Chapter 5 Physical Unit Operations ure 5-19 nerged propelior srs used to mix the tents of an anoxic ctor. bubbles are formed with an average diameter of 5 mm while the air flow is about 10 percent of the liquid flow. The velocity gradients due to bubble formation range from a Gigyg < 200 5”! 10 Guy = 8200 s~! (Masschelein, 1992). Where air flocculation is employed, the air supply system should be adjustable so that the flocculation energy level can be varied throughout the tank. When air is injected in mixing or flocculation tanks or channels, the power dissipated by the rising air bub- bles can be estimated with the following equation: P= p,V, In (5-14) where P = power dissipated, kW = atmospheric pressure, KN/m? V, = volume of air at atmospheric pressure, m/s p, = air pressure at the point of discharge, KN/m? Equation (5-14) is derived from a consideration of the work done when the volume of air released under compressed conditions expands isothermally. If the flow of air at atmospheric pressure is expressed in terms of m*/min (f'/min) and the pressure is expressed in term of meters (feet) of water, Eq. (5-14) can be written as follows: h + 10.33 7 P=KQ,1In (488) S.L units (5-150) P=KQ,In (4422) US. customary units (5-156)399 Chopier 5 Physica! Table 5-20 Typical design information for primar ¥ sedimentation tanks’ U.S. customary units eran UMS te Unit Range Typical Primary sedimentation tanks followed by secondary treatment Detention time h 15-25 20 h 15-25 20 Overflow rate Average flow gold 800-1200 1000 m/m-d == 30-50 40 gol/fie-d 2000-3000 2500 m%/m*d 80-120 100 gel/frd —— 10,000-40,000 20,000 m/md “125-500 250 Primary settling with waste activated-sludge return Detention time h 1.5-2.5 20 h 15-25, 20 Overflow rate Average flow gol/fé-d 600-800 700 mi/md 2-32 28 Peak hourly flow —_gal/f?-d 1200-1700 1500 m%/md 48-70 0 Weir loading gel/fd —10,000-40,000 20,000 m¥/md 125-500 250 ‘Comparable data for secondary clarifiers o ed in Chap. 8 Table 5-21 Typical dimensional dato for rectangular and circular sedimentation tanks used for primary treatment of wastewater 10-16 14 m 349 43 | length ft 50-300 80-130 m 15-90 24-40 | Widthe f 10-80 16-32 m 3-24 49-98 Flight speed f/min 24 3 m/min 0.6-1.2 09 Cirevlar: Depth f 10-16 14 m 349 43 Diameter f 10-200 40-150 m 3-60 12-45 Bottom slope int 3/4-2/t 1.0/ mm/mm ——1/16-1/6 m2 Flight speed ehrin 0.02-0.05 0.03 r/min 12-0.05 's of rectangular mechanically cleaned tanks ore. greater than 6 m (20 fi), multiple bays with individual cleaning | eavipment may be used, thus permitting tank widths up to 24 m (80 f) or more.eee 614 Chopter 7 Fundomentals of Biclogicol Treatment well as trace jr is adequate and phos- phorus is seldom limiting. Trace element concentrations that have been found to stim. ilate the growth of nitrifying bacteria in pure culture work are: Ca = 0.50. Cu = 001, Mg = 0.03, Mo = 0,001, Ni = 0.10, and Zn = 1.0 mg/L. (Poduska, 1973). Growth Kinetics For nitrification systems operated at temperatures below 28°C ammonia-oxidation kinet- jce_vereus nitrite-oxidation kinetics are rate-limiting, so that designs are based on satu- ration Kinetics for ammonia oxidation as given below, assuming excess DO is available, = (boN) Me ( a “) ean 7-92) where p1, = specific growth rate of nitrifying bacteria, g new cells/g cellsd 1c, = maximum specific growth rate of nitrifying bacteria, g new cellsig cells-d 'N = nitrogen concentration, g/m* K,, = half-velocity constant, substrate concentration at one-half the maximum specific substrate utilization rate, g/m? yy = endogenous decay coefficient for nitrifying organisms, 8 VSS/g VSS-4 ‘A.wide range of maximum specific growth rates have been reported as a function of temperature (Randall tal, 1992). At 20°C, reported jtyq Varies from 0.25 to 0.77 g VSI VSS ‘The wide range of nitrification growth rates may be due to the presence of inhibitory substances in the wastewater and/or variations in experimental techniques and methods of analysis. In any event, the /ly,, values for nitrifying organisms are much lower than the corresponding values for heterotrophic organisms, requiring much longer SRT values for nitrifying activated-sludge systems. Typical design SRT values may range From 10 to 20 d at 10°C to 4 to 7 d at 20°C. Above 28°C, both ammonia and nitrite oxi- dation kinetics should be considered. At elevated temperatures, the relative kinetics of NH,-N and NO,-N oxidation change, and NO;-N will accumulate at lower SRF values- For fully acclimated complete-mix activated sludge nitrification systems, af tem- peratures below 25°C with sufficient DO present, the NO,-N concentration may be less than 0.10 mg/Las compared to NH,-N concentrations in the range of 0.50 to 1.0 mg/L. However, during the initiation of nitrification, NO,-N concentrations will be greater than NHN concentrations, as the growth of nitrite-oxidizing bacteria cannot eck unt the ammonia-oxidizing bacteria generate nitrite. Under transient conditions, NON concentrations of 5 to 20 mg/L are possible. Nitrification rates are affected by the liquid DO concentration in activated sludge (attached grovith effects are described in Chap. 9). In contrast to what has been Shserved for aerobic heterotrophic bacteria degradation of organic compounds, nitrifi- tation rates increase up to DO concentrations of 3 to 4 mg/L. To account for the effects Of DO. the expression forthe specific growth rate [Eq. (7-92)] is modified as follows: Ham DO ) = (HaN\(_DO_) _ 7-9. 7 (£25) (gabe kan v9) where DO = dissolved oxygen concentration, g/m* K, = half-saturation coefficient for DO, g/m? Other terms as defined previously.B26 Chopler 7 Fundamentals of Biological Trealment Figure 7-23 Faie of soluble BOD ‘and phosphorus in nutrient removal reactor (Adopted from Sediak, 1991.) Anaerobic | Aerobic Orthophosphorus Concentration Soluble 80D adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is converted to ATP with 7.4 kcal/mole of energy captured in the phosphate bond. As the cell uses energy, ATP is converted to ADP with phosphorus release. For common heterotrophic bacteria in activated-sludge treatment the typical phos- phorus composition is 1.5 to 2.0 percent. However, many bacteria are able to store phos- phorus in their cells in the form of energy-rich polyphosphates, resulting in phosphorus content as high as 20 to 30 percent by dry weight. The polyphosphates are contained in volutin granules within the cell along with Mg?*, Ca?*, and K* cations. In the anaerobic zone, concentrations of O-PO, as high as 40 mg/L can be measured in the liquid, as compared to wastewater influent concentrations of 5 to 8 mg/L. The high concentration of O-PO, can be taken as an indication that phosphorus release by the bacteria has occurred in this zone. Also in this zone, significant amounts of poly-b- hydroxybutyrate (PHB) are found stored in bacteria cells, but the PHB concentration declines appreciably in the subsequent anoxic and/or aerobic zones and can be measured and quantified. The O-PO, is taken up from solution in the aerobic and anoxic zones, generally leading to very low remaining concentrations. Based on investigations of bio- logical phosphorus removal, it was found that acetate was essential to forming the PHB under anaerobic conditions, which provided a competitive advantage for the PAOs. ‘The anaerobic zone in the anaerobic/aerobic treatment process is termed a “selec- tor," because it provides conditions that favor the proliferation of the PAOs, by the fact that a portion of the influent bCOD is consumed by the PAOs instead of other het- erotrophic bacteria. Because the PAOs prefer low-molecular-weight fermentation prod- uct substrates, the preferred food source would not be available without the anaerobic zone that provides for the fermentation of the influent bsCOD to acetate. Because of the polyphosphate storage ability, the PAOs have energy available to assimilate the acetate in the anaerobic zone. Other aerobic heterotrophic bacteria have no such mechanism for acetate uptake, and they are starved while the PAOs assimilate COD in the anaerobic zone. It should also be noted that the PAOs form very dense, good settling floc in the activated sludge, which is an added benefit. In some facilities, the anaerobic/aerobic process sequence has been used because of the sludge settling benefits, even though biological phosphorus removal was not required. Care must be taken in the handling of the waste sludge from biological phospho- rus removal systems. When the sludge is held under anaerobic conditions, phosphorus release will occur. Release of O-PO, is possible even without acetate addition as the bacteria use the stored polyphosphate for an energy source. The release of O-PO, can also occur after extended contact time in the anaerobic zone of the biological phospho- rus treatment system. In that case the released phosphorus may not be taken up in the7-11 Biological Phosphorus Remom) BF se the release we aerobic zone bec ed with acetate upioke and PHI age for later oxidation. The release of O-PO, under these conditions is termed ary release (Barnard, 1984), which can lead to a lower phosphorus removal efficiency for the biological process. Stoichiometry of Biological Phosphorus Removal Based on the description of the phosphorus removal mechanism, acetate uptake in the anaerobic zone is critical in determining the amount of PAOs that can be produced and, thus, the amount of phosphorus that can be removed by this pathway. If significant amounts of dissolved oxygen or nitrate enter the anaerobic zone, the acetate can be depleted before it is taken up by the PAOs, and treatment performance will be hindered. Biological phosphorus removal is not used in systems that are designed with nitrifica- tion without including a means for denitrification to minimize the amount of nitrate in the return sludge flow to the anaerobic zone. ‘The amount of phosphorus removed by biological storage can be estimated from the amount of bsCOD that is available in the wastewater influent as most of the bsSCOD will be converted to acetate in the short anaerobic hydraulic detention time 7. Methods for determining the amount of bsCOD in the influent will be described in Chap. 8 under wastewater characterization. The following assumptions are used to evaluate the stoi- chiometry of biological phosphorus removal: (1) 1.06 g acetate/g bsCOD will be pro- duced as most of the COD fermented will be converted to VFAs due to the low cell yield of the fermentation process, (2) a cell yield of 0.30 g VSS/g acetate, and (3) a cell phos- phorus content 0.3 g P/g VSS. Using these assumptions, about 10 g of bsCOD will be required to remove 1 g of phosphorus by the biological storage mechanism. Other bCOD removal in the activated-sludge system will result in additional phosphorus removal by normal cell synthesis. Better performance for biological phosphorus removal systems is achieved when bsCOD or acetate is available at a steady rate. Periods of starvation or low bsCOD con- centrations result in changes in the intracellular storage reserves of glycogen, PHB, and polyphosphates and rapidly lead to decreased phosphorus removal efficiency (Stephens and Stensel, 1998). The amount of phosphorus that can be removed from a wastewater is illustrated in Example 7-8. r Revove ‘Giver ie Fotowiig iiruely” ‘corresponding biological eee inforniation, esti- Influent Concentration, g/m? i i cop 300 bsCOD 50 Phosphorus ‘6 1, Heterotrophic synthesis yield, ¥ = 0.40 g VSS/g COD ~ 2. Endogenous decay coefficient, k, = 0.08 ¢ VSS/g VSS-d —————— =x ttst—=—te670 Chopter 8 Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Processes Figure 8-5 Fractionation of nitrogen in wastewater Information on the nitrogen fractions is used in the detailed may be 1.6 to 1.7 depending on the biomass yield and cell debris fraction. The bCOD/ BOD can be estimated using the following equation, which is based on the fact that the COD constimed in the BOD test equals the oxygen consumed (UBOD) plus the oxy- ‘gen equivalent of the remaining cell debris [bCOD = UBOD + 1.42f, (Y,)bCOD} after long-term incubation: bcoD __UBOD/BOD__ BOD — 1.0 — 1.42f,(%) (1) action of cell mass remaining as cell debris, g/g synthesis yield coefficient for heterotrophic bacteria, g VSS/g COD used For example, using values typical of domestic wastewater (UBOD/BOD = 1.5, f, = 0.15, ¥jq = 0.4), the bCOD/BOD ratio is 1.64. Nitrogenous Constituents. The composition of nitrogen in wastewater is illus- trated on Fig. 8-5. The total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) is a measure of the sum of the ammonia and organic nitrogen, About 60 to 70 percent of the influent TKN concentra- tion will be as NH,-N, which is readily available for bacterial synthesis and nitrifica- tion. Organic nitrogen is present in both soluble and particulate forms, and some portion of each of these is nonbiodegradable. The particulate degradable organic nitrogen will be removed more slowly than the soluble degradable organic nitrogen because a hydrol- ysis reaction is necessary first. The nondegradable organic nitrogen is assumed to be about 6 percent of the nondegradable VSS as COD in the influent wastewater (Grady et al., 1999). The particulate nondegradable nitrogen will be captured in the activated- sludge floc and exit in the waste sludge, but the soluble nondegradable nitrogen will be found in the secondary clarifier effluent. The soluble nondegradable nitrogen con- tributes to the effluent total nitrogen concentration and is a small fraction of the influ- ent wastewater TKN concentration (<3 percent). The soluble nondegradable organic nitrogen concentration in domestic wastewater typically ranges from 1 to 2 mg/L as N (Parkin and McCarty, 1981). There is also a possibility that some soluble nondegrad- able organic nitrogen may be produced from endogenous respiration. Further research TKN —— , ‘Ammonia N Organic N C1 Biodegradable Nonbiodegradable 1 [— Soluble | |Partculte| | soi | | Particulate———=x— ll —™” 672 Chopler 8 Suspended Growl BilogicelTretment Processes area B for zero-order nitrification, area C for particulate COD degradation and area D for endogenous decay (Ekama et al, 1986). The r>COD concentration & based on the imount of oxygen used in area A, and is calculated as follows Py accounting for the fact that some of the rbCOD is used for cell synthesis: (vs + Yn) Yas + Yaw e Yacoo\ Vow (62) rbCOD = where O, = oxygen consumed in area A, mg/l- thesis yield coefficient for heterotrophic bacteria & cell COD/g COD used ‘yolume of activated sludge used in test, mL. volume of wastewater sample, mL Yu,coo [A value of 0.67 for ¥y is recommended by Ekama etal. (1986). “The volume of activated sludge and wastewater may be selected by successive tri- als until a response is obtained that provides a satisfactory ‘measurement area for the 1bCOD degradation. "A common method used to estimate the rbCOD concentration is the floc/filtration method presented by Mamais et al. (1993) in an attempt © separate the true soluble POD in the wastewater sample. The method requires applying the floc/filtration pro- tedure to both the wastewater sample and a secondary effluent sample or a settled Supematant sample after sufficient contact and aeration of the wastewater sample with arated sludge. The soluble COD measured in the secondary effluent sample is the wenbiodegradable soluble COD (nbsCOD) as the rbsCOD ‘would be removed by the notated sludge process. The procedure is based on the assumption that suspended veri and colloidal material can be captured effectively and removed by flocculation COD that is available for BPR: ‘Asouming a synthesis yield of 0.4 g VSS/g rbCOD removed, the amount of COD used by nitrate and oxygen fed to the anaerobic zone can be estimated as follows: ‘The oxygen used for rbCOD oxidation equals the rbCOD removed minus the COD in the biomass formed: ) ~ (80s) (MANES) = (Soon) on gvss )\grbCoD grbCOD or 2.3 g rbCOD used/g DO added Based on COD used for dissolved oxygen, the COD used for nitrate consumption can be estimated, as the oxygen equivalent of NO;-N is 2.86 g/g as follows: @ 8 ico) (2868 Oo, 20) gNO;N ) = 6.6 grbCOD/g NO;-N (8-60) Based on the above r>CODINO;N ratio and rbCOD/DO ratio, the impact of DO and nitrate fed into the anaerobic contact zone on the BPR performance can be evaluated. ‘The :BCOD iin the influent wastewater added to the anaerobic zone will most likely be removed by bacteria using oxygen and nitrate before itis available for biological phos- phorus removal. Effect of Recycle Streams with Released Phosphorus. As discussed rites Process Design Considerations, recycle streams from sludge thickening or diges, tion processes may contain high phosphorus concentrations. Equalization and control ofthe reeyele flow and phosphorus load with time may help to minimize the impact of the recycled phosphorus on effluent quality. By adding the recycle stream’ during times of the day when the influent wastewater strength is higher, a better possibility exists of removing recycled phosphorus in the waste sludge. Recycle streams may also be treated separately with chemical addition to minimize the phosphorus oad to the liquid treat- ‘ment process. ———aaa ible 8-24 immary of aserved influent DD and COD to Josphorus-removal ttios for different PR processes” Gor Jow substrate concentration (Stepiens ang Siense!, 1998). The impact of continous acetate feeding at plants where stange fermentation se seen done to produce additional VEAs has shown the benefit of a steady supply of roCOD for biological phosphorus removal. In parallel modified Bardenpho trains at Kelowna, Canada, one train was fed fermentation liquor and the other train was used as the control, With continuous VFA. addition, the effluent soluble phosphorus concentration decreased from 2,5 to 0.3 mg/L. (Oldham and Stevens, 1985), and the VFA/P ratio was 6.7 g/g, an amount lower than the estimated 7 to 10 g/g. Based on these results, it appears that continuous acetate addi- tion may provide more efficient biological phosphorus removal ‘Anaerobic Contact Time. The role of the anaerobic contact zone has been deceribed in Sec, 7-11. Detention times of 0.25 to 1.0 h are adequate for fermentation of rbCOD. To account for the effect of the MLVSS concentration in the anaerobic con- tact zone, a 1-d SRT is recommended for the anaerobic contact zone design (Grady et al, 1999), Bamard (1984) cautioned against using too long an anaerobic contact time due tothe potential fora secondary release of phosphorus, which is phosphorus release wnot associated with acetate uptake, When secondary release occurs, bacteria have not tecumulated polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) for subsequent oxidation in the aerobic 20n6. Polyhydroxybutyrate provides energy for phosphorus uptake and storage, From SBR bench-scale studies, Stephens and Stensel (1998) found that secondary phosphorus release occurred for anaerobic contact times in excess of 3.0 h. Solids Retention Time. Biological nutrient-removal systems with longer SRTs ar lese efficient for BPR than shorter SRT designs. Observations of the influent BOD to phosphorus removal ratio for a number of plants as a function of their design SRT wo summarized in Table 8-24 (Grady etal, 1999). Processes with longer SRP values ae tees biological phosphorus removal for a given amount of influent BOD. These data were obtained without measurements of the rbCOD concentration in the wastewater tut provide a general trend on the effect of SRT on BPR removal efficiency. Two agvese effects on phosphorus removal efficiency are associated with lightly loaded, Tong SRT processes. First, because the final amount of phosphorus removed is propor- tional to the amount of biological phosphorus-storing bacteria wasted, the phosphorus- storing biomass production is lower so that Jess phosphorus can be removed. Second, at long SRTs the biological phosphorus bacteria are in a more extended endogenous phase, which will deplete more oftheir intracellular storage products. If the intracellu- Phoredox, VIP 15-20 26-34 <80 20, UCT 20-25 34-43 7-15 Bardenpho >25 >A3, 15-25 em «Adopted from Grody et al. (1999). For process descriptions, see Table 8-25.304 rapier © aefore tne biological PFOCESS sqoichiometsiccatos ea PE awed to eninimize the chem [BPR performance is not Ut dependent on placing 9 anaerobic Zane in front of HE 26° Bpie zone of an activated Nudge process and the “amount of fBCOD in THe influent oPgrewater. Process perfOrmanee ve affected by # number of operating, conditions jncluding (1) nitrate: etnoval efficiency in process vn which nitrification occurs, {D) process SRT, (3) contol sf dissolved oxygen entenne he anaerobic Zone, (4) phos- phorus in reeycle stFEATIS and (5) the system effluent spended solids concentraich Effect of Dissolved OxY9e" ond Nitrate in Recycle Flows. Recycle flows to the anaerobic contact zone must DE evaluated in terms ‘of their possible effects ‘on BPR, and some recycle streams should be avoided where possible. Filter backwash Mrppes, Recycle steams Witt inificant concentrations if DO and nitrate can have SO adverse impact on process performance. The nitrate or eentration inthe RAS flow can have a significant effect OF the amount of influent OCOD that is avail fOr BPR. ravoming asymesis yield of id g WSSIg #HCOD removed: the amount of FCOD used py nitrate and oxygen fed he anaerobic zone can Be ‘estimated as follows: Tne oxygen used for COP snsjdation equals the eoCOP vemoved minus the COP an the biomass formed: (28885) _ (ae grbcoD gVss ge.3 9 COD wselle DO wide ‘Based on COD used for dissolved oxygen, the COD used for nitrate consumption can be estimated, a5 the OFYESS equivatent of NOs N is 72.86 g/e 2s follows: 23 2600) 286502) gNOsN (8-59) Be 66 g»COD/g NON (@-60 gNOw & e ) Based on the above ACODINOSN ratio and seCODIDO ratio, the impaet of DO and aerate fed into the anaerobic ‘ntact zone on the BPR performance can PE evaluated. ‘The rbCOD in the influent wastewater added t0 the anaerobic Zone will MOS! Tikely be removed by bacteria USINE Srygen and nitrate before 5 evaitabe for biological PhS” the recycled phosphorus on “Faiuent quality. By addins he recycle streams dung ‘times if the day when the influent Mgstewaterstengt is RHEE) etter possibility exists Of of moving reeycted phosphone he waste sludge: RECVe yeams may also be trea Separately with chemical dition to minimize the phosphorus Toad 10 IRE Tiguid treat- ment process:Effluent suspended Solids. ‘The phosphorus © ontent in xed gu is preater than that from the vonventional sctivatedshidee PIM phosphorus storage. The phosphorus content, 8 @ dry solids basi Py to 6 percent (Randall et al» 1992). Thus the total phosphors ‘oncentration in the effluent can be affected significantly by the system effluent TSS concentration. AL 310 6 percent phosphorus in the solids, the phosphorus Contribution in an effluent having “Tes concentration of 10 melt. ‘veld be 0.3 10 0.6 mg/L. values that are significant if the effluent standard is less than 1.0 mg P/L. Fortunately, most BPR processes exhibit good settling characteristics rand have secondary clarifier y ivent TSS concentrations of 10 mg/L or less. To provide Very Jow effluent phosphorus Soncentrations, effiuent ilk tration may be required. yy be is the range Solids Separation Facilities Operation of the solids separation Taeilites affects the process desie and performance. THrehemical addition is necessary fOr effivent polishing to achieve 1OW phosphorus lev- Min the effluent, sufficient clarifier capacity is required 10 handle the additional chem- ical precipitate. Typical clarifier overflow rates for biological ‘phosphorus removal are also given in Table 8-7 Methods to Improve Phosphorus-Removal Efficiency in BPR Systems ‘The performance of BPR systems sg very site-specific and depends 0° the wastewater characteristics and the plant process ‘eign and operation. For wastewate™ with rela- tively low influent r>COD ‘concentrations, efftuent soluble phosphorus concentrations may exceed 1.0 10 2.0 m/l ve roreas efuent concentrations PEIOW 05 or 1.0 mg/L have been shown for higher-strength wastewaters. “Methods to improve performance for mverall phosphorus removal include the following: 1. Provide supplemental acetate PY direct purchase or by primary sadBe fermentation. 2, Reduce the process SRT. 3. Add alum or iron salts in Primi treatment or for effluent polishing “4. Reduce the amount of nitrate and/or oxygen entering the anaerobic Zone. -two methods used to provide additional bCOD for biological phosphorus removal are to import (purchase) an exoBencr Garbon source (i.e, acetate) OF 0 produce VFAS from fermentation of primary fier sludge. Two examples of primary sludge fer vMentation design are shown On FE: $31; other designs are also possible. As shown on Fig. 8-31a, a fermentation react iprovides residence time ‘and mixing of the primary sludge, and VAS are released through the primary clarifier for feed to the secondary sreatment process anaerobic zone. A fleeper depth primary clarifier design (Fig. 8-315) has also been proposed to provide sufficient holding time for the settled primary sludge for hydrolysis and acid fermentation (Barnard, 1984). The underflow sludge is recycled to release VEAS to the liquid streant ‘Operating issues of odors, mixing, and accumula- tion of rags in the fermenters must algo be considered. The primary tank sludge fer Nompters are not heated and SRT values ‘anging from 3 to 5 d, depending C0 tempera ture, are generally sed (0 Stay below the point where methanogerie activity can start (Rabinowitz and Oldham, 198s), At SRT values greater than vf to 5 d, methanogencsis tity can be high enough to consume the VFAs. The VFA production ranges fromEE LAMA'SO'S: errr rr 14-9 Anaerobic Digestion 1513 Table 14-27 eee US. customary units St unit Typical design eae wae ae ctileria for seing Parameter Units Value. = “Units, —SValue mesophilic high-rate Volume criteria completermix Primary sludge /eopita 13-20 m/eapita _0,03-0,06 lu i i Primary sludge + trickling- f/capita 26-33 m°/eapita —0.07-0.09. digesters filer humus sudge Friary dodge + exited copia 26-4 feta 007-0.11 Solids loading rote IbVSS/ 100-300 kg/m'd 1.64.8 1 Rd Solids retention time. d 15-20 d 15-20 * Adopted, in par, from U.S. EPA (1979) Excessively low volatile solids loading rates can result in designs that are costly to build and are troublesome to operate. In a survey conducted by Speece (]988) of 30 digester installations in the United States, one of the most significant observations was the relatively low solids content in the sludge feed to the digesters. The average TSS in the sludge feed was 4.71.6 percent and the average volatile solids content was 70 per- cent, The average VSS value in the digesters was a dilute 1.6 percent. Dilute sludge results in the following adverse effects in digester operation: (1) reduced r, (2) reduced VS destruction, (3) reduced methane generation, (4) reduced alkalinity, (5) increased volumes of digested biosolids and supernatant, (6) increased heating requirements, () increased dewatering capacity, and (8) increased hauling cost for liquid biosolids, One cautionary measure should be noted, however. A potential problem with ammonia toxicity could occur if the waste-activated sludge is thickened too much. Thus, in plan- ning the design and operation of anaerobic digesters, consideration should be given to optimizing volatile solids loading to effectively utilize digester capacity. The effect of solids concentration and hydraulic detention time on volatile solids loading is reported in Table 14-28, Estimating Volatile Solids Destruction. The degree of stabilization obtained is often measured by the percent reduction in volatile solids. The reduction in volatile solids can be related either to the SRT or to the detention time based on the untreated sludge feed. The amount of volatile solids destroyed in a high-rate complete-mix digester can be estimated by the following empirical equation (Liptak, 1974): V, = 13.7 In (SRT,,,) + 18.9 (14-14) where V, = volatile solids destruction, % SRT = time of digestion, d (range 15 to 20 d) Volatile solids destruction estimates can also be made using Table 14-29, Because the untreated sludge feed can be measured easily, this method is also used commonly. In plant operation, calculation of volatile solids reduction should be made14-9 Anaerobic Digestion 1523 combined with prethickening of untreated sludge, increased the SRT of the digestion process and the production of biogas and decreased the hydraulic retention time ‘The value of thickening the feed sludge to the digester is indicated by data pre~ sented in Table 14-28. For example, for a 15-d hydraulic retention time and an average TSS of 3 percent, the volatile solids loading factor in Table 14-28 is 1.4 kg/m’-d. By improving the feed solids TSS to 6 percent, the VSS loading can be increased to 2.9 kg/m?d, near the middle of the solids loading range given in Table 14-27. In this hypothetical example, a doubling in digester capacity is achieved. In evaluating digested solids recycling to reduce the size and number of digesters or increase the solids processing capacity of existing digesters, sludge rheology and sludge handling equipment require evaluation, While most digesters can accommodate increases in, solids concentrations, the limits imposed by pumping and mixing systems require care- ful evaluation (Maco et al., 1998). Gas Production, Collection, and Use Gas from anaerobic digestion contains about 65 to 70 percent CH, by volume, 25 to 30 percent CO,, and small amounts of N, H, H,S, water vapor, and other gases. Digester gas has a specific gravity of approximately 0.86 relative to air. Because production of 8 is one of the best measures of the progress of digestion and because digester gas can be used as fuel, the designer should be familiar with its production, collection, and use. Gas Production. The volume of methane gas produced during the digestion process can be estimated using Eq. (14-12), which has been discussed previously. Total gas production is usually estimated from the percentage of volatile solids reduction. ‘Typical values vary from 0.75 to 1.12 m/kg (12 to 18 f°/1b) of volatile solids destroyed. Gas production can fluctuate over a wide range, depending on the volatile solids con- tent of the sludge feed and the biological activity in the digester. Excessive gas produc- tion rates sometimes occur during startup and may cause foaming and escape of foam and gas from around the edges of floating digester covers. In egg-shaped and shallow cylindrical digesters, foaming can clog the gas outlet unless foam control is provided. If stable operating conditions have been achieved and the foregoing gas production rates are being maintained, a well-digested sludge can be obtained. Gas production can also be estimated crudely on a per capita basis. The normal yield is 15 to 22 m°/10* persons-d (0.6 to 0.8 f*/person-d) in primary plants treating normal domestic wastewater. In secondary treatment plants, the gas production is increased to about 28 m?/10° persons-d (1.0 ft°/person-d). Gas Collection. In cylindrical digesters, gas is collected under the cover of the digester. Three principal types of covers are used: (1) floating, (2) fixed, and (3) mem- brane. Floating covers fit on the surface of the digester contents and allow the volume of the digester to change without allowing air to enter the digester (see Fig. 14-272). Gas and air must not be allowed to mix, or an explosive mixture may result. Explosions have occurred in wastewater-treatment plants. Gas piping and pressure-relief valves ‘must include adequate flame traps. The covers may also be installed to act as gas hold- ers for a limited storage of gas. High-rate digesters produce about two volumes of gas per volume of digester eapacity/d (Speece 2001). Floating covers can be used for single- stage digesters or in the second stage of two-stage digesters.14-9 Anaerobic Digestion 1525 the gas membrane and the center gas dome are in contact with the digester contents. The gas membrane is made from a flexible polyester fabric (WEF, 1998). In egg-shaped digesters, the volume available for gas storage is small. For efficient utilization of digester gas, supplemental external storage may be required. Use of Digester Gas. Methane gas at standard temperature and pressure (20°C and | atm) has a lower heating value of 35,800 ki/m? (960 Btu/ft?). Lower heating value is the heat of combustion less the heat of vaporization of any water vapor present. Because digester gas is only 65 percent methane, the lower heating value of digester gas is approximately 22,400 kJ/m? (600 Buw/ft?). By comparison, natural gas, which is a mix- ture of methane, propane, and butane, has a heating value of 37,300 kI/m? (1000 Btu/f). In large plants, digester gas may be used as fuel for boiler and internal-combustion ‘engines which are, in turn, used for pumping wastewater, operating blowers, and gen- erating electricity. Hot water from heating boilers or from engine jackets and exhaust- heat boilers may be used for sludge heating and for building heating, or gas-fired sludge-heating boilers may be used. Energy recovery is more efficient if prime movers are designed to run hot because heat rejected at high temperatures can be put toa ‘greater variety of uses than heat rejected at low temperatures. Digester gas can be used in cogeneration. Cogeneration is generally defined as a system for generating electricity and producing another form of energy (usually steam or hot water). Digester gas can be used to power an engine-generator to generate elec- ticity, and the jacket water from the internal-combustion engine can then be used for digester or building heating. Surplus power, over and above that required for plant pur- Poses, can sometimes be sold to local electric utilities. Because digester gas contains hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, particulates, and water vapor, the gas frequently has to be cleaned in dry or wet scrubbers before it is used in internal-combustion engines. Hydrogen sulfide concentrations in excess of approxi- mately 100 ppm by volume may require the installation of hydrogen sulfide removal equipment (WEF, 1998). Digester Heating The heat requirements of digesters consist of the amount needed (1) to raise the incom- ing sludge to digestion tank temperatures, (2) to compensate for the heat losses through ‘walls, floor, and roof of the digester, and (3) to make up the losses that might occur in the piping between the source of heat and the tank. The sludge in digestion tanks is heated by pumping the sludge and supernatant through external heat exchangers and back to the tank. Analysis of Heat Requirements. In computing the energy required to heat the incoming sludge to the temperature of the digester, it is assumed that the specific heat of most sludges is essentially the same as that of water. The assumption that the spe- cific heats of sludge and water are essentially the same has proved to be acceptable for engineering computations. The heat loss through the digester sides, top, and bottom is computed using the following expression: q= UAAT (1415)1738 Appendix B Physical Properties of Selected Gases and the Composition of Ait B-1 DENSITY OF AIR AT OTHER TEMPERATURES In SI units ‘The following relationship can be tised to compute the density of air py PM RT Po where P = atmospheric pressure = 1.01325-10° N/m? M = mole of air (see Table B-1) = 28.97 kg/kg-mole universal gas constant = 8314 N-m/kg-mole-K temperature, K (Kelvin) = (273.15 + °C) For example, at 20°C, the density of air is ‘ __ (1.01325 x 10° N/m?) (28.97 ke/ke-mole) _ 3 Poze ~ “(9314 Nem/kg-mole-K)| (273.15 + 20)K] = 1.204 ke/m’ In U.S. customary units ‘The following relationship can be used to compute the specific weight of air y, at other temperatures at atmospheric pressure. P (144 in?/ft*) RT 14.7 Ibvin? 53.3 ft-Ib/tb-air-°R T = temperature, °R (Rankine) = (459.67 + °F) For example, at 68°F, the specific weight of air is (14.7 Ib/in?) (144 in?/f) _ (a Tibfin U4 we) __ Yaas'F ~ (53.3 filb/Ib-air-R)| (459.67 + 68)°R] 0.0753 Wo/f " B-2 CHANGE IN ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE WITH ELEVATION In SI units ‘The following relationship can be used to compute the change in atmospheric pressure with elevation: 7a gl 8) P, RT where P = pressure, 1.01325 x 10° Nim? g = 9.81 mis? M = mole of air (see Table B-1) = z= elevation, m 8.97 kg/kg-mole {1742 Appendix C_ Physical Properties of Water or a needle to float on the surface of a Tiguid. The surface-tension force acrofs iy tmaginary line at a free surface is proportional to the tength of the Tine and acts in direction perpendicular to it. ‘The surface tension per unit length sis expressed in New- tons per meter (N/m) in SI units. There is a slight decrease in surface tension with increasing temperature. VAPOR PRESSURE Liquid molecules that possess sufficient kinetic energy are projected out of the main body ofa liquid atits free surface and pass into the vapor. The pressure exerted by this vapor is known as the vapor pressure p, - In SI units vapor pressure i expressed in kilo- vrewtons per square meter (KN/n?). The vapor pressure of water at 15°C is 1.72 kNim’. REFERENCES Vennard, JK., and RL Street (1975) Elementary Fluid Mechanis, Sh ed. Wiley. New York. Weber NB (1971) Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineers, St ed., Chapman and Hall, London. | Table ¢-1 Physical Properties ‘of Water (SI Units)” 0 9.805 999.8 1.98 1.781 1.785 0.0765 5 9.807 1000.0 2.05 1.518 1.519 0.0749 0.87 10 9.804 999.7 2.10 1.307 1.306 0.0742 1.23 15 9.798 999.1 215 1.139 1.139 0.0735 170 20 9.789 998.2 217 1,002 1.003 0.0728 234 25 9777 997.0 222 0.890 0.893 0.0720 3.17 30 9.764 995.7 225 0.798 0.800 0.0712 424 40 9.730 992.2 2.28 0.653 0.658 0.0696 7.38 50 9.689 988.0 229 0.547 0.553 0.0679 12.33 60 9.642 983.2 2.28 0.466 0.474 0.0662 19.92 70 9.589 9778 2.25 0.404 0.413 0.0644 31.16 80 9.530 918 2.20 0.354 0.364 0.0626 47.34 90 9.666 965.3 214 0.315 0.326 0.0608 70.10 100 9.399 958.4 294 0.0589 101.33 Adopted from Vennard and Street (1975). At atmospheric pressure. In contoct with ait.