXAMPLE PROBLEM ILLUSTRATING OVERLAY DESIGN PROCEDURE
The following problem illustrates the previously-outlined procedure

given in Sections 8.2 to 8.4.
The worked example relates to a pavement of fixed level construction

which is due for rehabilitation treatment. The street, Armstrong Ave-
nue, is shown to be located in the municipality of Brisbane, because
Brisbane City Council is one Local Government Authority known to
have developed its own temperature and moisture correction factors
(Jones and Mallon 1983).
DATA:
Street Description = Local Access of 360 m length.
Subgrade = Mottled clay in first 21 0 m.

Yellow sandy clay in second 150 m.
Pavement = 200 mm consisting of unbound

materials.
Surfacing = Spray seal plus reseal.
Age of Pavement = 18 years.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 89

1 •.
' j
Pavement Condition = Signs of failure between Ch. 55

and Ch. 65. Some isolated signs of
distress in first 170 m: otherwise
appears in good structural cond-
tion.
Rainfall = l 000 mm annually.
Drainage = Good with subsoil drains provided

along entire length.
Topography = Flat.
Traffic = 450 veh/d present day.
Average Commercial = 3 empty light vans.

Vehicle Count over 5 50% loaded light vans.
three 24 hour days 4 full light vans.
2 empty two-axle heavy trucks.
3 SOOk loaded two-axle heavy
trucks.
2 full two-axle heavy trucks.
Design Life of = 15 years.

Asphalt Overlay
Recorded deflections as per Figs 22 a to d.
(i) Correction factors to be applied to recorded deflections are

as follows:
Temperature correction = 1.00 (for spray seal*)
Moisture correction = Highest Summer Deflection
Lowest Winter Deflection
= 1.25 (for good drainage sites)
• Brisbane City Council only applies temperature corrections to asphalt surfaces

exceeding 70 mm in thickness.
90 ARRB SR 41, 1989

...
Municipality BRISBANE
Road/Street ARMSTRONG AVENUE
PAVEMENT DEFLECTION FIELD SHEET
)> Wheelpath:- N/B Lane O.W.P. Wheelpath:- N /B Lane I. W. P.
;o
;o Chalnage Correction
~
Recorded 0.01 Recorded Correction Surfacing ;v
co (m) AdJust. AdJust. Pavement Topography c
Deflection (0.01 mm) Factors Deflection (0.01 mm) Factors
en
;o
De fl. Dell. Type c'ondition 0
Temp. Moist. 0.01 mm Max. -i
,J:l..
Max. Final Total Final Total Temp. Moist. 0.01 mm) c
.
__,
__, 00 6 8' -2 140 il 00 1 ..2...5. 17'> 71 +1 1 4...0. 1. 00 1. 00 140
;v
)>
r
'{)
Bit.Sea1 Flat
Long 0
~ 15 64 +1 126 1. 00 1. 25 160 81 +3 156 1. 00 1. 00 156 II
CrAckinq II
m
(/)
(J)
30 86 +2 168 1. 00 1. 25 210 85 - 170 1. 00 1. 00 170 II
Cr~~~gg II
z
75 -1 152 1. 00 1. 25 190 83 +8 150 (J)
45 1. 00 1. 00 150 II
" c
0
60 U2 +3 2 38 1. 00 1. 25 300 135 +6 258 1. 00 1. 00 258 II
p§~8~~s " m
11
75 91 +1 . 180 1. 00 1. 25 225 100 +4 192 1. 00 1. 00 192 II II

0;v
11
qo ...5..6.. - 1 1 2 11 00 1 . 2 5 140 7':1 +1 144 1 00 1 0 c 144 II II
r
m
X
105 77 -3 160 1. 00 OJ
~..2.5.. 200 RS +2 1fifi ~...0..0. 1 on 166 II
r
" m
120 75 +1 148 1. 00 1. 25 185 60 - 120 1. 00 1. 00 120 II
"
;v
m
(/)
135 77 +2 150 1. 00 1. 25 190 74 +1 146 1. 00 1. 00 146 II
" 0
m
150 65 +5 120 1. 00 1. 25 150 60 -2 124 1. 00 1. 00 124 It II
z- i
)>
165 69 - 138 1. 00 1. 25 170 89 +5 168 oc CLan~. r
. 1. 00 1. 168 II
rae 1ng "
~
;v
180 48 - 96 1. 00 1. 2 5 . 120 70 +2 136 1. 00 1. oc 136 II II m
m
-i
195 66 +2 128 1. 00 1. 2 5 160 70 +3 134 1. 00 1. oc 1 34 "
~
"
210 76 +4 144 1. 00 1. 2 5 180 75 +4 1.42 1. 00 l. oc 142 II
" m
~
225 49 -1 100 l. 2 5 12 5 59 - 118 1. 00 1. oc 118 " "
m
Laboratory No. (field) Date of test : Tested by \Jo#!_ • • •
z
'{) Note:- all deflection readings to (jj
__, 20/7/86 P. MULHOLLJ\ND be expressed as whole numbers
6.43m
Fig. 22a- Recorded deflections for example problem, sheet No. 1
I·
I
!
tS Road/Street ARMSTRONG AVENUE PAVEMENT DEFLECTION FIELD SHEET
Wheelpath:- N/B Lane 0. W. P. ~
Wheelpath:- N/B Lane I.W.P. ;:v
Chalnage Correction
c
Recorded Adjust. Recorded Correction Adjust. Surfacing Pavement 0- l
(m) Factors Topography
Deflection (0.01 mm) Deflection (0.01 mm) Factors Type Condition
De fl. De fl. c
Temp Moist. 0.01 mm
~
Max. Final Total Max. Final Total Temp. Moist. 0.01 inm)
I
240 4 2' - 84 1. 00 1. 25 105 58 +1 ~ll _j Q_Q 1 . 00 114 Bit Sea Flat
0
m
(/)
255 57 -1 116 !1 JLQ 1 25 _ll_5 55 +S 100 1 ()() 1 ()() 1_()0 (j)

" " z
?70 ss .{ 1()L1 11 (\ (l _1___2_Ci _l___lQ_ 59 +1 1 1 e::. 1. 00 1. 00
~-·~
116 " (j)
c
_2RS_ ___6_6_ +? 1 'J Q 11 () () l 25 160 hh +? 12R _l () () J ()() 1? Q 0
" " m
300 59 +3 112 1. 00 1. 25 140 54 +3 102 1. 00 1. 00 102 " " 0
;:v
315 54 +1 106 11 . 00 125 ~35_ 44 -1 __9_Q_ ~ _Q_Q ~ 00 90 " 11
" I
330 51 +3 96 1. 00 1. 25 120 40 -3 86 m
1. 00 1. 00 86 " X
" aJ
I
345 65 +4 122 1. 00 1. 25 150 73 +5 136 1. 00 1. 00 136 m
" " ;;v
360 40 - 80 1. 00 1. 25 100 m
63 +1 124 1. 00 1. 00 124 (/)
" " 0
m
z
-l
)>
I
)> ~
;:v
:::0 m
:::0 m
OJ --!
en IJ
:::0
::..
.......
...... ~
m
~
...0 m
~ z
~
Laboratory No. (field) Date of test : Tested by 1.111 •••
Note:- all deflection readings to

20/7/86 P. MULHOLLAND be expressed as whole numbers
6.43m
Fig. 22b- Recorded deflections for example problem, sheet No.2
f'
Road/Street ARMSTRONG AVENUE
PAVEMENT DEFLECTION FIELD SHEET
Wheelpath:- r..= n<>
~ SIB Lane O.W.P Wheelpath:- !:; fR l w P
;o
Chainage
Recorded Correction Recorded ~
:;v
(m) Adjust. Correction Adjust. Surfacing Pavement
OJ Deflection (0.01 mm) Factors Deflection (0.01 mm) Topography c
Dell. Factors Dell. Type Condition
en ()
;o Max. Final Total Temp Moist. 0.01 mm Max. Final Total Temp. Moist. 0.01 mm) -t
.b. c:;v
__,
'__, 00 84. +4 160 1. 00 1. 25 200 80 +3 154 )>
1. 00 1. 00 154 Bit Sea Flat I
~ 15 84 +1 166 1. 00 1. 25 210 78 +3 150 1. 00 1. 00 150 II

Lon<;r
Crackinq II
0
m
(f)
17<; (j)
30 73 +3 140 1 00 1 2C::, 6_8_ +t; 1?h 1 ()() 1 ()() 1? h II
II
z
(j)
ac; 94 +3 1 R2 11 00 l ?C::, ??C::, RQ - 17Q 1 ()() 1 (1(\ 1/Q II
II c
t>ma1.1.
60 139 +5 268 1. 00 1. 25 335 130 +5 250 1.00 1. 00 250 II 0
Patches II
m
croc 11
75 76 - 152 1. 00 1. 25 190 104 -1 210 1. 00 1. 00 210 II
Crazinq II 0:;v
11
90 70 +8 124 1. 00 1. 25 155 75 +4 142 1 .00 1 00 142 II
II I
m
X
105 75 +2 146 1. 00 11 25 185 98 - 1 qt=; 1 00 1 ()() 1qt=; II
II OJ
I
m
120 71 +4 1'H 11 (\ (\ + ?C. 1 he, '7Q _.., C.r\ 1 160 :;v
()(1 , (1(\
" II
m
(f)
135 73 +3 140 11 . 00 1 2C::, 17C::, t=;() +1 1 1 .:1 1 (\(\ 1 ()() 1 1 ;1 0
" II
m
1t;() 54 -1 11() 1 on 1 ?<; 1dn c;q ..LA , 1 () 1 ()() 1 ()() 110 II
II
z
-t
Long )>
165 77 +1 152 1. 00 1. 25 190 80 +2 156 1. 00 1. 00 156 II
Cracking I
" (f)
-t
180 74 +2 144 1. 00 1. 25 180 66 -1 134 1.00 1. 00 :;v
134 II
II
m
m
-t
195 51 -2 106 1. 00 1. 25 130 90 - 180 1. 00 1. 00 180 II
~
II
210 70 +6 128 1. 00 1.25 160 72 - 14 4 1 . Q_Q ,1 ()() 1 114 II

II
m
43 +3 ~
225 80 1. 00 1. 25 100 .:12 +2 RO 1 ()() 1 ()() RO II m
Laboratory No. (field) Date of test : Tested by Width of
II
Note:- all deflection readings to

z
~
a 20/7/86 P. MULHOLLAND
surface
6.43m
be expressed as whole numbers
Fig. 22c- Recorded deflections for example problem, sheet No.3

-g Road/Street ARMSTRONG AVENUE PAVEMENT DEFLECTION FIELD SHEET
Wheelpath:- S/8 Lane O.W.P. Wheelpath:- ~
Chalnage S/8 Lane I.W.P. ;::u
Recorded Correction Recorded c
(m) Adjust. Correction Adjust. Surfacing Pavement ()
Deflection (0.01 mm) Factors Deflection (0.01 mm) Topography
De fl. Factors De fl. Type Condition
--j
Max. Final Total Temp Moist. 0.01 mm Max.

c;;v
Final Total Temp. Moist. 0.01 mm)
)>
I
240 60 -2 124 1. 00 1. 25 155 60 +4 112 1. 00 1. 00 112 8it.Sea 0
Flat m
255 44 - en
68 1. 00 1. 25 85 50 - 100 1. 00 1. 00 100 II
II (j)
270 51 +1 100 1. 00 1. 25
z
125 59 +4 110 1. 00 1. 00 110 II
(j)
II
285 47
c
+2 90 1. 00 1. 25 115 48 +1 94 1 00 1 00 0
_94 " II
m
300 51 -3 108 1. 00 1 25 135 76 +3 146 11 . no 1 ()()
11
14h II
II 0;;v
315 40 +2 76 1 ()() 1. 25 95 54 - lOR 1 ()() 1 ()() 11
1JlR " II
I
m
330 54 - 1'0R 1 00 11 _2_2 1 i ') fi2 -1 l2n 11 () () _1 _{) () J ?F\
X
" II
OJ
345 65 +4 122 1. 00 1. 25 150 56 -4 120 1.00 1. 00 120 II
II
I
m
;;v
360 59 +5 108 1. 00 1. 25 135 75 +3 m
144 1. 00 1. 00 144 II
II
en
0
m
z
--j
_s_ur f BCe '1'£ !mnr->ra :ure at _s_t art of lt-p~t i a = 2 or )>
I
)> -B.11 r f L=lrP 'Pf ~mn<=>rr! ,,...., I'! t. _fi , i c:h nf +-,., c::t 'Ina - '7oc ~
;;v
;;v
;;v m
CP m
--j
'
en
~
;;v
.r::..
...... m
'...... ~
m
~ z
(/j
Laboratory No. (field) Tested by Width of
surface Note:- all deflection readings to
I P. MULHOLLAND be expressed as whole numbers
6.43m
Fig. 22d- Recorded deflections for example problem, sheet No.4
- ~--~
(ii) Plots of corrected deflections are shown in Figs 23 a and b.
Obviously, there is a need to carry out major patching Cor full

depth reconstruction) in the short length between Ch. 55 and
Ch. 65. The very high deflections at Ch. 60 can therefore be
ignored in any further analysis.
........ O.W.P. results

•-• I.W.P. results
3.00 O.W.P. characteristic deflections
I.W.P. characteristic deflections
2.00
Deflection
Cmm)
1.00
• !
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Chainage (m)
Fig. 23a- Wheelpath plots of corrected deflections,

northbound lane
. ~,
- O.W.P. results
•-• I.W.P. results
O.W.P. characteristic deflections
3.00 I.W.P. characteristic deflections
2.00
Deflection
Cmm)
1.00
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Chainage (m)
Fig. 23b ·- Wheelpath plots of corrected deflections, ·

southbound lane
ARRB SR 41, 1989 95

The wheelpath plots indicate that the street length should be broken
up into two homogenous units:
Unit l - Ch. 00 to Ch. 210, and

Unit 2 - Ch. 210 to Ch. 360.
\ i
Other data (i.e. pavement condition and subgrade type), confirm this
to be the correct break-up.
Characteristic deflections CCDs) can then be determined as per the

summary given in Table XX.
TABLE XX
WORKED OVERLAY DESIGN EXAMPLE;

SUMMARY OF DEFLECTION STATISTICS
.. ;
Homogenous Lane and Wheelpath Mean S.D C.D
Unit x(mm) a(mm) X+ l.65<J
Unit No. 1 Northbound O.W.P 1.75 0.27 2.20

Northbound I. W.P 1.49 0.18 1.79
Southbound I.W.P 1.54 0.28 2.01
Southbound O.W.P 1.77 0.25 2.19
. -
Unit No.2 Northbound O.W.P 1.31 0.18 1.61 i
Northbound I.W.P 1.11 0.14 1.34

Southbound I.W.P 1.14 0.20 1.47
Southbound O.W.P 1.23 0.22 1.60
From the above Table, it can be taken that:
for Unit l , dm =2.20 mm; and

for Unit 2, dm = 1.61 mm.
These fig-ures can be contrasted with the tolerable deflection value

(d) drawn from Table XIX.
• For an unbound pavement with bituminous seal, constructed as

a local access road, dt = 1.85 mm.
The conclu.)ion, therefore is that Unit 1 requires an asphalt overlay

I I
while Unit 2 does not.
96 ARRB SR 41, 1989

,-
1 '
! .
(iii) Design Traffic = N•. 365.Y ·
Ns = (3 X 0.0001 + 5 X 0.0008 + 4 X 0.028

+ 2 X 0. 19 + 3 X 0.6 + 2 X 2. 15) 7 2
= 3.42 (Section 3.3.2)
y = 16.2 (from Table VI)
Design Traffic = 3.42 X 365 X 16.2

= 20186, say, 2.0 x 1(}1 ESA.
Design Deflection (dd) = 1.95 mm (Fig. 20)
dm- dd = 2.20- 1.95 =0.25
Design Overlay = 25 mm (Fig. 27)

Thickness
In this particular instance, the decision would probably be made to

apply an overlay thickness of 25 mm throughout the street length,
including both Units 1 and 2. This would overcome any potential
problem brought on by a change in surfacing type. It could also be
used as a preventative maintenance measure, costing relatively little
for the additional pavement life achieved.
ARRB SR 41, 1989 97
. J
ARRB PUBLICATIONS
The Australian Road Research Board publishes a large number of technical

reports and manuals. A list of the most recent is shown below.
14th ARRB Conference Proceedings, Parts 1-8
Special Report No. 39

'Development of techniques for studying unsafe driving actions' by
K.D. Charlesworth and P.T. Caimey

'Development and evaluation of highway speed weigh-in-motion
systems in Australia' by S.E. Samuels

'A history of traffic engineering in Australia' by R.T. Underwood
ARRB Research Report No.154

'Speeds, friction factors and alignment design standards' by J.R. Mclean
ARRB Research Report No. 155

'VLIMITS: an expert system for speed zone determination in Victoria' by
J.R. Jarvis and C.J. Hoban
ARRB Research Report No.156

'A citation analysis of Australian road technology' by M.G. Lay
ARRB Research Report No. 158

'Performance of CTB pavements under accelerated loading- The Queens-
land ALF trial, 1986/87' by P. Kadar, E. Baran and R.G. Gordon
ARRB Technical Manual No. 26

'Description and operation of the ARRB video trailer' by J.S. Dods
ARRB Technlcai Manual No. 27

'Prediction oftraffic noise at simple signalised intersections' by S.E. Samuels
and R. Shepherd
Order for these and other ARRB publications can be sent to:
Australian Road Research Board,

PO Box 156, Nunawadlng, 3131,
VIctoria, Australia
Telephone: (03) 2351555
Fax: (03) 233 8878

ARRB SR41 Into A New Age of Pavment Design

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ARRB SR41 Into A New Age of Pavment Design

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INTO A NEW AGE OF

· Special Report No. 41 ~~

COFFEY PARTNERS INTERNATIONAL Pty Uri·•

[~ AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH BOARD

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH BOARD

The need for a national research centre was realised by NAASRA,

All research is controlled from the Australian Road Research Centre at

ARRB disseminates road research information through conferences,

ARRB also maintains a unique library of road literature and operates a

APPENDIX A - PAVEMENT THICKNESS DESIGN :

APPENDIX 8 - ASPHALT OVERLAY DESIGN 80

In preparing the Design Guide, various comments were received on

Reference is made here to the two major changes.

(a) for urban construction, use a 95% confidence limit; and

(b) for rural construction, use a 9CJOk confidence limit.

. 'There may be good and valid reasons to vary from the

Design examples are given which illustrate application of the latter

It is in this manner that ARRB endeavours to maintain a close link with

In the case of Project 392, the Local Government Committee decided

LOCAL GOVERNMENT COMMITTEE

Chairman Mr Colin Pitman, City Engineer,

Committee Members Mr Ray Moore, City Engineer,

PROJECT ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Chairman Mr Ray Moore, City Engineer,

Committee Members Mr Skip Tonkin, Consulting Engineer,

Ex-Officio Members Mr Peter Lowe, Executive Director,

Others committed time to reviewing earlier drafts of the Guide or

Road Construction Authority (RCA) of Victoria. Department of Main

A Project Advisory Committee under the Chairmanship of Mr Ray

My thanks to one and all.

ISSN 0572- 144X

MULHOLLAND, P.J. (1989) : STRUCTURAL DESIGN GUIDE FOR RESIDENTIAL

KEYWORDS : *Pavement design/*Design guiderStreefi*Structural design/*Local

• Major INROADS descriptors

Charts included in the Guide may be revised as ARRB research

The Guide is intended as an aid to professional engineers. It must be

The scope of the Guide is as follows.

• Its design procedures apply to the structural design and overlay of

• Design traffic loading is limited to a cumulative figure of 106

• Empirical relationships are used to cover a wide range of subgrade

• Detailed consideration is given to flexible pavements consisting

Users of the Guide must be careful to read and understand the

In situ natural material or select imported fill constituting the foun-

Rg. 1- Typical pavement cross-section for residential streets.

2 ARRB SR 41, 1989

Consists of bituminous spray and chip seal or asphalt. The function

That portion of the pavement immediately supporting the surfac-

That portion of the pavement below the basecourse which pro-

Kerb and Channel (or Kerb and GuHer)

A border of relatively rigid material, constructed at the edge of the

Subsurface Drainage System

A drainage system installed within the pavement and/or sub-

The following abbreviations are used in the Guide:

AADT- Annual Average Daily Traffic

ARRB - Australian Road Research Board

1.5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Pavement performance depends on many factors, the six most basic

( l) the strength of the supporting subgrade under in-service mois-

These six factors can be seen as analogous to the teeth of a cogwheel

4 ARRB SR 41, 1989

Fig. 2 - Analogy of the pavement as a cogwheel

ARRB SR 41, 1989 5

In designing for the reconstruction of an existing pavement, it is

KEYWORDS : Pavement design/Design guiderStreefiStructural design/Local