 OBSERVATION METHOD

 One of the most convenient and appropriate method for the study of human behaviour.

 Get valuable information about the behaviour and personality of an individual  systematic and
careful observation

 Observation is “Perceiving behaviour as it is”

 One of the oldest technique that man has made use of.

 Farmers notice breeze, sky, moon and stars  determine weather

 Physicians and psychologists depend heavily on what they observe of the patient’s talk,
gestures and facial expressions.

 MEANING

 Derived from the Latin word ‘Observare’ which means ‘to keep open’, ‘to look outside’.

 Etymological meaning – simply keep our eyes open and see certain things outside.

 Observation is much more than seeing something or looking outside.

 Mainly based on visual and audio-sense, direct technique to study an object, even or situation,
employs own experiences,

 DEFINTION

 P. T. Young – “Observation means to employ listening and seeing about the situation or an
individual behavior.”

 C. A. Moyger – “The solid meaning of observation is to use vision or eyes rather than listening or
hearing.”

 Good’s View - “Observation deals with the overt behaviour of persons in appropriate situations”

 TYPES OF OBSERVATION

 Example of Participant observation

 E.g. teacher studying a student who is doing poorly in the class without apparent reason.

 Parker (1975) Study of downtown Liverpool adolescents. Researcher was known to waiting to
take up a post at the university. He worked his way into the group hanging out during day and
pub at night. He behaved like one among them; drank and boys trusted him with info on illegal
matters.

 Cover is not a prerequisite of participant observation

 Willis (1977) intensive study of small group of working class boys during last two years at school
and first months in employment. Researcher attended different subject class at school as a
member of the class and worked alongside each boy in industry for a short period.

 TYPES OF OBSERVATION

 Participant Observation-researcher is actively involved as a participant in the activity or setting.

Observer becomes a member of the group by working his way into the group.

 E.g. teacher studying a student who is doing poorly in the class without apparent reason.

 Parker (1975) Study of downtown Liverpool adolescents. Researcher was known to waiting to
take up a post at the university. He worked his way into the group hanging out during day and
pub at night. He behaved like one among them; drank and boys trusted him with info on illegal
matters.

 Cover is not a prerequisite of participant observation

 Willis (1977) intensive study of small group of working class boys during last two years at school
and first months in employment. Researcher attended different subject class at school as a
member of the class and worked alongside each boy in industry for a short period.

• Non-participant observation - Observer remains aloof from the group and simply observes.

• Observer’s purpose is concealed or hidden in order to assure natural behaviour of subjects

• E.g. King (1979) an adult observer in an infant classroom

 PROCESS/STEPS IN OBSERVATION

 Planning and preparation

 Observation of the behaviour

 Analysis and interpretation

 Generalisation of results

 PLANNING AND PREPARATION

• Type of behavioural aspects of personality traits to be assessed through observation.

• Methods or resources required for such observation

• The type of situation or environment to be maintained for carrying out the observation work

• Anticipating the difficulties or adverse situations that may occur and strategies to overcome
them.

• Ways to make the observation results more reliable, informative, objective and valid.

 OBSERVATION OF THE BEHAVIOUR

 Actual observation work done by the observer as per the planning and preparation.

 Best possible methods and techniques should be used depending upon the purpose of
observation and availability of the resources and the environmental situations

 For better results following things should be kept in mind:

 Observation to be made in naturalistic environment.

 Carried out in a proper way – eyes play a crucial role – engage the ears too (behavioural
activities in action)

 Use telescope

 Adequate arrangement for using modern observation equipment. Recording helps in proper
analysis and interpretation of the behaviour.

 For a desirable objectivity, reliability and validity, observation must be repeated. Decision should
not be based on one observation.

 Simultaneous recording along with observation; to avoid loss of data or things or links related to
behaviour.

 Better to make a check list

 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE OBSERVED FACTS

 Analysis of the observed facts

 Interpretation about the behaviour and personality – critical and accurate examination of
results.

 GENERALIZATION OF RESULTS
 Interpretation made and results  establishing generalized opinion, facts of principles 
occurrence of behaviour and existence of similar personality characteristics among similar
individuals in similar situations.

 Help to predict behaviour in similar circumstances.

 Search for roots of a particular behaviour

 Study the effects of some remedial or treatment measure in the correction of maladaptive
behaviour.

 MERITS

 Possible to study behaviour in natural and original form.

 Reliable and valid measure and method for carrying systematic and scientific study of human
behaviour.

 Economical in terms of time, money & labour – large amount of information of an individual or
group, natural setting, professionally trained individual not needed.

 MERITS

 Inferences are drawn on the basis of present behaviour not the past.

 Helps in collecting both qualitative and quantitative data

 Has greater scope for verification.

 Provides firsthand information

 Helps in investigating behavioural characteristics of many individuals

 DE-MERITS

 Lack of trained observers – method rests on the quality of a good observer.

 Subjectivity – observer’s interest, values, bias and prejudices may distort the contents and
results of observation. Focus on one aspect of behaviour while other neglected.

 Partial and revengeful attitude of the observer – favourable and dear ones are always assessed
and estimated on a higher footing.

 Difficulty in the occurrence and reoccurrence of events – lacks repeatability as each natural
situation can occur only once

 DE-MERITS
  Cause and effect relationship not established – in case we observe two phenomenon, poverty
and delinquency behaviour, invariably occur together- correct inference cannot be drawn.

 Total behavior remains unexplored – only external or observable behaviour is taken into
account not the internal aspect of the subject. (unconscious or sub-conscious)

 Difficulty in recording the observed data – observer has to observe one or many things
occurring at the same time in the behaviour of the subject. Difficult to simultaneously observe
and record the different aspects of behaviour.

 Clinical Method

 Clinical Psychology

 Clinical method is a part of clinical psychology which is an art and technology of dealing with
adjustment problem.

 Clinical method is directed towards the study of individual behaviour.

 The clinical set up is associated with health care and treatment of the children/individuals

 It helps the investigator to find the root cause of the problem or exceptional behaviour.

 Suggest possible treatment and provide appropriate environment

 Characteristics

 The clinical method is applicable to an individual having problem

 It involves methods of diagnosis and treatment.

 It aims at seeking maximum adjustment and welfare for the disturbed individual.

 It is an art as well as science – everyone cannot treat every patient and it takes pleasure in
making mankind healthier and better.

 Process of Clinical Method = diagnosis + treatment

 Methods of Diagnosis

 Diagnosis requires a symptomatic account of the overall situation in order to ascertain the root
cause of an illness or behavioural problem.

 It is based on the past events, experiences, its impact and reactions, the present environment
and adjustment problems.

 Methods of Diagnosis

The following techniques are used-

1. Adequate physical check up – to ascertain whether the behaviour is of a functional or organic
nature. When not due to physical causes then subject to psychological treatment.

2. Making out a case history – finding clues or delving into the events from the earlier experiences
of the individual.

1. Identifying data – personal info

2. Environmental background – relationship details – family, friends, neighbourhood

3. Developmental history – history of mental and physical health, education and

occupation, social and emotional adjustment, sex life etc.

4. History of exceptional behaviour – behaviour in question

 Methods of Diagnosis

4. The Clinical Interview – planned appropriate questions, rapport building, giving the counsellee
an opportunity to talk

5. Direct observation of behaviour – observation of overt behaviour

6. Using tests and measuring devices – attitude, aptitude, interest, total personality

 Method of treatment

 Modifying the environmental forces

 Resettlement

 Change in attitude of parents, teachers, peer etc.

 Provision of better facilities

 Modifying the individual’s attitude

 Guidance and counseling

 Auto suggestions

 Use of therapies – game therapy

 Role play

 Merits

 Useful for making comprehensive study of an individual

  It helps to find our the causes of maladjustment

 The method helps in revealing special disabilities of the person

 It is useful in the study of school problems

 Provides new avenues for research

 Individualized method

 Very useful in dealing with personal problems and adjustment

 Limitations

 Subjective method

 Lengthy method

 Costly

 Difficult preparation – human sources may not cooperate in preparation of case history

 Difficult interpretation – no definite norms

 No laboratory verification

 Limited scope – no universal application

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

 Webster’s Dictionary states the meaning of the term experiment as:

 trial made to confirm

 to disprove something

 operation undertaken to discover some unknown principles or effect

 to test some suggested truth

 to demonstrate some unknown truth

 conducting of tests

 Meaning:

 Introduced by William Wundt in 1879 at Leipzig laboratory in Germany

 Emphasis on experiments
 means ‘put to test’

 performed in psychological laboratories or outside in physical or social settings

• establishes cause and effect relationships

• Conclusions are drawn from objective observations

• Requires two persons-the experimenter and the subject

• Always conducted on living organisms

• Conditions and variables are controlled and manipulated

 According to J.W Best, “Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will be, or
what will occur, under carefully controlled conditions”.

 In experiments, there is always the attempt to establish certain cause and effect relationships
through carefully planned and controlled observation of the subject’s behaviour

 The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one
variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random
assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis.

 Variable Experimental Method

 A variable is a changeable element in phenomena. Variables are divided in to two types;

 Dependent Variable

 Independent Variable

 Independent Variable

 is an experimental variable, which is manipulated in an experiment it is also known

 as causal variable.

 Dependent Variable

 is a subject variable associated with control group. This is also known as effect or criterion
variable.

 Experimental group

 The subjects who are randomly assigned to get the treatment are called experimental

 group.
 A treatment

 A treatment is the condition that is applied to experimental group of subjects.

 Random assignment

 In an ideal experiment all the factors that might affect the outcome of the experiment

 (the dependent variable) are controlled by the experimenter. This is more possible in

 the case of natural sciences where as in social sciences, complex subjects matters pose

 the problems of identification of variables and their control. Therefore, to overcome

 this problem the concept of randomisation is used. This randomisation is nothing but

 assigning subjects to experimental and control groups at random. Random assignment

 is a requirement of statistical tests of the significance of experimental results.

 A subject

 A Subject is a basic unit on which the experiment is conducted. This varies from discipline

 to discipline. In the case of library and information science or for that matter social

 sciences subjects are often people – patrons, librarians or users.

 Control Group

 Control is central to experimental research. This helps in distinguishing the experimental

 research from other methods of research. Control group is that on which the experiments

 are not conducted. Control group helps in the process of comparison. Even the treatment

 is not applied to control group.

 Cause and effect relationship

 The results of the experiment showing the influence of manipulating the independent

 variable (cause) on the dependent variable (effect).

 Pretest

 The measurement of dependent variable after the random assignment of subjects to

 experimental group and control group is called pretest.

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 Research Methods Posttest

 The measurement of dependent variable for experimental and control groups after the

 pretest and introduction of treatment is called posttest.

 Process of Experimental Method:

1. Selection of a problem

2. Review of related literature

3. Formulation of a hypothesis

4. Selection of an experimental design

5. Designing and controlling of variables

6. Procedure or Implementation

7. Interpretation of results

 Advantages of Experimental Method:

1. Reliable and scientific

2. Wide application

3. Quantitative measurement

4. Pre-planned

5. Utility in education

 Limitations of Experimental Method:

1. Lengthy and time consuming

2. Expensive

3. Difficulty in controlling variables

4. Problem of measuring dependent variables

5. Artificiality of laboratory conditions

6. Limited scope