Nadeem Iqbal

Research Methods

After this Session you will be able to

understand
• What is literature review
• Why literature review
• How to conduct literature review
• What are sources of literature
• How to use technology to access
literature
• How to read literature
• How to critically analyze literature
• How to organize literature
• How to write good literature
• What is referencing and how to
reference to avoid plagiarism
 Session 1 RECAP
After attending this session the Scholars will be able
to understand and define
What are the 3 types of life we live
What are different outcomes of change
How can we respond the changes happening in our life
What are the four sources of knowledge
Which style of thinking is best and why
What is meant by data and information
What are the characteristics of quality information
What is research
Why do we conduct research
When should we conduct research
How do we conduct research
What is problem and what are its types
What are the sources of problem
On what basis do we select a problem for research
 Research Process
1. Identify the Topic

2. Literature Review Locate read organize write

3. Research Design

4. Data Collection

5. Data Preparation

6. Data
Analysis/Interpretation
7. Conclusion /Report
writing
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature review is a process of reading and critically analyzing the

body of knowledge produced on the topic till-date in order to

➢ bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic

➢ identify the gaps in the body of knowledge

➢ and provide justification for your current research in the area.

It seeks to describe, summarize, evaluate, clarify and/or integrate the

content of previous researches".

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.27)

 WHY LITERATURE REVIEW ?
The literature review in a research study accomplishes several purposes
that are as follows:

1- Distinguishing what has been done from what need to be done

2- Discovering important variables relevant to the topic
3- Synthesizing and gaining a new perspective
4- Establishing the context of the topic or problem
5- Rationalizing the significance of the problem
6- Enhancing and acquiring the subject vocabulary
7- Understanding the structure of the subject
8- Relating ideas and theory to applications
9- Identifying the main methodologies and research techniques
that have been used
Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.27) 5
HOW TO CODUCT LITERATURE REVIEW
There is no one way to conduct a literature review, but many
scholars proceed in a systematic fashion to capture, evaluate and
summarize the literature.

1. Locate literature on your topic

2. Read the literature

3. Analyze the literature

4. Assembling and organizing

5. Writing the literature

 SOURCES OF LITERATURE

Primary Sources Secondary Sources Tertiary sources

Reports Indexes
Theses Newspapers Abstracts
Emails Books Catalogues
Conference reports Journals Encyclopedia
Company reports Internet Dictionnaires
Unpublished Some government Bibliographies
manuscript publications Citation indexes
sources Search Engines

Adapted from “research Methods for business Students” by Mark Saunders (p.68) 7
 TERTIARY SOURCES
Name Type Internet address

Google Search engine www.google.com

Google Scholar Search engine for www.scholar.google.com

scholarly material

Yahoo Search engine www.yahoo.com

Ebscohost Database www.ebscohost.com

Springer link Database http://www.springerlink.com

Blackwell http://www.blackwell-synergy.com
synergy

Oxford press Publisher http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/os

o/public/index.html

University Of Publisher http://www.journals.uchicago.edu

Chicago Press

Adapted from “research Methods for business Students” by Mark Saunders (p.68) 8
ACCESSING TERTIARY SOURCES
 SECONDRY SOURCES

Research Article Book

Published Edition

Journal Publisher
Volume # Issue # Page # Name City country

Database Database
Online Libraries Online Libraries
3.READING THE LITERATURE

Read abstract of the article or preface and

introduction of book

Skim through the article/ book

Survey the main parts of the article/ book

Read in detail the selected important parts

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.53) 14

TO ADAPT OR NOT TO ADAPT
4. ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
Analysis is the job of systematically breaking down something
into its constituents parts and describing how they relate to each
other – it is not random dissection but a methodological examination.

There are two types of analysis i.e. argument analysis and systematic
analysis.

Single study Analysis

• Systematic Analysis Comparing and
1 Contrasting

Fisher’s Method
• Argumentation Analysis
2 Toulmin’s Method

16
 1. SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS

Systematic Analysis is the kind of analysis in which we

systematically evaluate the literature on the basis of key ideas,
theories, concepts and methodological assumptions and the
overall structure and format of the research work. In systematic
analysis we can do the analysis of single research work but
preferably we should go for comparative analysis of two or
more studies on the same topic

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2. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

Theorist A Theorist B

Area of
difference

Ontology Ontology
Epistemology Epistemology
Rhetoric Area of Rhetoric
Data similarity Interpretation
Methodology Data
Interpretation Methodology
Axiology Interpretation
Rhetoric Axiology
Area of Rhetoric
difference

Points of reference for

making a comparison between
theorists

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.131)

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 2. ARGUMENT ANALYSIS

An argument involves putting forward reasons to influence

someone’s belief that you are proposing in the case (Hinderer, 1992).

An argument has at least two components: a point and a reason:

•Making a point (or statement/ conclusion)

•Providing sufficient reason (or evidence) for the point to be
accepted by others

19
 METHODS OF ANALYZING ARGUMENTS

There are basically two method to analyze and evaluate

arguments intelligently and fairly:

1. Fisher’s method of critical reading

2. Toulmin’s method of argumentation analysis

20
 FISHER’S METHOD OF CRITICAL READING:
Fisher (1993) provides a method for a systematic reading of texts. This initial
reading technique enables the reader to systematically extracts the main
elements (words) of any arguments for the purposes of evaluation.

SKIM THROUGH THE TEXT

CIRCLE ANY INFERENCE INDICATORS (THUS,

THEREFORE etc.)

UNDERLINE CONCLUSION ( C ) & PLACE REASONS ( R ) IN

BRACKETS < >
INDICATED BY WORDS LIKE BECAUSE, SINCE etc.

CONSTRUCT AN ARGUMENTS
DIAGRAM

R=C
R1 + R2 = (Therefore) C1 (Interim conclusion)
C1 or R3 = (Therefore) C2 (Main conclusion)

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.110) 21

 Example
I was Hungry and tired, that’s why I
went to cafe.

There was huge rush and nothing to

eat. That’s why I left for home
 Toulmin’s Method Of Argumentation Analysis:

Toulmin's developed an approach to argumentation analysis that

was rooted in the practice rather than the theory of logic.
He proposes that an argument can be broken up into a number of
basic elements that are as follow

•Claim an arguable statement

•Evidence Data used to supports the claim
•Warrant (or permit) an expectation that provides the link
between the evidence and claim
•Backing Context and assumption used to support
the validity or the warrant and evidence

23
Example:
Following is an example from everyday life. In dry summers consumers are
asked and expected to save water through careful and limited use. This is
normally taken to mean water should only be used for essential things-
watering lawns, filling swimming pools and washing cars are prohibited. The
argument for this could have the following structure

Data
Car washes can use upto
250,000 gallons of water
in the main summer
weeks. This quantity
depletes water reservoirs
by 20% during a season
when there is heavy
water usage.
Warrant
Since
Water is essential
and people should
not waste it in
times of shortage
Claim
so
Car owners should
restrict washing their
cars in areas of the
country where there is
a water shortage
(Restriction).

Backing
because

Water shortage cause inconvenience, are a danger to

people and can be costly to consumers.

Adopted from “Doing a literature review “ by Chris Hart p.87)

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 DEFINING (CONSTRUCTING MEANING)

Defining is about placing boundaries around the meaning of a term;

it comes from the Latin defenire – to put boundaries around. The
boundaries relate to the way in which a term or word is used in a
give context. There are different types of definitions, such as formal
definitions and stipulate definitions.
There are two types of definitions

1. Standard (Dictionary Definition)

2. Operational Definition

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.110)

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CONNECTION BETWEEN ANALYSIS, SYNTHESIS,
COMPREHENSION & KNOWLEDGE
Analysis Select, Unpacking a thing into its constituent parts in order to
differentiate, infer or determine the relationship and/or organizing
dissect, and break principle between them; thereby isolating the main
up. variables.
Synthesis Integrate, Synthesis is the act of making connections between the
combing recast, parts identified in analysis. It is not simply a matter of
formulate, reassembling the parts back into the original order, but
reorganize. looking for a new order. Rearranging the elements
derived from analysis to identity relationship or show
main organizing principle or show how these
principles can be used to make a different
phenomenon.

Comprehension Understand, be Interpreting and distinguishing between different types

able to explain, of data, theory and argument; thereby being able to
distinguish, and describe, discuss and explain in various ways the
interpret. substance of an idea or working of a phenomenon.

Knowledge Define, classify, Perceiving the principles, use and function of rules,
describe, name, methods and events in different situations; classify,
use, recognized, characterize, generalize, analyze the structure of, and
become aware of, learn from experimentation on the meaning of,
understand, concepts and their application.
problem solve.
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 Reference

AIM/ PURPOSE

RQ:

RQs./Hypotheses H1 :
H2 :
H3 :

Important Themes

(1) Paradigm and Approach

(2) Population and sampling:

(3) Measures:
METHOD/APPROACHES

(4) Method:

(5) Analysis:

1.

FINDINGS/CONCLUSION
1.

(1) Other articles you annotated:

RELATIONSHIP TO (1) Your topic :

TOPIC/SUB-TOPIC &
OTHER ARTICLES
(2) Prior researches:

1.

2.
STRENGTHS

3.

1.

2.
WEAKNESSES
3.
Writing Literature Review
Sequence of Writing Literature

Introduction

Review on independent variable

Review on dependent variable

Review on the relationship of

independent and dependent
variables

Summary

37
Adapted from by Creswell, 2003 (p.45)
 QUOTING AND PARAPHRASING

A quotation is the use of your source's exact words in your work. A

quotation may be as short as one word but, if that word is
significant, it must be put in quotation marks and referenced.

ORIGINAL
"In many academic circles in America, literary translation is still
considered a secondary activity, mechanical rather than creative, neither
worthy of serious critical attention nor of general interest to the public"
(Gentzler 1993: 34).
SHORTENED
"In many academic circles in America, literary translation is still
considered a secondary activity . . . neither worthy of serious critical
attention nor of general interest to the public" (Gentzler 1993: 34).
Paraphrasing means putting an author's ideas or information
into your own words:

ORIGINAL
"This has led to the conclusion that, out of the US
population at large, 90% watch television to excess" (Wu,
1994).
PARAPHRASED
In contradiction to Suzuki’s claim, Wu (1994) argues that
90% of Americans watch too much television .
Writing exercise
 Referencing

Referencing means systematically showing

what information or ideas you are quoting or
paraphrasing, and where they come from.
 Why Reference?
Referencing is necessary to

Authenticate your research with evidence from

literature
Acknowledge the original author
to enable readers follow-up the source
avoid plagiarism,
 PLAGIARISM

This means using someone else's words, ideas

or information without referencing them - in
other words, presenting them as your own.
Plagiarism is a serious academic offence and
can result in penalties, including dismissal from
the Institute.
To avoid it, use quotations and paraphrases
with proper referencing.
 How do we check plagiarism

There are number of soft wares available to

check plagiarism i.e.

• Turnitin
• Plagiarism detector
• Check for plagiarism
Sample plagiarism report
WHAT MUST I REFERENCE?

All work done by other researchers

Other writers' words

WHAT DO I NOT NEED TO REFERENCE?

1. General knowledge

2. common knowledge in your field

3. Ideas that are definitely your own

4. findings or insights from your own research.

DIFFERENT REFERENCING SYSTEMS
APA Referencing
Harvard Referencing
Oxford-Cambridge Referencing
MLA
AMA

APA (American Psychological Association) Style:

This system is primarily used by those writing in the
social sciences.
Basic components of Referencing

1) In text referencing (citation)

2) End list Referencing

 HR practices are culturally sensitive (Khilji,
2003)
Khilji, (2003) concluded that HR practices are
culturally sensitive.
HR practices, as stated by Khilji et. al., (2003),
are culturally sensitive.

References
Khilji, S.E., (2003), To adapt or not to adapt,
International Journal of Cross cultural
Management, 3 (1), 121-144
 In-text Reference
An in-text reference to show that a piece of
information, idea, quotation, etc. It is always
designed to be short because it is interrupting
the text.

Example:
Much of this research has demonstrated that there is relationships
between HR practices and firm profitability (Allen, 1996).

Author Name Year

 End list Referencing
An End list reference to show the detailed
information of source. It includes following
contents
Contents Example
Author Name Allen, N. J. & Meyer, J. P. (1996)
Year 1996
Title Affective, continuance and normative
commitment and turnover
Journal Academy of Management Journal
Volume no 37
Page no 670-87

Example:
Allen, N. J. and Meyer, J. P. (1996) ‘Affective, continuance and
normative commitment and turnover’, Academy of Management
Journal, 37: 670-87.
 Examples

Source In-text Example End-List Example

Article Wharton (1996) Wharton, N. (1996). Health and safety in outdoor
activity centers. Journal of Adventure Education and
outdoor Leadership, 12(4), 8-9
Book Comfort (1997, p. 58) Comfort, A. (1997). A good age. London: Mitchell
Beazley.
Website Dawson & Smith, Dawson, J., Smith, L., (2002). Retrieved october 31,
(2002) 2002, from
http://studytrekk.lis.curtin.edu.au/
1. A book with the title: 'Occupational health and safety', published in Sydney in 2004 by
McGraw-Hill, with authors M. Stewart and F. Heyes. This is the second edition.

2. A book with the title: 'Internal control and corporate governance', with authors K. Adams, R.
Grose, D. Leeson and H. Hamilton, published in Frenchs Forest, NSW by Pearson
Education Australia in 2003.

3. An article by M. Scardamalia and C. Bereiter, called 'Schools as knowledge-building

organizations', published in 1999 in a book edited by D. Keating and C. Hertzman, called
'Today's children, tomorrow's society' in New York by Guilford as pages 274 to 289.

4. An article by J. R. Savery and T. M. Duffy, called 'Problem based learning: an instructional

model and its constructivist framework', published on pages 31 to 38 in the journal
'Educational Technology', volume 35, number 5, in 1995.

5. An article called 'Integration and thematic teaching: integration to improve teaching and
learning' by S. Lipson, S. Valencia, K. Wixson and C. Peters, published in 1993 in the journal
'Language Arts', volume 70, number 4, pages 252 to 263.

6. A videorecording of a television documentary called 'Embers of the sun', produced in 1999

by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation in Sydney.

7. A Web page with the title 'Telstra conferencing - video overview', found at the address:
http://www.telstra.com.au/conferlink/videoconf.htm on 11 August 2004. No date on it, though
Mozilla gives a last modified date of 4 July 2004.
1. Adams, K., Grose, R., Leeson, D. & Hamilton, H., (2003), Internal control and
corporate governance, Pearson Education Australia, Frenchs Forest, NSW.

2. Embers of the sun, (1999), videorecording, Australian Broadcasting

Corporation, Sydney.

3. Lipson, S., Valencia, S., Wixson, K. & Peters, C., (1993), 'Integration and
thematic teaching: integration to improve teaching and learning', Language Arts,
vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 252 - 263.

4. Savery, J. and Duffy, T., (1995), 'Problem based learning: an instructional model
and its constructivist framework', Educational Technology, vol. 35, no. 5, pp.31 -
38.

5. Scardamalia, M. & Bereiter, C., (1999), 'Schools as knowledge-building

organizations', in Keating, D. & Hertzman, C. (eds.), Today's children,
tomorrow's society, Guilford, New York, pp. 274 - 289.

6. Stewart, M. & Heyes, F., (2004), Occupational health and safety, 2nd edn,
McGraw-Hill, Sydney.

7. Telstra, (2004), Telstra conferencing - video overview, viewed 11 Aug. 2004,

<http://www.telstra.com.au/conferlink/videoconf.htm>.