(1) Definition of Paragraph: A paragraph is a unified piece of prose.

It may be independent and

complete in itself or from a part of a bigger composition. It in either case it is a group of several
sentences dealing with one main idea.

(2)Basic Structural Elements: (Concept, Characteristics, Special Features):

(i) Topic Sentence: The topic sentence in a paragraph is equivalent to the introduction (the
thesis statement) to an essay. It introduces the theme or topic of the entire paragraph. It is like a
signpost which will lead you into the text that follows. In other words, it will contain a
controlling idea to control or direct the of the paragraph. The whole of the paragraph is to be
developed according to the plan made in the topic sentence. By clearly expressing the main idea
it helps the reader to follow the track with ease and comfort. It also helps the writer to be on
the track.

As for the position of the topic sentence, it may appear anywhere in the paragraph. You may
find it right at the beginning or in the middle or at the end. Sometimes, it may so happen that
the topic sentence is not at all present. Instead of being written down, it remains then in the
writer's mind. However, no paragraph in this book beginning of the paragraph. But you should
bear in mind that in some kinds of paragraph it is more effective to place the topic seyat the
end.

Wherever it is placed, it must say what your paragraph is about. It must cearly express the
central idea. It may either be general or specific.

You should bear in mind that the sentence is an inviolable guide. The plan it gives should be
strictly followed. Any departure from or violation of the plan will spoil your paragraph. Here is a
topic sentence with its controlling idea in bold print.

“Smoking is harmful for four reasons. “

Characteristics:

(i) The topic sentence highlights the main idea of the paragraph.
(ii) It must have a controlling idea to control or direct the rest of the paragraph.
(iii) In most cases the topic sentence appears at the beginning of the paragraph.
(iv) The plan of the topic sentence must be observed.

(ii) Well- Developed Body: Every well-written paragraph should have a middle consisting of
a number of supporting sentences. Theses supporting sentences which expand and develop
the main idea (introduced in the topic sentence) of the paragraph are generally known as
the developers. They present evidence or examples in support of the main idea.
 We know that a paragraph is a unified and coherent piece of writing. The function of the
developers is to bring about this unity and coherence. They give unity to the paragraph by
dealing with the same subject and their logical arrangement brings the necessary
coherence. The number of developers in a paragraph is not fixed, You can write as many of
them as you think necessary for a complete development of the topic. But you must
remember that all your developers should contribute to the development of the same idea.
In other wrods, all of them should be about the same subject and they should also be
logically linked with one another to give the paragraph unity and coherence.

Characteristics:
(i) The developers from the middle of the paragraph.
(ii) They are all controlled by the main idea stated in the topic sentence.
(iii) They are all logically linked together with the help of appropriate linkers.
(iv) Care should be taken lest any irrelevancy should destroy the paragraph.

(iii) Concluding Sentence : Like the beginning, a good ending is also essential for an ideal
paragraph. The idea which is introduced in the topic sentence should also be brought to a
close. In other words, you need a concluding sentence to conclude the main idea of the
paragraph. It is also known as the terminator.

The word “terminator” itself suggests that it always comes at the end of the paragraph.
Neither does it remain unstated or implied. It should be clearly stated with an end of the
paragraph signal.

The concluding sentence serves its purpose in two different ways. It either repeats or
restates the main idea by paraphrasing the topic sentence or summarizes the main points
made in the body of the paragraph. In either case, it should signal the end of the paragraph.

Characteristics:

(i) The concluding sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph.

(ii) It brings the paragraph to a logical conclusion.
(iii) It either paraphrases the topic sentence or summarizes the main points.
(iv) It contains a concluding signal.

(3) Techoof Developing Idea: There are ten techniques about writing a paragraph.

(i) Paragraph development by Listing.

(ii) Paragraph development by Example.
(iii) Paragraph development by Contrast.
(iv) Paragraph development by Comparison.
(v) Pararagraph development by Definition.
(vi) Paragraph development by Classification.
(vii) Paragraph development by Cause and Effect.
(viii) Paragraph development by Process and Description.
 (ix) Paragraph development by Space and Time.
(x) Paragraph development by Generalisation.

(4) Context Modulator : The term ‘modulator' is derived from its verb from ‘modulate’, which means ‘to
adapt or adjust'. So the function of a modulator is to adapt or adjust one thing to another. (In music,
however, modulation means changing or passing from one key to another.) If you need to express two
different sets of ideas in your paragraph, you will require a context modulator to adjust them. It is a
sentence which provides a transition between the different sets of ideas. It is through this sentence that
you will pass from one group of developers to the other. It is, therefore, a kind of bridge between two
sets of ideas.

As far as its function is concerned, the context modulator does not appear in every paragraph. It occurs
only in those paragraphs which contain more than one group of developers. It is, therefore, an
additional element of a well written paragraph are its topic sentence. Developers and terminator.

The very topic suggestion of a paragraph will tell you whether it will need a context modulator or not.
For example, you are asked to write a paragraph in “The Amenities of Town Like”. This obviously
suggests that your paragraph will contain only one kind of developers. All of them will belong to one
group only and they will describe the pleasant things of town lige. So in writing this paragraph, you will
not require any context modulator. On the other hand, if the topic suggestion is “Advantages and
Disadvantages of a Joint Family “, it is clear that some of your developers are to be about the
advantages of a joint family and some about the disadvantages. Obviously, you have to incorporate two
separate groups of developers. First, you will list some advantages in one group and then some
disadvantages in another group and between these two groups you will have to write a transition
sentence to connect the two different sets of ideas. If you do not use this transitional device, your jump
from one thing to will be risky and abrupt and thereby your paragraph will lose an important element.

Characteristics :

(i) The function of a context modulator is to provide a transition between two sets of ideas.
(ii) It occurs only in those paragraphs which contain more than one sets of ideas.

(5) Cohesion and Coherence:

For starters, it is essential to understand the difference between the two terms.
Coherence is defined as the quality of being logical, consistent and able to be understood.
Imagine coherence as a building (It’s an analogy, go with it).
Cohesion on the other hand refers to the act of forming a whole unit. It is effectively a subset of
coherence. Picture cohesion as the bricks and cement which make up the building.
Bricks and cement can be put together to create any form of structure. However, it is only when
they are laid together properly that they form a building. Similarly, a text will be cohesive if
cohesive ties are used however it will only be coherent if the cohesive ties are used
appropriately to create meaning.

(6) Types of Essays: Four basic ways of developing a Composition/Essays.

(i) Descriptive Essay: A descriptive essay consists of a some places or things. When one
describes someone or something he gives readers a picture in words. The main purpose of a
descriptive essay is to make readers see or hear, taste or smell or feel what one is writing
about. To make the word picture as vivid and real as possible, one must observe and record
specific details that appeal to his readers senses. In this case the writer should be strong
action verbs and avoid too many ‘be' verbs. Thus instead of using ‘walk’ one should use
‘march’, ‘plod’ or ‘skip’. The description of some places or things includes description of
animals, plants, minerals or the description of towns, countries, buildings or the description
of aspects and phenomena of nature or the manufactured articles.
(ii) Narrative Essay: Narration is storytelling, whether we arevrelating a single story or several
related ones. Though narration we make a statement clear by relatingin detail something
that has happend ti us. In a narrative essay, some events or incidents are narrated in the
order they have taken place. The incidents may be real or unreal may be of past or present.
Transitions are used in a narrative essay to show time sequence. To signal the time
relationship of events in narrative, transitional words such as first, next, then, after, befor,
meanwhile, immediately, finally, at last etc. are used. Narrative essays may treat of
historycal stories or events e.g. the reign of Bangabandhu or biographies e.g. life of George
11, or incident e.g. street quarrel, a festival etc.
(iii) Expository Essay: The trem ‘expository’ has emerged from exposition that means a clear
and full explanation of an idea of a theory. An expository or explanatory essay consists of an
exposition or explanation of some subjects. The subjects of explanation inculde institions,
industries, occupation; scientific topics such as gravitation, evolotion, astronomy etc;
literary topics such as the naturevof novels, prose styles, the genus of G B Shaw etc.
(iv) Argumentative Essay: In an argumentative essay, the writer tries to establish his or her own
view by putting his or her arguments for or against something. He attempts to persuade
readers to accept his viewpoint. So, it is important not to anger the reader by referring to
them or their opinions in rude or belittling terms. An argumentative essay demands dynamic
language to support or oppose the idea. Such subjects as ‘setellite channel are more harmful
than useful to the viewers', student politics should be banned' are called argumentative
essays.

(7) Concept and Characteristics of Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing means formulating someone ideas in
your own words.
Paraphrasing is presenting ideas and Information in your own words and acknowledging where they
come from. By using your own words, you demonstrate your understing and your ability to convey
this information.

A paraphrase is used for presenting

an author's ideas in your own words.

Characteristics of Effective Paraphrases:

• Accurately relays the information from the original text in your own words.
• Provides the reader with the source of the information
• Paraphrases, unlike summaries, should be as long as the original document.