CHAPTER-1

 
INTRODUCTION

1.1.  INTRODUCTION

The challenge of modern machining industries is mainly focused on the

achievement of high quality, in terms of work piece dimensional accuracy, surface

roughness, high production rate, less tool wear on the cutting tools, economy of

machining in terms of cost saving and increase the performance of the product with

reduced environmental impact. Among several industrial machining processes, turning is

a fundamental machining operation. High hardness is a functional requirement for the

turned components. Recently hard turning process is commonly used in a variety of

manufacturing industries including the aerospace and automotive sectors. The brief

introduction to hard turning, importance of surface finish and fuzzy modeling of hard

turning process is presented in this chapter.

1.2.  HARD TURNING

Hard turning process is a fine or finish turning process to machine the material in

hardened condition in the hardness range of 45-65 HRC. Hard turning differs from

conventional turning of softer materials in several ways. In conventional machining

process the components are initially rough machined, subsequently hardened to the

desired hardness and then finally finish ground to the desired dimensions. Hard turning

eliminates the series of operations required to produce the component and thereby

reducing the cycle time and hence resulting in productivity improvement. The various

advantages of hard tuning are the higher productivity, reduced set up times, surface finish

1
closer to grinding and ability to machine the complex parts. In hard turning the specific

cutting forces are larger than in conventional turning, and thus the

2
engagement between cutting tools and the work piece must be limited. In hard turning

small cutting depths are required and cutting takes place on the nose radius of cutting

tools. In hard turning higher cutting forces and higher temperatures are generated during

machining, hence high rigidity of the machine, high strength cutting tools, use of cutting

fluids, and proper cutting conditions are highly desirable than conventional turning.

In hard turning ceramic and CBN cutting tools are commonly used without

coolant whereas carbide tools are used with coolant. Recent improvements in the carbide

tools like restricted contact and use various coatings on carbides make it suitable in

machining of hard materials under dry condition. The carbide tools are typically prepared

with chamfered or honed edges to provide a stronger edge geometry that is less prone to

premature fracture. Cutting on a chamfered or honed edge equates to a large negative

effective rake angle, while neutral or positive rake angles are typical in conventional

machining. The large negative rake angles yield increased cutting forces compared to

machining with positive rake tools, and also induce larger compressive loads on the

machined surface.

1.2.1  Coated tools

Cutting tools are very important for machining operations to produce required

shape, size and surface finish. A variety of cutting tool materials is used to machine

various materials. Cutting tools mainly suffers from crater wear when cutting steels at

high speed. The development of coated carbide since around 1970 represented significant

advance in cutting tool technology. Coated carbides have one or more layer of thin layers

of CVD or PVD coating such as TiC, TiN, Al2O3, ZrN, and diamond. They are best

applied at high speeds where dynamic force and thermal

3
shocks are minimal. The use of coated cutting tools to machine various materials

represents advancement in technology, and today's machining processes are becoming

increasingly demanding on cutting tool materials. The main purpose of tool coating is to

improve productivity by allowing higher cutting speeds or feed rates.

1.2.2  TiN Coating

The first coating to be used successfully to machine steels in industry and still the

most recognized, distinguished by it's attractive bright gold colour. The PVD TiN coating

was first used on High Speed Steel (HSS) tools. However the many advantages of the

PVD TiN coating were obvious to the cemented carbide industry, and in 1985 the first

PVD TiN coated cemented carbide cutting tool inserts were introduced for machining

applications. The TiN coating is a wear resistant ceramic coating suitable for a wide range

of applications, materials, and cutting conditions where tool life extended and elevated

feeds and speeds are required. The TiN coating is used for machining (carbon, alloy, and

stainless steels, cast irons, and aluminum alloys) and protecting dies, moulds, punches,

and a range of metal stamping and forming tools.

 1.2.3. Cutting fluids

Cutting fluids influence the performance of machining operations because of their

lubrication, cooling and chip flushing functions. In hard turning, great amount of coolants

and lubricants are required to avoid thermal damage to the work and tool. Use of cutting

fluids in large quantities pose problems like costs associated with procurement, storage

and disposal of cutting fluid systems, physical effects on the operator and overall effect

on the worker safety and environment. In other words apart from the cost, flood

application is neither environment nor people friendly. Due to

4
environmental awareness and increasing costs, industrial enterprises and researchers are

seriously looking into the possibilities of dry machining or minimum fluid application

(near dry machining) for achieving quality in manufacturing.

1.3.  IMPORTANCE OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS

The quality of the surface plays a very important role, a good-quality machined

surface significantly improves the fatigue strength, corrosion resistance, or creep life.

Surface roughness also affects several functional attributes of parts, such as contact

causing surface friction, wearing, light reflection, heat transmission, ability of distributing

and holding a lubricant, coating, or resisting fatigue. Therefore, the desired surface finish

is usually specified and the appropriate processes are selected to reach the required

quality. Hard turning is a fine finishing process and the surface roughness obtained in

hard turning process depends on various factors like cutting conditions, cutting tool and

its geometry, cutting fluid, rigidity of the machine tool and type of the work material. The

final surface roughness might be considered as the sum of two independent effects:

1. The natural surface roughness is a result of the irregularities in the cutting

operation

2. The ideal surface roughness is a result of the geometry of tool and feed rate.

3. The natural surface roughness mainly depends on rigidity of the machine tool and

it can be easily avoided by selecting rigid machine. The ideal surface roughness

can be controlled by selecting proper cutting tool and cutting conditions.

5
1.4.  FUZZY MODELLING

The recently developed fuzzy logic approach is used to model or to control a

complex and vague dynamic process such as the machining operation. This approach has

been applied successfully to vague and complex problems. The resulting model can

effectively predict process outputs when the process inputs are given. Fuzzy logic initially

introduced in Zadeh’s pioneering work in mid 1960s and later explored by Mamdani.

Fuzzy logic has great capability to capture human commonsense reasoning, decision

making and other aspects of human cognition. Vagueness in the coefficients and

constraints may be naturally modeled by fuzzy logic. Fuzzy logic is particularly attractive

due to its ability to solve problems in the absence of accurate mathematical models.

1.5.  OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT WORK

The objectives of the present work are

1. To study the performance of coated tools in machining hardened steels under dry

conditions.

2. To develop the fuzzy model to predict the surface roughness.

6
1.6.  ORGANIZATION OF THESIS

The study of project has been reported in seven chapters as given in the following.

Chapter -1 deals with the introduction about to hard turning, coated tools, importance of

surface finish and fuzzy modeling. The objectives of the present work are

also presented in this chapter.

Chapter-2 deals with the literature survey on machining parameters, hard turning,

Surface roughness and brief literature review on surface roughness

Prediction techniques.

Chapter-3 deals with the Design of Experiments (DOE) and fuzzy modeling.

Chapter-4 deals with the data collection.

Chapter-5 deals with the fuzzy model development for hard turning process,

fuzzy membership functions, and fuzzy rules.

Chapter-6 deals with the results and discussion.

Chapter-7 based on experimental and predicted results conclusions and further scope

are drawn.

7
 CHAPTER-2
 
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1.  INTRODUCTION

The present work is modeling of hard turning process to predict the surface roughness

using fuzzy logic. In this chapter brief literature survey on surface texture, hard turning

and fuzzy logic is presented here.

2.2.  METAL CUTTING

Metal cutting is one of the most significant manufacturing processes in the area

of material removal (Chen & Smith, 1997). Metal cutting is defined as the removal of

metal chips from a work piece in order to obtain a finished product with desired attributes

of size, shape, and surface roughness. To achieve these, the excess undesired material is

removed form the work piece in the form of chips with the help of cutting tools. Metal

cutting processes are performed on metal cutting machines, commonly known as

Machine Tools by using various types of cutting tools.

2.3.  MACHING PARAMETERS

The machining process depends upon various parameters such as the work piece

material, the cutting tool material, the rigidity of the machine, the rigidity of the work

piece, cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, chatter, and tool wear etc. Some of them are

described below

8
2.3.1  Cutting Variables

Cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut are the most important variable in metal

cutting. Cutting speed is defined as the distance of the cutting tool edge travel over the

surface of the work piece in unit time. It is normally expressed in terms of surface speed

in “mm/min”. It is a very important aspect in machining because it considerably affects

the tool life and efficiency of machining. The feed rate defined as the rate of advancement

of the cutting tool. The tool can be moved in three directions with respect to the axis of

the work. Hence there are three types of feeds. Those are

1. Longitudinal feed: The movement of the tool parallel to axis of work is

called longitudinal feed. This is used in turning, drilling operations.

2. Cross feed: The movement of the tool perpendicular to the axis of the work is

called Cross feed such as in facing operation.

3. Angular feed: The movement of the tool at angular direction to the work axis

is called angular feed such as n taper turning operation.

Depth of cut is depth or distance perpendicular to axis of the work (in case of turning),

by which the tool penetrates into the work. This is expressed in “mm”

2.4.  HARD TURNING

Hard turning is the process of turning hard materials at hardness range of 45-

65 HRC (Rockwell scale C) by using single point cutting tools. The traditional method of

machining the hardened materials includes rough turning, heat treatment, and then

9
grinding process. Hard turning eliminates the series of operations required to produce the

component and thereby reducing the cycle time. Even though small

10
depths of cut and feed rates are required for hard turning, material removal rates in hard

turning is much higher than grinding.

Hard turning have many potential advantages compared with grinding, they are

the higher productivity, reduced set up times, surface finish closer to grinding and ability

to machine the complex parts. The combination of increased flexibility and improved

material removal rates is becoming more important as manufacturers toward production

strategies that minimize the inventory and batch sizes. Furthermore, because the process

is more flexible and productive, only fewer machine tools are required. Turning is also a

more efficient cutting process than grinding, so less energy is required to remove the

same volume of material. Finally, hard turning has the possibility of eliminating cutting

coolant is another substantial economic and environmental advantage of hard turning. It

is obvious that hard turning is an attractive replacement for many grinding operations.

Some of the advantages of the hard turning technology are

1. The lathe offers the versatility to "Soft Turn" and Hard Turn on the same machine

tool. A single machine can perform the both operations leads to reduce the floor

space and capital investment.

2. Metal removal rates with hard turning are 4 to 6 times greater than equivalent

grinding operations.

3. Single-point cutting tool can machine complex contours on a lathe machine,

without need of costly form wheels.

4. Multiple operations can be machined with a single set-up, resulting in less part

handling and a reduced opportunity for part damage.

11
5. Hard turning can achieve good surface finishes ranging from 0.0001 mm to 0.0004

mm are very common.

6. Environmentally, the hard turned chips are less costly to dispose of than grinding

swarf. Dry cut parts without coolant contamination are even more economical to

dispose of.

7. Tooling cost is low compared to grinding wheels.

The range of hard turned applications will vary based upon the part requirements,

tolerance levels, surface finish and very importantly the machine tool. The various work

materials can be machined by using hard turning process include heat treated steels, high

speed steels, die steels, bearing steels, alloy steels, case hardened steels, white cast iron

and alloy cast iron. These steels are important class of engineering materials due to

improved strength and wear resistance compared with other metals. Due to high

dimensional and surface requirements, these materials have traditionally been machined

to finished geometries by abrasive processes such as grinding. Recent improvements in

machine tool technology specifically the rigidity, precision and the development of new

cutting tools have allowed the machining of hardened steels by hard turning.

Hard turning differs from conventional turning of softer materials in several ways.

In hard turning process the material to be machined is harder, specific cutting forces

developed more than in conventional turning, and thus the engagement between cutting

tools and the work piece must be limited. At the small cutting depths required, cutting

takes place on the nose radius of cutting tools, and the tools are prepared with chamfered

or honed edges to provide a stronger edge geometry that is less prone to premature

fracture. The large negative rake angles leads to increased

12
cutting forces compared to machining with positive rake tools, and also induce

compressive stresses on hard turned surfaces that improved fatigue life. Higher

temperatures are also generated in the cutting zone, and because cutting is typically done

without coolant, hard turned surfaces can exhibit thermal damage in the form of micro

structural changes and tensile residual stresses.

Hard turning is not used more extensively because of the following disadvantages.

Hard turning is a new technology compared to grinding and the existing knowledge base

and equipment that supports hard turning is minimum. Hard turning applications are not

good enough to replace certain grinding operations. A good example of this is center less

grinding. In hard turning the cutting tools are prepared with chamfered or honed edges

these leads to increase cutting forces, generation of excessive heat at cutting zone, these

causes thermal damage in the form of microstructural changes and development of tensile

residual stresses compared to machining with positive rake tools. Hard turning can

influence the work piece surface microstructure by generating undesirable residual stress

patterns over hardened surface zones that are referred to as “white layers”. The biggest

limitations of hard turning are surface quality and unacceptable life of expensive cutting

tools. Due to these reasons, there is a need to develop a better understanding of the effects

of process conditions on the behavior of cutting tools and the surface quality that can be

obtained by hard turning.

2.4.1  HARD TURNING REQUIREMENTS

In hard turning process the material is removed at hardened state, to obtain longer

tool life and desired surface finish it requires rigid machine tools with adequate power,

very hard and tough tool materials with appropriate tool geometry, tool
13
holders with high stiffness and appropriate cutting conditions are some of the

prerequisites for hard turning.

●  Machine Tool Requirements

The precision and rigidity of machine tools have been improved to allow hard

turning by using newly developed cutting tool materials with negative rake angles (the

edge chamfer) on cutting tool edges. During the hard turning process large dynamic thrust

forces will develop that requires adequate machine rigidity, spindle power, damping

characteristics, and accuracy of motion along the axes of the machine.

 Dimensional Accuracy

Many industrial components require finish machining operation after heat

treatment. Historically this has been done by grinding, which leads to dimensional

inaccuracies. The hard turning process must be capable of producing similar geometric

precision and quality surfaces at proper conditions with a good machine. Hard turning can

produce good dimensional accuracy and better surface finishes for most applications

when compared to grinding operation.

 Surface Integrity

If hard turning is to replace any grinding operation, it must be capable of producing

surfaces of acceptable quality. This includes both the surface topography (surface finish)

and surface integrity like surface finish, microstructure, micro hardness, fatigue

resistance, residual stress state, and frictional characteristics.

14
2.4.2  CUTTING TOOLS

The development of coated carbides since around 1970 represented significant

advance in cutting tool technology. Coated carbides improve machinability, and have one

or more thin layers of wear resistance CVD or PVD coating such as TiC, TiN, Al2O3,

ZrN, CrC or diamond. Coating thickness is usually in the range of 2.5 - 13 μm. The use of

coated cutting tools to machine various materials represents the art of machining

technology, and today's machining processes are becoming increasingly demanding on

cutting tool materials. The main purpose of tool coating is to improve productivity by

allowing higher cutting speeds or feed rates.

Selection of Cutting tools are very important factor for hard turning process to

obtain high productivity and good surface finish. The machining of hardened steels

employing polycrystalline cubic boron nitride and ceramic tooling has been investigated

over the last 20 years; however the newer cemented carbide grades are developed in

machining of hardened steels of hardness up to 45 HRC (Rockwell C). The tooling choice

will need to be matched to the application, desired production rates and the operating cost

goals. The carbide tools are available in a wide range of grades and coatings for suitable

various applications. Cutting tools required for hard turning are relatively expensive. Poor

selection of cutting conditions can lead to excessive tool wear and eliminate any cost

savings. Selection of optimal cutting conditions increases the tool life.

Indexable inserts are removable cutting tips, which mean they are not brazed or

welded to the tool body. They are usually rotated or flipped without disturbing the overall

geometry of the cutting tool. This saves time in manufacturing by allowing fresh cutting

edges to be presented periodically without the need for tool grinding,

15
setup changes. Different types of inserts and their relative strengths are shown in Fig.2.1.

 
Fig.2.1 Types of insert shapes and their relative strengths.

2.4.3 DRY TURNING

Turning is one of the most basic material removal processes in which material is

removed from the external surface of a rotating work piece. The performance of a turning

operation is greatly influenced by the application of cutting fluid, and in this regard

turning operations can be classified into different types, such as dry turning, turning with

minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), flood turning, and cryogenic turning. Flood

turning is also known as wet turning it is the most traditional technique and widely used

in industry. The process is characterized by the application of a large quantity of liquid,

known as cutting fluid at the cutting tool and work piece interface. Cutting fluid is

applied for a number of reasons, such as to reduce the cutting temperature, to increase the

tool life, to produce a better surface finish, to improve dimensional accuracy, and to

facilitate chip disposal.

16
 However, in recent years, the application of cutting fluids in machining operations

reduced due to its effects on health of the operators and the environment. Dry turning is

the metal removal process in which the material is removed from the work piece in dry

conditions i.e with out applying cutting fluids. This process has gained new interest for its

potential environmental and economic benefits. Nevertheless, in spite of all its economic

and environmental benefits, the dimensional accuracy and surface finish of component

parts produced by dry turning should not be sacrificed.

2.5  EVALUATION OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Characterization of surface topography is important in applications involving

friction, lubrication, and wear (Thomas, 1999). In general, it has been found that friction

increases with average roughness. The effect of roughness on lubrication has also been

studied to determine its impact on issues regarding lubrication of sliding surfaces, and

roller bearing fatigue. Finally, some researchers have found a correlation between initial

roughness of sliding surfaces and their wear rate. Such correlations have been used to

predict failure time of contact surfaces.

The concept of roughness is often described with terms such as ‘uneven’,

‘irregular’, ‘coarse in texture’, ‘broken by prominences’, and other similar terms

(Thomas, 1999). The characterization of surface roughness can be done in two principal

planes. Using a sinusoidal curve as a simplified model of the surface profile, roughness

can be measured at right angles to the surface in terms of the wave amplitude, and

parallel to the surface in terms of the surface wavelength. The latter one is recognized as

texture. The technique used to measure roughness in any of these two planes will

17
inevitably have certain limitations. The smallest amplitude and

18
wavelength that the instrument can detect correspond to its vertical and horizontal

resolution, respectively. Similarly, the largest amplitude and wavelength that can be

measured by the instrument are the vertical and horizontal range. The quality of machined

surface is characterized by the accuracy of its manufacture with respect to the dimensions

specified by the designer. Every machining operation leaves characteristic evidence on

the machined surface. This evidence in the form of finely spaced micro irregularities left

by the cutting tool. Each type of cutting tool leaves its own individual pattern which

therefore can be identified. This pattern is known as surface finish or surface roughness.

The various types of irregularities are shown Fig.2.2.

 
Fig.2.2 Various Surface irregularities.

19
 A surface is a boundary that separates an object from another object or substance.

A normal surface is a theoretical, geometrically perfect surface which does not exist in

practice, but is an average of the irregularities that are superimposed on it. A real surface

is the actual boundary of an object. It deviated from the nominal surface as a result of the

manufacturing process that created the surface; it also depends on the properties,

composition, and structure of the material.

2.6  SURFACE INTEGRITY

Surface integrity is the sum of all elements that describes all the conditions

existing on or at the surface of a work piece. Surface integrity has two aspects. The first is

surface topography which describes the roughness, lay, texture of this outer most layer of

the work piece i.e., its interface with the environment. The second is surface metallurgy,

which describes the nature of the altered layers below the surface with respect to the base

of matrix material.

2.7  SURFACE TEXTURE

The surface produced by machining and other methods of manufacturing is

generally irregular and complex. These irregularities are defined by height, width and

direction and other random characteristics not of a geometric nature. The general term

employed to define these surface irregularities is surface texture. Surface texture is the

repetitive or random deviation from the nominal surface which forms the pattern of the

surface. The measure of the surface texture is generally determined in terms of its

roughness, waviness, lay and flaw. The various parameters representing surface

characteristics is shown in Fig.2.3. The profile of the surface texture is shown in Fig.2.4.

20
 
Fig.2.3 Surface Characteristics

Fig.2.4 Profile of surface texture

21
2.7.1  Roughness:

Roughness consists of fine irregularities in the surface texture produced by the

various machining process as shown in Fig.2.3. Roughness height is the height of the

irregularities with respect to a reference line. It is measured in millimeters or microns or

micro inches. It is also known as the height of unevenness. Roughness width is the

distance parallel to the nominal surface between successive peaks or ridges which

constitute the predominate pattern of the roughness. It is measured in millimeters. It

should always be greater than the roughness width in order to obtain the total roughness

height rating.

2.7.2  Waviness:

Waviness is the widely spaced component of the surface texture. This may be the

result of work piece or tool deflection during machining, vibrations or tool run out.

Waviness height is the peak to valley distance of the surface profile, measured in

millimeters. Waviness width is the spacing of successive wave peaks or successive wave

valleys.

2.7.3  Lay:

Lay represents the direction of predominant surface pattern produced and it is

determined by the machining process used in producing the surface.

2.7.4  Flaws:

Flaws are irregularities which occur at scattered places, without a predetermined

pattern. They include cracks, blow holes, checks, ridges, scratches, etc.
22
2.7.5  Roughness sampling length:

The roughness sampling length is the sampling length within which the roughness

average is determined. This length is chosen, or specified, to separate the profile

irregularities which are designated as roughness from those irregularities designated as

waviness.

2.8. SURFACE
  FINISH PARAMETERS

Surface finish can be specified with different parameters in a wide variety of

machining operations, some of the popular parameters of surface finish specification are

described as follows,

2.8.1  Roughness average (Ra):

This parameter is also known as the arithmetic mean of roughness value, AA

(arithmetic average) of CLA (center line average). Ra is universally recognized and the

most used international parameter of roughness. Therefore, it is the arithmetic mean of

the departure of the roughness profile from the mean line. An example of the surface

profile is shown in Fig.2.4.

Where Ra = the arithmetic average deviation from the mean line; L =

the sampling length;

Y= the ordinate of the profile curve

23
2.8.2 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) roughness (Rq): This is the root-mean-

square parameter corresponding to Ra

2.8.3 Maximum peak-to-valley roughness height (RY or Rmax): This is

the distance between two lines parallel to the mean line that contacts the extreme upper

and lower points on the profile within the roughness sampling length.

 
2.9 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SURFACE FINISH

The surface quality is one of the most specified customer requirements and the

major indicator of surface quality on machined parts is surface roughness. The surface

roughness is mainly a result of various controllable or uncontrollable process parameters.

The Fishbone diagram with factors that influence on surface roughness is shown in

Fig.2.5. The surface finish in turning operation depends up on the following factors.

1) The machining variables which include

a) Cutting speed

b) Feed, and

c) Depth of cut.

2) The tool geometry: The design and geometry of the cutting tool also plays a vital

role in determining the quality of the surface. Some geometric factors which affect

achieved surface finish include

a) Nose radius
b) Rake angle
c) Side cutting edge angle, and
d) Cutting edge.
24
3) Workpiece and tool material combination and their mechanical properties

4) Quality and type of the machine tool used,

5) Auxiliary tooling, and lubricant used, and

6) Vibrations between the workpiece, machine tool and cutting tool.

Fig.2.5. Fishbone diagram with factors influence on surface roughness

25
2.10.  METHODS FOR MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE
TEXTURE

The methods used for measuring the surface finish can be classified into two groups.

1. Inspection by comparison

2. Direct instrument measurement

2.10.1Inspection by comparison methods: In these methods, the surface texture

is assessed by observation of the surface. These are the methods of qualitative analysis of

the surface texture. The texture of the surface to be tested is compared with that of a

specimen of known roughness value and finished by similar machining processes. The

various methods available for comparison are

1. Visual inspection

2. Touch inspection

3. Scratch inspection

4. Microscopic inspection

5. Surface photographs

6. Micro-Interferometer

7. Wallace surface dynamometer

8. Reflected light intensity

2.10.2Direct Instrument measurement: These are the methods of quantitative

analysis. These methods enable to determine the numerical value of the surface finish by

using instruments using stylus probe type operating on electrical principles. The stylus

probe instruments currently in use for surface finish measurement are

26
 1. Profilometer

2. The Tomlinson surface meter

3. The Taylor Hobson Talysurf

4. The Sigma Microtest

5. The Rubert Mecrin Roughness Indicator

2.11.  REVIEW OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS PREDICTION

TECHNIQUES

In this section a review of the different approaches that are used for predicting the

surface roughness is presented. The general manufacturing problem is the achievement of

a predefined product quality with given equipment, cost and time constraints.

Unfortunately, the quality characteristic of a product such as surface roughness it is hard

to ensure that these requirements will be met. Surface roughness is a widely used index

of product quality and in most cases a technical requirement for mechanical products.

Achieving the desired surface quality is of great importance for the functional behavior of

a part. There are two main practical problems that engineers face in a manufacturing

process. The first is to determine the values of the process parameters that will yield the

desired product quality (meet technical specifications) and the second is to maximize

manufacturing system performance using the available resources. The technological

advances in the manufacturing field, for instance the ever growing use of computer

controlled machine tools, have brought up new issues to deal with which further

emphasize the need for more precise predictive models.

27
There have been several attempts to model and predict surface roughness in machining

processes. Prediction and identification of surface roughness has been the subject in the

manufacturing field. In this work various methodologies and strategies to predict surface

roughness is presented.

●  Classification of approaches

The classification of surface roughness prediction models are

(i) Machining theory based Approach.

(ii) Experimental investigation Approach.

(iii) Designed experiments approach.

(iv) Artificial intelligence (AI) approach.

2.11.1  Machining theory based approach

This approaches emphasis on certain aspects from the theory of machining such as

process kinematics, cutting tool properties, chip formation mechanism etc. Computer

aided design (CAD) methods and tools are utilized so as to achieve the goal of building a

model that will be able to simulate the creation of the machined surface profile, thus

visualizing surface topography and assessing surface roughness. This model is

implemented by a computer algorithm in order to handle the complex calculations. Also,

there are some theoretical models that relate surface roughness to cutting conditions such

as the feed rate. These models are generally not accurate so their improvement with the

introduction of additional parameters is examined by researchers. The drawback of this

approach is that a lot of other factors that contribute to the roughness formation
28
mechanism are not considered, for example wear and

29
deflection of the cutting tool or certain thermal phenomena. The integration of these

factors to the already existing models is estimated to increase their accuracy, especially in

cases of finishing procedures where their influence is greater.

Grzesik (1996) used the minimum undeformed chip thickness to predict surface

roughness in turning. The molecular mechanical theory of friction and the theory of

plasticity were used to mathematically model the tribological effects at the chip

cutting tool interface. The approach was based on the assumption that the difference

between the theoretical and measured surface roughness values is due to adhesion at the

chip cutting tool interface and that the minimum undeformed chip thickness corresponds

to the transition from ploughing to micro cutting. Consequently, an existing model for

predicting the roughness of a turned surface was improved and the difference between the

measurements and predicted results was reduced.

2.11.2  Experimental investigation approach

The experimental approach may be the most ‘obvious’ method. The factors that

are to be considered for the experiments are most important and the obtained results are

used to investigate the effect of each factor as well as the influencing mechanism on the

observed quality characteristic. Regression analysis is often employed in order to build

models based on the experimental data. The experimental approach is mainly adopted in

cases where there is no analytical formulation of the cause and effect relationships

between the various factors.

30
 The relationship between tool life, surface roughness and vibration was examined

by O.B. Abouelatta et al. (2001). The variables like the cutting speed, feed rate, depth of

cut, tool nose radius, tool overhang, approach angle, work piece length and work piece

diameter and the accelerations in both radial and feed directions were considered. The

experimental data were analyzed to produce regression models.

Jang et al. (1996) focused on the development of an on-line roughness measuring

technique by studying the effects of cutting vibration during hard turning. It was assumed

that the average surface roughness is the result of the superposition of a theoretical profile

(process kinematics) and an oscillatory profile (process

dynamics). An inductance type displacement sensor was used to measure the relative

movement between cutting tool and work piece.

A detailed investigation was carried out by J.D. Thiele et al. (1999) concerning

the effects of the cutting edge geometry and work piece hardness on the surface finish and

cutting forces in the finish hard turning of steel. The experimental study included accurate

characterization of the edge geometry so as to measure edge features, experimentation on

a rigid machine tool with good spindle accuracy to minimize vibration and analysis of

variance to establish the statistical significance of the parameters.

2.11.3 Designed
  experiments approach

Designed experiments approach constitutes a systematic method concerning the

planning of experiments, collection and analysis of data with near-optimum use of

available resources. The response surface methodology (RSM) and Taguchi techniques

for design of experiments (DOE) seem to be the most wide spread methodologies for the

31
surface roughness prediction problems.

32
 
Taguchi techniques for DOE overview

DOE dictates a series of steps to follow for the experiment to yield an improved

understanding of product or process performance

 Planning phase:

1. State the problem.

2. State the objectives of the experiment.

3. Select the quality characteristics and the measurement systems.

4. Select the factors that may influence the quality characteristics.

5. Select levels for the factors.

6. Select the appropriate Taguchi fractional matrices or orthogonal arrays (OAs).

7. Select the interactions that may influence the quality characteristic.

8. Assign factors to OAs and locating interactions.

 Execution phase:

9. Conduct the experiment repetitions as described by the OAs.

 Analysis phase:

10. Analyze the experimental results, e.g. using analysis of variance (ANOVA).

11. Conduct a confirmation experiment.

There are three types of OAs, dealing with two-level factors, three-level factors

and mixed-level factors. The selection of the appropriate OA is based on the following

criteria: the number of factors and interactions of interest, the number of levels for the

factors of interest and the desired experimental resolution or cost limitations. The first

two determine the smallest OA that is possible to use, while the third gives the possibility

to conduct a larger experiments with higher resolution. The Taguchi DOE is more of a
33
factor screening procedure to determine the significance of

34
each factor, that is, it identifies the most influential parameters and the values that

produce the desired output without formulating any kind of model.

2.11.4  Artificial intelligence (AI) approach

AI is implemented in engineering problems through the development of artificial

neural network (ANN) models, genetic algorithms (GAs), fuzzy logic and expert

systems. Simulating the way in which human beings process information and make

decisions, in the surface roughness prediction problems. The artificially intelligent

manufacturing system has motivated to develop efficient computational techniques for

modeling, monitoring, and control of manufacturing processes.

 Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)

The beginning of 1990’s started applying ANN for modeling of machining

processes to predict the surface roughness, cutting forces, tool wear, and also for

optimization of the processes. ANN is an information processing system that displays

similar behavior to that of its biological analog. It is essentially a mathematical model that

mimics the human reasoning and neurobiology. Neural networks are basically

connectionist systems, in which various nodes (called “neurons”) are interconnected. A

typical neuron receives one or more input signals. The output signal provided by the

neuron depends on its processing function. This output is transferred to connecting

neurons in varying intensities. The neurons in the input layer receive input signals from

the user and provide the output through the neurons in the output layers. Only the

neurons in the input and output layers interact with the outside world/user; the rest are

hidden. After choosing the network architecture, the network is trained. Neural networks
35
have found applications for surface roughness prediction in turning and use

36
the process parameters like feed, depth of cut, cutting speed, and cutting forces for

modeling. The schematic representation of neuron model is shown in Fig.2.6.

 
Fig.2.6 Neuron model

Genetic algorithms (GA)

GA’s are used for optimization based on the Darwinian theory of evolution. The

power of these algorithms is derived from a very simple heuristic assumption that the best

solution will be found in the regions of solution space containing high proportion of good

solution, and that regions can be identified by judicious and robust sampling of the

solution space. The mechanics of a GA are simple and involve the coding of solution

states in chromosomes as a series of binary elements (0 and 1). A set (i.e. population) of

candidate solution states (i.e. chromosomes) is generated and evaluated. A fitness

function is used to evaluate each of the solutions in the population. The chromosomes

37
encoding the better solutions are broken apart and recombined through the use of genetic

operators in succession to get a new solution

38
that is generally better or fit, in one generation or iteration. These operators are essentially

mathematical models of genetic operations that take place in the human body. The

simplest form of GA involves three types of operators selection (copying of the strings

into a ‘mating pool’, in proportion to their fitness values), crossover (swapping parent

strings partially, causing offspring to be generated) and mutation (occasional random

alteration with a small probability of the value of a string position, in binary strings, this

simply means changing 0 to 1 or vice versa).

 Fuzzy logic overview

Fuzzy logic, initially introduced in Zadeh’s pioneering work in mid 1960s and

later explored by Mamdani to control a simple laboratory steam engine has established

itself as a suitable solution to a range of challenging industrial problems. The recently

developed fuzzy logic approach is used to model or to control a complex and vague

dynamic process such as the machining operation. This approach has been applied

successfully to vague and complex problems. The resulting model can effectively predict

process outputs when the process inputs are given. Fuzzy logic is a mathematical theory

of inexact reasoning that allows us to model the reasoning process of humans in linguistic

terms. It is suitable in defining the relationship between the system inputs and the desired

system outputs. Fuzzy logic is one of the most successful of today’s technologies for

developing sophisticated control and prediction systems. Fuzzy controllers and fuzzy

reasoning have found particular applications in industrial systems that are very complex

and cannot be modeled precisely even under various assumptions and approximations

39
 Fuzzy logic has great capability to capture human commonsense reasoning,

decision-making and other aspects of human cognition. Vagueness in the coefficients and

constraints may be naturally modeled by fuzzy logic. Fuzzy logic is particularly attractive

due to its ability to solve problems in the absence of accurate mathematical models.

Fuzzy logic is based on the concept of fuzzy sets. A fuzzy set is a set without a crisp,

clearly defined boundary that is, it can contain elements with a partial degree of

membership (usually between 0 and 1).

 Neuro-fuzzy systems overview

In a neuro fuzzy system ANNs are used to determine parameters of fuzzy systems

thereby creating or improving a fuzzy system automatically. The implementation of a

neuro-fuzzy system can be made so as the two systems work independently of each other

(cooperative neuro-fuzzy system) or within a homogeneous architecture (hybrid

neuro-fuzzy system). The complete information regarding the fuzzy controllers is

explained in next chapter.

 2.12 SUMMARY

In this chapter the literature related hard turning, surface roughness and modeling

of machining process is explained. In the next chapter the detail information regarding

design of experiments and fuzzy modeling is explained in the next chapter.

40
 CHAPTER-3
 
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS AND FUZZY
MODELING

3.1  INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the importance of design of experiments and various methods used

in design of experiments is discussed. The steps involved in fuzzy modeling are also

presented in this chapter.

3.2  DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS (DOE)

Manufacturing industries are trying to reduce the operation cost as well as

improve quality of product. In addition to tolerances, surface roughness is one of the most

critical constraints for the selection of machines and cutting parameters in process

planning. The goal of any experimental activity is to get the maximum information about

a system with the minimum number of well designed experiments. An experimental

program recognizes the major “factors” that affect the outcome of the experiment. A

Design of Experiment (DOE) is a structured, organized method for determining the

relationship between factors affecting a process and the output of that process Design of

Experiments (DOE) is a method to identify the important factors in a process, identify

and fix the problem in a process, and also identify the possibility of estimating

interactions.

3.2.1  Introduction to the DOE Process

The primary purpose of the DOE process is to provide a concise guide for
41
executing effectively designed experiments. The purpose of product or process

42
development is to improve the performance characteristics of the product or process

relative to customer needs and expectations. The purpose of experimentation should

understand how to reduce and control variation of a product or process. Subsequently,

decisions must be made concerning which parameters affect the performance of a product

or process. The loss function quantifies the need to understand which design factors

influence the average and variation of a performance characteristic of a product or

process. By properly adjusting the average and reducing variation, the product or process

losses can be minimized.

3.2.2  Definition of a designed experiment

A designed experiment is the simultaneous evaluation of two or more factors

(parameters) for their ability to affect the resultant average or variability of particular

product or process characteristics. To accomplish this in an effective and statistically

proper fashion, the levels of the factors are varied in a strategic manner, the results of the

particular test combinations are observed, and the complete set of results is analyzed to

determine the influential factors and whether increases or decreases of those levels will

potentially lead to further improvement.

3.2.3 Phases
  involved in design of experiment

The DOE process is divided into three main phases. They are

1. The planning phase.

2. The conducting phase and

3. The analysis phase.

43
 Design of experiments (DOE) is used in many industrial sectors, in the development

and optimization of manufacturing processes. Typical examples are the production of

wafers in the electronics industry, the manufacturing of engines in the car industry, and

the synthesis of compounds in the pharmaceutical industry. However, an experimenter

does not jump directly into an optimization problem rather initial screening experimental

designs are used in order to locate the most fruitful part of the experimental region in

question. The choice of the design of experiments can have a large influence on the

accuracy of the approximation and the cost of constructing the response. The DOE

methods are

1. full factorial design

2. Central composite design.

3. D-optimal designs.

4. Taguchi’s experimental design.

5. Latin hyper cube design.

6. Audze-eglais approach.

7. Van keulen’s approach.

 
3.2.4 Full Factorial Design

A full factorial design contains all possible combinations of a set of factors. This

is the most conservative design approach, but it is also the most costly in experimental

resources. In full factorial designs, perform an experimental run at every combination of

the factor levels. The sample size is the product of the numbers of levels of the factors.

44
A full factorial design of experiments consists of the following:

● Vary one factor at a time

● Perform experiments for all levels of all factors

● Hence perform a large number of experiments that are needed

● All interactions are captured.

Areas where DOE is used in industrial research, development and production:

● optimization of manufacturing processes

● screening and identification of important factors

● formulation experiments

● optimization of analytical instruments

● robustness testing of methods

● robustness testing of products

 
3.3 FUZZY MODELING

Fuzzy Logic was initiated in 1965, by Lotfi A. Zadeh, professor for computer

science at the University of California in Berkeley. Fuzzy logic and fuzzy inference

system (FIS) is an effective technique for the identification and control of complex non

linear systems with its great capabilities of capture human commonsense reasoning,

decision-making and other aspects of human cognition. Fuzzy logic is a mathematical

theory of inexact reasoning that allows us to model the reasoning process of humans in

linguistic terms. It is suitable in defining the relationship between the system inputs and

the desired system outputs.

45
 Fuzzy logic is one of the most successful of today’s technologies for developing

sophisticated control systems. Fuzzy controllers and fuzzy reasoning have found

particular applications in industrial systems that are very complex and cannot be

modeled precisely even under various assumptions and approximations. The control of

such systems by experienced human operators was proven to be in many cases more

successful and efficient than by classical automatic controllers. The human controllers

employ experiential rules that can cast into the fuzzy logic framework. It is also popular,

as its capability for developing rule based expert systems. These observations inspired

many investigators to work in this area with result being the development of the so-called

fuzzy logic and fuzzy rule based control.

Fuzzy logic (FL) has been used in many practical engineering situations because

of its capability in dealing with imprecise and inexact information. The powerful aspect

of fuzzy logic is that most of human reasoning and concept formation is translated into

fuzzy rules. The combination of incomplete, imprecise information and the imprecise

nature of the decision making process make fuzzy logic are very effective in modeling

complex engineering, business, finance and management systems which are otherwise

difficult to model. The major issues involved in the application of FL or fuzzy inference

system (FIS) are the selection of fuzzy membership functions (MFs), in terms of number

and type, designing the rule base, simulating the decision process as well as the scaling

factors used in fuzzification and defuzzification stages. These parameters and the

structures are, in general, decided based on trial and error and expert knowledge.

46
Methodology: As per Klir & Yuan (1998) fuzzy logic involves a fuzzy interference

engine and a fuzzification defuzzification module. Fuzzification expresses the input

variables in the form of fuzzy membership values based on various membership

functions. Governing rules in linguistic form, such as if cutting force is high and

machining time is high, then tool wear is high, are formulated on the basis of

experimental observations. Based on each rule, inference can be drawn on output grade

and membership value. Inferences obtained from various rules are combined to arrive at a

final decision. The membership values thus obtained are defuzzified using various

techniques to obtain true value of tool wear.

3.3.1  Fuzzy Sets and Traditional Sets

A classical set is defined by crisp boundaries i.e. there is no uncertainty in the

prescription or location of the boundaries of the set. A classical set wholly includes or

wholly excludes any given elements. The value 0 represents non membership, while the

value 1 represents membership. There are no partial members in traditional sets.

A fuzzy set is a set without a crisp, clearly defined boundary. It can contain

elements with only a varying degree of membership. Elements in a fuzzy set their

Membership need not be complete and also be a member of other fuzzy sets on the same

universe. That is, a member of a set can be full member (100% membership status) or a

partial member (eg. less than 100% membership and greater than 0% membership). A

fuzzy set is a set whose elements have degrees of membership.

The advantage of fuzzy set theory is, it has the property of relativity, variability

and inexactness in the definition of its elements or it entertains imprecise information.

47
Therefore every scientific discipline based on experiments and

48
measurements can make use of fuzzy sets in mathematical modeling and in analytical

solutions to improve the generality i.e allows multiple solutions of varying possibilities

instead of crisp exact solution. Fuzziness can be measured in terms of the degree of

fuzziness of a set of elements. It is a mathematical tool that describes the ambiguity,

vagueness, and randomness, undecided, imprecision and inaccuracy of a relation between

crisp events, entities or sets.

 EXAMPLE

Let us take an example to describe describing young people using a fuzzy set. In

general, young people range from the age of 0 to 20. But, if we use this strict interval to

define young people, then a person on his 20th birthday is still young (still a member of

the set). But on the day after his 20th birthday, this person is now old (not a member of

the young set). This strict separation can easily be relaxed by considering the boundary

between young and old as "fuzzy". The Fig.3.1 graphically illustrates a fuzzy set of young

and old people.

 
Fig.3.1. Graphical illustration of fuzzy sets

49
 In the above figure the people whose ages are >= zero and <= 20 are complete

members of the young set (that is, they have a membership value of one). Also note that

people whose ages are > 20 and < 30 are partial members of the young set. For example,

a person who is 25 would be young to the degree of 0.5. Finally people whose ages are

>= 30 are non-members of the young set. Reasoning in fuzzy logic is just a matter of

generalizing the familiar yes-no (Boolean) logic. If we give true the numerical value of 1

and false the numerical value of 0, we're saying that fuzzy logic also permits in-between

values like 0.2 and 0.7453

3.3.2  MEMBERSHIP FUNCTIONS (MF)

The membership function is a graphical representation of the magnitude of

participation of each input. It associates a weighting with each of the inputs that are

processed, define functional overlap between inputs, and ultimately determines an output

response. Membership function of a fuzzy set is a generalization of the indicator function

in classical sets. In fuzzy logic, it represents the degree of truth as an extension of

valuation. Degrees of truth are often confused with probabilities, although they are

conceptually distinct, because fuzzy truth represents membership in vaguely defined sets,

not likelihood of some event or condition.

Membership functions were introduced by Zadeh in the first paper on fuzzy sets

(1965). A membership function is a mathematical function which defines the degree of an

element's membership in a fuzzy set. The x axis represents the universe of discourse,

whereas the y axis represents the degree of membership and is usually denoted by μ and

its value between 0 and 1. The value 0 means that membership function is not a member

50
of the fuzzy set, and the value 1 means that membership function is a fully member of the

fuzzy set. The values between 0 and 1 characterize

51
fuzzy members. There is no standard method of choosing the proper shape of the fuzzy

set of the control variable. The method to assign membership functions to fuzzy variables

based on intuition. i.e, development of membership functions through human

intelligence, and understanding based on the semantic and contextual knowledge on an

issue. In this work the membership functions considered for the input and output

parameters are well distributed triangular shapes.

SHAPES OF MF’S: Triangular shape membership function (shown in Fig.3.2) is

commonly used, but trapezoidal, bell curve, sigmoid curve, Gaussian curve,

pi-shaped curve, z-shaped curve, s-shaped curve have been used. More complex

functions are possible but require greater computing overhead to implement.

Triangular function: Defined by a lower limit a, an upper limit b, and a value m,

where, a < m < b.

 
Fig.3.2 Triangular shape membership function
Formulae for triangular membership function:

52
3.3.3  Logical Operations on Fuzzy Sets

The logical operations generally used AND, OR and NOT operators. In fuzzy

logic these operators are replaced by min., max.operators. Replace the AND operation

with the min. function, so that x AND y becomes equivalent to min (x, y). Using the same

reasoning, we can replace the OR operation with the max function, so that x OR y

becomes equivalent to max (x, y). AND = min, OR = max, and NOT = additive

complement. Typically most fuzzy logic applications make use of these operations and

these functions are arbitrary to a surprising degree. In fuzzy logic the truth of any

statement is a matter of degree.

 Fuzzy intersection or conjunction (AND)

Membership value(x and y) = minimum (membership value(x), membership

value(y)) where x and y are the fuzzy set being negated

 
Fig.3.3 Fuzzy membership function for AND operator

In Fig.3.3 to find the intersection of these sets take the minimum of the two

53
membership values (µA and µB) at each point on the x-axis (see the formal definition

above). For example, in the figure the fuzzy set has a membership µA is ZERO when

54
x = 4 and the fuzzy set has a membership µB is ONE when x = 4. The intersection would

have a membership value of ZERO when x = 4 because the minimum of zero and one is

zero.

 Fuzzy union or disjunction (OR)

Membership value(x or y) = maximum (membership value (x), membership

value(y)) where x and y are the fuzzy set being negated

 
Fig.3.4 Fuzzy membership function for OR operator

In the figure 3.4, to find the union of these sets take the maximum of the two

membership values (µA and µB) at each point on the x-axis (see the formal definition

above). For example, in the figure the fuzzy set (µA ) has a membership of ZERO when x

= 4 and the fuzzy set (µB) has a membership of ONE when x = 4. The union would have a

membership value of ONE when x = 4 because the maximum of zero and one is one.

55
3.3.4  FUZZY IF-THEN RULES

This fuzzy logic is used in numerous practical applications in control and

prediction. However, there are some basic aspects are needed for better understanding.

 Specifically:

(1) No standard methods exist for transforming human knowledge or Experience into the

rule base and data base of a fuzzy inference system.

(2) There is a need for effective methods for tuning the membership functions

(MF’s) so as to minimize the output error measure or maximize performance

index.

Fuzzy if then rules or fuzzy conditional statements are expressions of the form “if A

then B”, where A and B are labels of fuzzy sets. Characterized by appropriate

membership functions due to their concise form , fuzzy if-then rules are often employed

to capture the imprecise modes of reasoning that play an essential role in the human

ability to make decisions in an environment of uncertainty and imprecision.

EX: if pressure is high, then volume is small.

Where,

Pressure and volume are linguistic variables.

High and small are linguistic values or labels that are characterized by

membership functions.

Fuzzy rules are a set of linguistic statements which establishes the relationship

between the input and the output in a fuzzy system. Fuzzy if-then rules have been used

extensively in both modeling and control through the use of linguistic labels and

56
membership functions. Fuzzy if-then rules are defined based on experimental work or

expert knowledge. Fuzzy rules design and optimization is a crucial step in the

development of a fuzzy model, especially subjected to complex real world problems. A

simple two inputs fuzzy model will have more than thousand possible combinations of

fuzzy rules. A fuzzy designer normally uses intuition and trial and error method for the

rules assignment. The number of fuzzy rules in a fuzzy system is related to the number of

fuzzy sets for each input variable. In this study, there are three input variables which are

classified into twenty seven fuzzy sets and there are twenty seven surface roughness

states to be determined.

3.3.5  FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM

Fuzzy inference is the process of formulating the mapping from a given input to

an output using fuzzy logic. The mapping provides a basis from which decisions can be

made. The process of fuzzy inference involves membership functions, fuzzy logic

operators, and if-then rules. Fuzzy inference systems have been successfully applied in

fields such as automatic control, data classification, decision analysis, expert systems, and

computer vision. Because of its multidisciplinary nature, fuzzy inference systems are

associated with a number of names, such as fuzzy-rule-based systems, fuzzy expert

systems, fuzzy modeling, fuzzy associative memory, fuzzy logic controllers, and simply

(and ambiguously) fuzzy systems. There are two types of fuzzy inference systems that

can be implemented in the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox: Mamdani-type and Sugeno-type.

Mamdani's fuzzy inference method is the most commonly seen fuzzy methodology.

57
 By construct, a fuzzy inference system employing fuzzy IF-THEN rules can

model the qualitative aspects of human knowledge and reasoning processes without

employing precise quantitative analysis. In a conventional fuzzy inference system, the

number of rules is decided by an expert who is familiar with the system to be modeled.

In our simulation, no expert is available and the number of membership functions

assigned to each input variable chosen based on experimental data.

Basically fuzzy inference system as shown in Fig. 3.5 is composed of five functional
blocks.
● A rule base containing a number of fuzzy if-then rules.

● A data base which defines the membership functions of the fuzzy sets used in the

fuzzy rules.

● A decision-making unit which performs the inference operations on the rules.

● A fuzzification interface which transforms the crisp inputs into degree of match

with linguistic values.

● A defuzzification interface which transform the fuzzy results of the interface into

a crisp output.

● Generally the rule base and data base are jointly referred to as the knowledge

base.

58
Fig.3.5.
  FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM

59
 The steps of fuzzy reasoning (inference operations upon fuzzy if-then rules)

performed by fuzzy inference system are:

1. Compare the input variables with the membership functions on the premise part to

obtain the membership values of each linguistic label. This step is called

fuzzification.

2. Combine the membership values on the premise part to get firing strength

(weight) of each rule through a specific operator, usually multiplication or

minimization.

3. Generate the qualified consequents, either fuzzy or crisp of each rule depending

on the firing strength.

4. Aggregate the qualified consequents to produce a crisp output. This step is called

defuzzification.

 Application areas

Automobile and other vehicle subsystems, such as automatic transmissions, ABS

and cruise control (e.g. Tokyo monorail)

Air conditioners

Cameras

Digital image processing, such as edge detection

Rice cookers

Dishwashers

Elevators

Washing machines and other home appliances

60
Video game artificial intelligence

61
 Language filters on message boards and chat rooms for filtering out offensive text

Pattern recognition in Remote Sensing

Hydrometeor classification algorithms for polarimetric weather radar

Fuzzy logic has also been incorporated into some microcontrollers and

microprocessors.

 3.4. SUMMARY

In this chapter the importance of design of experiments for experimental study is

discussed. This chapter also discussed the fuzzy logic, fuzzy set, membership functions,

fuzzy inference system, and applications of fuzzy logic.

62
 CHAPTER-4
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF HARD
TURNING
 

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Turning is most important operation of machining processes in which single point

cutting tool is used to remove the material from cylindrical work piece. During the

operation, high temperatures and forces affect the life of the cutting tool. If cutting tool

fails, it will lead to poor surface finish. So, surface roughness is the very important

response to evaluate the cutting performance. In this investigation the experiments are

planned using full factorial design of experiments for machining of AISI 4340 and AISI

52100 alloy steels on lathe machine by using coated carbide cutting tools. These materials

were chosen based on its wide applications. The three cutting parameters were selected

for the present work is cutting speed (V, rpm), feed rate (f mm/rev), and depth of cut (d,

mm). The arrangement of cutting tool and holder is shown in Fig.4.1, and lathe set up

shown in Fig4.2. In this work the surface roughness was measured after end of each cut

by using Mitutoyo surface roughness tester (SJ-201 P) stylus type (Mitutoyo Corporation,

Japan) with the following specifications as given Tale.4.1.

63
  
Fig.4.1 The cutting tool and tool holder

Table.4.1 Specifications of the surface roughness machine

Parameter Description

Power supply Rating 9V, 500 mA

A.C adapter Supply voltage 100V, 120V and 230V.

Ni-H, approximately 500 measurements

Battery of 5 mm measurement length.

Stylus material Diamond

Tip radius 5 μm

Measurement range 350 μm (-200 μm to +150 μm )

Cut-off values
Traveling speed 0.25 mm, 0.8 mm, 2.5mm.
Measurement
Return
Roughness parameters 0.25 mm/sec, 0.5 mm/sec.
0.8 mm/sec.
Ra, RY, RZ and Rq.
Display LCD matrix.

 
4.2 EXPERIMENTATION OF AISI 4340 ALLOY STEEL

This work is concerned with turning of AISI 4340 hardened alloy steel of

cylindrical work piece of 50mm diameter at hardness state of 45 HRC using Titanium

Nitride (TiN) coated indexable carbide cutting tools. In the present work, the

experimental investigation has been conducted to study the effect of the cutting

conditions such as cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut on the surface finish and

performance of cutting tool grade during the hard turning of the AISI 4340 steel under

64
dry conditions. The chemical composition and physical properties of the work material

are shown in Table.4.2.and Table.4.3.

65
 Table.4.2. Chemical Composition of AISI 4340 alloy steel

Composition Weight (%)

Carbon 0.38-0.43
Chromiu 0.7-0.9
m Iron Balance
nickel 1.65-2
manganese 0.6-0.8
molybdenum 0.2-0.3
phosphorus 0.035 max.
silicon 0.15-0.3
sulphur 0.04 max

Table.4.3 Physical properties of AISI 4340 alloy steel

Property value
Density (lb / cu. in.) 0.28

Specific Gravity 7.8

Specific Heat (Btu/lb/Deg F) 0.116

Melting Point (Deg F) 2600

Thermal Conductivity 21

Mean Coeff Thermal Expansion 6.6

Modulus of Elasticity Tension 33

 
4.2.1 Experimental conditions
66
Three-factor three-level design is used to study the effects of the three process

67
parameters such as cutting speed (V, rpm), feed rate (f, mm/rev) and depth of cut (d, mm)

on surface roughness (µ, Ra). The ranges of machining conditions were selected from the

recommendations given by the tool manufacturer and machining data handbook. The

levels of parameters are given Table.4.4. The experimental results for the full factorial

experiments are shown in Table 4.5.

Table.4.4 Machining parameters and their levels

Machining Levels
parameters symbol Level 1 level 2 level 3
Cutting speed (rpm) V 450 710 1120
Feed rate (mm/rev) f 0.2 0.4 0.63
Depth of cut (mm) d 0.25 0.5 0.75

Fig.4.2. Lathe Setup

68
 Table.4.5. Experimental Results for AISI 4340 material

S.NO Machining parameters Surface roughness, Ra

Cutting Depth of Feed Average,
speed, s cut, d rate, f Max. Ra Min. Ra Ra
(rpm) (mm) (mm/rev)

1. 450 0.25 0.2 3.49 3.44 3.46

2. 450 0.25 0.4 5.41 5.13 5.27
3. 450 0.25 0.63 5.56 5.12 5.34
4. 450 0.5 0.2 3.51 3.45 3.48
5. 450 0.5 0.4 5.22 5.13 5.17
6. 450 0.5 0.63 8.52 8.54 8.53
7. 450 0.75 0.2 3.04 2.83 2.93
8. 450 0.75 0.4 7.92 7.14 7.53
9. 450 0.75 0.63 10.04 9.21 9.62
10. 710 0.25 0.2 3.55 3.53 3.54
11. 710 0.25 0.4 4.66 4.47 4.56
12. 710 0.25 0.63 5.18 4.88 5.03
13. 710 0.5 0.2 2.96 2.76 2.86
14. 710 0.5 0.4 5.25 4.79 5.02
15. 710 0.5 0.63 8.57 8.52 8.54
16. 710 0.75 0.2 3.18 2.08 2.63
17. 710 0.75 0.4 7.07 6.95 7.01
18. 710 0.75 0.63 14.40 14.04 14.22
19. 1120 0.25 0.2 2.21 2.16 2.18
20. 1120 0.25 0.4 3.47 3.31 3.39
21. 1120 0.25 0.63 5.86 5.62 5.74
22. 1120 0.5 0.2 2.50 2.43 2.46
23. 1120 0.5 0.4 4.35 4.32 4.33
24. 1120 0.5 0.63 6.74 6.74 6.74
25. 1120 0.75 0.2 3.30 1.88 2.59
26. 1120 0.75 0.4 3.63 3.43 3.53
27. 1120 0.75 0.63 13.64 13.24 13.44

 
4.3. EXPERIMENTATION OF AISI 52100 ALLOY STEEL

In this work the surface roughness was studied in the machining of AISI 52100

hardened alloy steel of hardness 38 HRC (Rockwell C) of 50 mm diameter using

Titanium Nitride (TiN) coated indexable carbide tools under dry conditions. The
69
experiments were carried out to study the effect of various combinations of cutting

parameters like cutting speed (V), feed rate (f), and depth of cut (d) on surface

70
finish during hard turning of AISI 52100 alloy steel. Cutting speed, feed rates, and depth

of cut are selected at three different levels, like level 1(low), level 2(medium), and level 3

(high) as shown in Table.4.6. The chemical composition and physical properties of the

AISI 52100 work material are shown in Table.4.7 and Table.4.8.

Table.4.6 Machining parameters and their levels for AISI 52100 steel.

Machining Levels
parameters symbol Level 1 level 2 level 3
Cutting speed (rpm) V 450 710 1120

Feed rate (mm/rev) f 0.2 0.4 0.63

Depth of cut (mm) d 0.25 0.5 0.75

Table.4.7 chemical composition of AISI 52100 alloy steel

Composition Weight (%)

Carbon 0.98-1.1
Chromium 1.3- 1.6
Iron Balance
Manganese 0.25-0.45
phosphorus 0.025 max
silicon 0.15-0.35
sulphur 0.025 max.

Table.4.8. physical properties of AISI 52100 alloy steel

Property value
Density (lb / cu. in.) 0.283
Specific Gravity 7.83
Specific Heat (Btu/lb/Deg F) 0.114
Melting Point (Deg F) 2595
Thermal Conductivity 240
Mean Coeff Thermal Expansion 6.5
Modulus of Elasticity Tension 29

71
72
 Table.4.9 Experimental Results for AISI 52100 material

Machining parameters Surface roughness, Ra

Cutting Depth of Feed
S.NO speed, s cut, d rate, f Max. Ra Min. Ra Average,
(rpm) (mm) (mm/rev) Ra

1. 450 0.25 0.2 1.96 1.80 1.88

2. 450 0.25 0.4 5.29 4.75 5.02
3. 450 0.25 0.63 8.29 8.14 8.21
4. 450 0.5 0.2 2.35 2.35 2.35
5. 450 0.5 0.4 5.55 5.49 5.52
6. 450 0.5 0.63 10.04 9.73 9.88
7. 450 0.75 0.2 2.62 2.06 2.34
8. 450 0.75 0.4 4.92 4.70 4.81
9. 450 0.75 0.63 12.75 11.56 12.15
10. 710 0.25 0.2 2.39 2.39 2.39
11. 710 0.25 0.4 7.72 7.67 7.69
12. 710 0.25 0.63 10.95 10.85 10.90
13. 710 0.5 0.2 4.57 4.43 4.50
14. 710 0.5 0.4 6.03 5.97 6.00
15. 710 0.5 0.63 8.68 8.43 8.55
16. 710 0.75 0.2 5.67 4.86 5.26
17. 710 0.75 0.4 9.02 8.87 8.94
18. 710 0.75 0.63 14.23 13.38 13.80
19. 1120 0.25 0.2 3.02 2.40 2.71
20. 1120 0.25 0.4 6.25 5.40 5.82
21. 1120 0.25 0.63 8.56 6.25 7.40
22. 1120 0.5 0.2 2.53 1.86 2.19
23. 1120 0.5 0.4 5.78 5.30 5.40
24. 1120 0.5 0.63 7.62 6.98 7.25
25. 1120 0.75 0.2 2.17 2.09 2.13
26. 1120 0.75 0.4 7.90 7.76 7.83
27. 1120 0.75 0.63 8.73 8.73 8.73

 
4.4 SUMMARY

In this chapter the surface roughness obtained for two different alloy

steels at different cutting conditions are presented here.

73
 CHAPTER-5
 
PREDICTION OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN
HARD TURNING PROCESS

 5.1. INTRODUCTION

In this work, the surface roughness in machining operations is predicted using

fuzzy logic approach. In this study to get the sufficient model that related to the surface

roughness and the cutting parameters (cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut), different

tests for all possible combinations for the selected levels of cutting parameters are

conducted, and these experimental results are presented chapter.4. Several cutting speeds,

feed rates, and depth of cuts have been taken into account to get the model that predicts

the surface roughness by using fuzzy logic.

5.2  FUZZY MODEL DEVELOPMENT FOR HARD TURNING

PROCESS

The fuzzy model that has been designed for predicting surface roughness for the

turning operation uses three inputs and one output. Cutting speed, feed rate and depth of

cut are the inputs and surface roughness is the output of the system. In fuzzy model the

selection of cutting conditions are most important, the shape of the membership function

will depend on the experimental results obtained for the selected conditions. In the

present work triangular shape membership function is used for the input and the output

variables. The system is modeled based on the interrelationship that exists for machining

alloy steel material between its cutting speed (input 1) feed rate (input 2), depth of cut

(input 3)and the corresponding surface roughness (output). The fuzzy inference system

74
for surface roughness in terms of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut is shown Fig.5.1

75
  
Fig.5.1. Fuzzy inference system

5.2.1 Fuzzy model for surface roughness for AISI 4340 alloy steel

In the present work, the first step in model development is selecting the cutting

conditions; choose the shape of fuzzy membership functions or fuzzy sets for the process

variables based upon experimental data. The fuzzy expressions for input and output

parameters are shown in below table 5.1. The membership functions for each fuzzy set

for input fuzzy variables and for output fuzzy variable are shown in Fig.5.2. The

membership function is a graphical representation of the fuzzy set magnitude of

participation of each input. It associates a weighting with each of the inputs that are

processed, define functional overlap between inputs, and ultimately determines an output

response. In our modeling process no expert is available and the number of membership

functions assigned to each input and output variables, The ranges of input and output

parameters are selected based on the considered input levels and experimentally obtained

surface roughness values.

76
  
Fuzzy rules for surface roughness

The relation ship between the inputs and the output in a fuzzy system is

characterized by a set of linguistic statements which are called fuzzy rules. Fuzzy if then

rules or fuzzy conditional statements are used to formulate the ‘logic’ by creating

statements that contain knowledge. In the present work the fuzzy rules are formed based

on experimental work. The rules use the input membership values as weighting factors to

determine their influence on the fuzzy output sets of the final output conclusion. The

number of fuzzy rules in a fuzzy system is related to the number of fuzzy sets for each

input variable. In this work there are three input variables each one classified into three

fuzzy sets. Therefore the maximum number of rules for this system can be 27. The fuzzy

rules used in the present work for AISI 4340 steel are shown in Table.5.2

Table.5.1 Fuzzy Expressions for input and output parameters of

AISI 4340 steel

First input Second input

(cutting speed, rpm) (feed rate, mm/rev)
Abbreviation Expression Abbreviation Expression

S Slow S Slow
Md Medium Md Medium
F Fast F Fast

Third input (depth of cut, mm) Output parameter

(surface roughness, Ra)
Abbreviation Expression Abbreviation Expression
L Low V.G Very good
Md Medium G Good
H High N Normal
P Poor
V.P Very poor
E.P Extremely poor

77
 1

0
250 500 750 1000 1250
speed

(a)

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
feed

(b)

0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
d.o.c

(c)
1
0.75

0.5

0.25

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 13 1415 16

Surface Roughness

(d)
 Fig.5.2. Membership functions for Fuzzy variable (a) Cutting speed
(b) Feed Rate (c) Depth of Cut (d) Surface roughness
78
 Table.5.2 Fuzzy rules for AISI 4340 alloy steel in linguistic forms

1. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is good.
2. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is normal.
3. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is normal.
4. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is good.
5. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is
normal.
6. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
poor.
7. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very good.
8. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is poor.
9. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very poor.
10. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is good.
11. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is
normal.
12. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is normal.
13. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
good.
14. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is
normal.
15. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
poor.
16. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very
good.
17. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is poor.
18. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is extremely
poor.
19. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is very good.
20. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is good.
21. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is normal.
22. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
good.
23. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is
normal.
24. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is poor.
25. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very good.
26. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is good.
27. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is extremely
poor.

79
 
Defuzzification

The defuzzification means finding the final output value for the given input

variables. In this the fuzzy model is developed using MATLAB fuzzy logic tool box. Fig

5.3 shows final output for defzzification to predict the surface roughness for cutting speed

of 750 rpm, feed of 0.4 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.5mm. For these input values the

selected rule from the rule base is “If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of

cut is medium then surface finish is normal”, (rule no.14). The output value obtained

from fuzzy is 5.33 µm.

 Fig.5.3. Defuzzification process for the selected values of inputs

80
5.2.2 Fuzzy model for surface roughness for AISI 52100 alloy steel

The first step in model development is selecting the cutting conditions; choose the

shape of fuzzy membership functions or fuzzy sets for the process variables based upon

experimental data. The fuzzy expressions of AISI 52100 steel for input and output

parameters are shown in table 5.3. The membership functions for each fuzzy set for input

fuzzy variables and for output fuzzy variable are shown in Fig.5.4. In our modeling

process no expert is available and the number of membership functions assigned to each

input and output variables, the ranges of input and output parameters are selected based

on the considered input levels and experimentally obtained surface roughness values.

The relation ship between the inputs and the output in a fuzzy system is

characterized by a set of linguistic statements which are called fuzzy rules. Fuzzy if then

rules or fuzzy conditional statements are used to formulate the ‘logic’ by creating

statements that contain knowledge. In the present work the fuzzy rules are formed based

on experimental work. The number of fuzzy rules in a fuzzy system is related to the

number of fuzzy sets for each input variable. In this work there are three input variables

each one classified into three fuzzy sets. Therefore the maximum number of rules for this

system can be 27. The fuzzy rules used in the present work for AISI 52100 steel are

shown in Table.5.4

81
Table.5.3 Fuzzy Expressions for input and output parameters of AISI 52100 steel

First input Second input

(cutting velocity, m/min) (feed rate, mm/rev)
Abbreviation Expression Abbreviation Expression

S Slow S Slow
Md Medium Md Medium
F Fast F Fast

Third input (depth of cut, mm) Output parameter

(surface roughness, Ra)
Abbreviation Expression Abbreviation Expression

V.V.G Very Very Good

L Low V.G Very good Good
Md Medium G Normal
H High
N
P Poor
V.P Very poor
V.V.P Very Very Poor
E.P Extremely poor

0
250 500 750 1000 1250
speed

(a)

82
 1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
feed

(b)

0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
d.o.c

(c)

(d)
 
Fig.5.4. Membership functions for Fuzzy variable (a) Cutting speed
(b) Feed Rate (c) Depth of Cut (d) Surface roughness

83
Table.5.4 Fuzzy rules in linguistic form for AISI 52100 alloy steel

1. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is V.V. Good.
2. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is good.
3. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is very poor.
4. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very good.
5. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is
normal.
6. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
very
7. poor.
8. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very good.
9. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is good.
10. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is extremely
11. poor.
12. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is very good.
13. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is poor.
14. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is very very
poor.
15. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is good.
16. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is
normal.
17. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
poor.
18. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is normal.
19. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very
poor.
20. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is extremely
poor.
21. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is very good.
22. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is normal.
23. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is poor.
24. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very good.
25. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is normal.
26. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is poor.
27. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very good.
28. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is poor.
29. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very poor.

84
 
Defuzzification

The defuzzification means finding the final output value for the given input

variables. In this the fuzzy model is developed using MATLAB fuzzy logic tool box. Fig

5.5 shows final output for defzzification to predict the surface roughness for cutting speed

of 750 rpm, feed of 0.4 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.5mm. For these input values the

selected rule from the rule base is “If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of

cut is medium then surface finish is normal”, (rule no.14). The output value obtained

from fuzzy is 6 µm.

 Fig.5.5. Defuzzification process for the selected values of inputs

85
5.3 SUMMARY

The fuzzy model to predict the surface roughness for two different alloy steel

materials AISI 4340 and AISI 52100 machining with TiN coated tool is presented in this

chapter. The results and discussion are presented in the next chapter.

86
 CHAPTER-6
 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1  INTRODUCTION

In the present work the effect of cutting speed (rpm), feed rate (mm/rev), and

depth of cut (mm) on surface roughness in machining of AISI 4340 and AISI 521000

alloy steels using coated tungsten carbide cutting tool were studied. The experimental

results are presented in chapter -4. The relative influence of various parameters on surface

roughness is analyzed in this chapter. The fuzzy modeling results also presented in this

chapter.

6.2  Influenceof various parameters on surface roughness in

machining of AISI 4340 steel

6.2.1  Influence of cutting speed on surface roughness in machining AISI 4340 steel

The influence of cutting speed on surface roughness in machining of AISI 4340

alloy steel with TiN coated cutting tool is presented in this section. The variation in

surface roughness with cutting speed at constant Depth of cut (0.25 mm) at three different

feed rates is shown in Fig.6.1. Fig.6.2 shows the variation in surface roughness with

cutting speed at constant depth of cut (0.5 mm) at three different feed rates. The variation

in surface roughness with cutting speed at constant depth of cut (0.75mm) at three

different feed rates is shown in Fig.6.3. From Fig.6.2 and Fig.6.3, The experimental result

shows with increasing the cutting speed the surface roughness is decreased. Fig.6.1,

Shows with increasing the cutting speed, the surface roughness was decreased at feed rate

0.2 mm/rev and 0.4 mm/rev. but, at feed rate 0.63 mm/rev the surface roughness was

increased by increasing the cutting speed.

87
 8

0
450 710 1120

Cutting Speed (rpm)

 
Fig.6.1 The variation in surface roughness with cutting speed at three
Different feeds and constant depth of cut (d=0.25mm).

10

0
450 710 1120

Cutting Speed (rpm)

 Fig.6.2
The variation in surface roughness with cutting speed at
three Different feeds and constant depth of cut (d=0.5).

88
 14

12

10

0
450 710 1120

Cutting Speed (rpm)

 
Fig.6.3 The variation in surface roughness with cutting speed at three
Different feeds and constant depth of cut (d=0.75).

6.2.2 Influence of feed rate on surface roughness in machining AISI

4340 steel

The influence of feed rate on surface roughness in machining of AISI 4340 alloy

steel with TiN coated cutting tool is discussed here. The variation in surface roughness

with feed rate at constant cutting speed (450 rpm) at three different depths of cuts is

shown in Fig.6.4. Fig.6.5 shows the variation in surface roughness with feed rate at

constant cutting speed (710 rpm) at three different depths of cuts. The variation in surface

roughness with feed rate at constant cutting speed (1120 rpm) at three different depths of

cuts is shown in Fig.6.6. From Fig.6.4, Fig.6.5 and Fig.6.6 The experimental result shows

with increasing the feed rate the surface roughness is increased.

89
 14

12

10

0
0.2 0.4 0.63

Feed Rate (mm/rev)

 
Fig.6.4 The variation in surface roughness with feed rate at three
Different depth of cuts and constant cutting speed
(v=450 rpm).

14

12

10

0
0.2 0.4 0.63

Feed Rate (mm/rev)

 Fig.6.5 The variation in surface roughness with feed rate at three

Different depth of cuts and constant cutting speed
(v=710 rpm).

90
 14

12

10

0
0.2 0.4 0.63

Feed Rate (mm/rev)

 
Fig.6.6 The variation in surface roughness with feed rate at three Different
depth of cuts and constant cutting speed
(v=1120 rpm).

6.2.3 Influence of depth of cut on surface roughness in machining AISI

4340 steel

The influence of depth of cut on surface roughness in machining of AISI 4340

alloy steel with TiN coated cutting tool at different cutting conditions is mentioned here.

The variation in surface roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.2 mm/rev) at

three different cutting speeds is shown in Fig.6.7. Fig.6.8 shows the variation in surface

roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.4 mm/rev) at three different cutting

speeds. The variation in surface roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.63

mm/rev) at three different cutting speeds is shown in Fig.6.9. The experimental result

shows with increasing the depth of cut the surface roughness is slightly increased. The

influence of depth of cut on surface roughness is low when compared to feed rate and

cutting speed.

91
 4

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0.25 0.5 0.75

Depth of cut (mm)

 
Fig.6.7.The variation in surface roughness with Depth of cut at
three Different cutting speeds and constant feed rate (f=0.2 mm/rev).

0
0.25 0.5 0.75
Depth of cut (mm)

 
Fig.6.8.The variation in surface roughness with Depth of cut at three Different
cutting speeds and constant feed rate (f=0.4 mm/rev).

92
 16

14

12

10

0
0.25 0.5 0.75
Depth of cut (mm)

 
Fig.6.9.The variation in surface roughness with Depth of cut at three
Different cutting speeds and constant feed rate (f=0.63 mm/rev).

16

14

12

10

0 5678 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
1 18
2
3
4

No.of Tests
 
Fig.6.10.The variation in surface roughness between measured
surface roughness and predicted surface roughness.

93
6.3 Prediction of surface roughness for AISI 4340 steel at different
conditions

The variation in the measured surface roughness and predicted surface roughness

for AISI4340 at different conditions is shown in Table.6.1. The graphical representation

in the variation is surface roughness is shown Fig.6.10.

Table.6.1 The variation in measured surface roughness and predicted

surface roughness for AISI 4340 steel at different conditions.

Machining parameters Measured

S.NO Cutting Depth of Feed Average, Predicted
speed, s cut, d rate, f Ra Ra
(rpm) (mm) (mm/rev
)

1. 450 0.25 0.2 3.46 3.5

2. 450 0.25 0.4 5.27 5.33
3. 450 0.25 0.63 5.34 5.33
4. 450 0.5 0.2 3.48 3.5
5. 450 0.5 0.4 5.17 5.33
6. 450 0.5 0.63 8.53 11
7. 450 0.75 0.2 2.93 2.33
8. 450 0.75 0.4 7.53 7.3
9. 450 0.75 0.63 9.62 11
10. 710 0.25 0.2 3.54 3.5
11. 710 0.25 0.4 4.56 5.33
12. 710 0.25 0.63 5.03 5.33
13. 710 0.5 0.2 2.86 2.52
14. 710 0.5 0.4 5.02 5.33
15. 710 0.5 0.63 8.54 11
16. 710 0.75 0.2 2.63 2.33
17. 710 0.75 0.4 7.01 7.33
18. 710 0.75 0.63 14.22 13.1
19. 1120 0.25 0.2 2.18 2.31
20. 1120 0.25 0.4 3.39 3.5
21. 1120 0.25 0.63 5.74 5.31
22. 1120 0.5 0.2 2.46 2.31
23. 1120 0.5 0.4 4.33 5.31
24. 1120 0.5 0.63 6.74 7.3
25. 1120 0.75 0.2 2.59 2.31

94
26. 1120 0.75 0.4 3.53 3.5
27. 1120 0.75 0.63 13.44 14

95
  
6.4 Influence of various parameters on surface roughness in
machining AISI 52100 steel

6.4.1  Influence of cutting speed on surface roughness in machining AISI 52100

steel

The influence of cutting speed on surface roughness in machining of AISI 52100

alloy steel with TiN coated cutting tool is presented in this section. The variation in

surface roughness with cutting speed at constant Depth of cut (0.25 mm) at three different

feed rates is shown in Fig.6.11. Fig.6.12 shows the variation in surface roughness with

cutting speed at constant depth of cut (0.5 mm) at three different feed rates. The variation

in surface roughness with cutting speed at constant depth of cut (0.75mm) at three

different feed rates is shown in Fig.6.13. The experimental result shows that with

increasing the cutting speed the surface roughness is decreased.

12

10

0
450 710 1120
Cutting Speed (rpm)

 
Fig.6.11.The variation in surface roughness with cutting speed at
three Different feeds and constant depth of cut (d=0.25).

96
 12

10

0
450 710 1120

Cutting Speed (rpm)

 Fig.6.12.The variation in surface roughness with cutting speed at

three Different feeds and constant depth of cut (d=0.5).

14

12

10

0
450 710 1120

Cutting Speed (rpm)

 
Fig.6.13.The variation in surface roughness with cutting speed at
three Different feeds and constant depth of cut (d=0.75).

97
6.4.2 Influence of feed rate on surface roughness in machining AISI
52100 steel

The influence of feed rate on surface roughness in machining of AISI 52100 alloy

steel with TiN coated cutting tool is discussed here. The variation in surface roughness

with feed rate at constant cutting speed (450 rpm) at three different depths of cuts is

shown in Fig.6.14. Fig.6.15 shows the variation in surface roughness with feed rate at

constant cutting speed (710 rpm) at three different depths of cuts. The variation in surface

roughness with feed rate at constant cutting speed (1120 rpm) at three different depths of

cuts is shown in Fig.6.16. The experimental result shows that with increasing the feed

rate the surface roughness is increased. The variation in surface roughness at different

depths of cuts is low.

14

12

10

0
0.2 0.4 0.63

Feed Rate (mm/rev)

 
Fig.6.14.The variation in surface roughness with feed rate at three Different
depth of cuts and constant cutting speed (450 rpm).

98
 14

12

10

0
0.2 0.4 0.63

Feed Rate (mm/rev)

 
Fig.6.15.The variation in surface roughness with feed rate at three Different
depth of cuts and constant cutting speed (710 rpm).

10

0
0.2 0.4 0.63
Feed Rate (mm/rev)

 
Fig.6.16.The variation in surface roughness with feed rate at three Different
depth of cuts and constant cutting speed (1120 rpm).

99
6.4.3 Influence of depth of cut on surface roughness in machining AISI

52100 steel

The influence of depth of cut on surface roughness in machining of AISI 52100

alloy steel with TiN coated cutting tool at different cutting conditions is mentioned here.

The variation in surface roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.2 mm/rev) at

three different cutting speeds is shown in Fig.6.17. Fig.6.18 shows the variation in surface

roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.4 mm/rev) at three different cutting

speeds. The variation in surface roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.63

mm/rev) at three different cutting speeds is shown in Fig.6.19. The experimental result

shows with increasing the depth of cut the surface roughness is slightly increased. The

influence of depth of cut on surface roughness is low when compared to feed rate and

cutting speed.

0
0.25 0.5 0.75
Depth of cut (mm)

 
Fig.6.17.The variation in surface roughness with cutting velocity at three
Different depth of cuts and constant feed rate (f=0.2 mm/rev).

100
 10

0
0.25 0.5 0.75
Depth of cut (mm)

 
Fig.6.18.The variation in surface roughness with Depth of cut at
three Different cutting speeds and constant feed rate (f=0.4 mm/rev).

16

14

12

10

0
0.25 0.5 0.75
Depth of cut (mm)

 
Fig.6.19.The variation in surface roughness with Depth of cut at three
Different cutting speeds and constant feed rate (f=0.63 mm/rev).

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6.5 Prediction of surface roughness for AISI 52100 steel at
different conditions

The variation in the measured surface roughness and predicted surface roughness

for AISI 52100 at different conditions is shown in Table.6.2. The graphical representation

in the variation is surface roughness is shown Fig.6.20.

Table.6.2 The variation in measured surface roughness and

predicted surface roughness for AISI 52100 at different conditions.

Machining parameters Measured

S.NO Cutting Depth of Feed Average, Predicted
speed, s cut, d rate, f Ra Ra
(rpm) (mm) (mm/rev)

1. 450 0.25 0.2 1.88 2

2. 450 0.25 0.4 5.02 4.5
3. 450 0.25 0.63 8.21 9.00
4. 450 0.5 0.2 2.35 3.00
5. 450 0.5 0.4 5.52 6.00
6. 450 0.5 0.63 9.88 11.00
7. 450 0.75 0.2 2.34 3.00
8. 450 0.75 0.4 4.81 4.5
9. 450 0.75 0.63 12.15 13.3
10. 710 0.25 0.2 2.39 2.8
11. 710 0.25 0.4 7.69 6.8
12. 710 0.25 0.63 10.90 10.8
13. 710 0.5 0.2 4.50 4.31
14. 710 0.5 0.4 6.00 6.00
15. 710 0.5 0.63 8.55 9.77
16. 710 0.75 0.2 5.26 5.3
17. 710 0.75 0.4 8.94 7.59
18. 710 0.75 0.63 13.80 13.3
19. 1120 0.25 0.2 2.71 3.00
20. 1120 0.25 0.4 5.82 6.00
21. 1120 0.25 0.63 7.40 7.5
22. 1120 0.5 0.2 2.19 3.00
23. 1120 0.5 0.4 5.40 6.00
24. 1120 0.5 0.63 7.25 7.5
25. 1120 0.75 0.2 2.13 3.00
26. 1120 0.75 0.4 7.83 7.5

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27. 1120 0.75 0.63 8.73 9.00

103
 16

14

12

10

0 5678 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
1234 22 23 24 25 26 27
No.of Tests

 
Fig.6.20.The variation in surface roughness between measured
surface roughness and predicted surface roughness.

6.6 Summary

The influence of cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut on surface roughness

for two different alloy steel materials AISI 4340 and AISI 52100 machining with TiN

coated tool is presented in this chapter.

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 CHAPTER-7
 

CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER SCOPE

7.1  INTRODUCTION

The increase of customer needs for quality products have driven the metal cutting

industry to continuously improve the quality of metal cutting processes. An attempt has

been made in this project work to predict the surface roughness using fuzzy logic

technique. The experiments are carried out on turning machine using full factorial design

of experiments and data were collected and reported in chapter-4, the methodology

adopted in chapter-5. The results and discussion have been presented in chapter-6.

7.2  CONCLUSIONS

The surface roughness in the hard turning process has been measured for machining

of hardened alloy steels, AISI 4340 and AISI 52100 under different cutting conditions

with TiN coated carbide cutting tools using full factorial design of experiments (DOE). In

this work the fuzzy logic is used to model the hard turning process to predict the surface

roughness. Based on the experimental and predicted results the following conclusions are

drawn.

● The effects of machining parameters on the surface roughness have been

determined with the help of full factorial design of experiments. A full factorial

design contains all possible combinations of a set of factors. This is the most

conservative design approach, but it is also the most costly in experimental

resources.
105
 ● The experimental results showed that the feed is the most influencing parameter

on surface roughness when compared to cutting speed and depth of cut. With

increase in feed the roughness is increasing for both alloy steels.

● The second most influencing parameter on surface roughness is cutting speed.

It is observed that with increasing the cutting speed the surface roughness is

decreasing.

● Depth of cut is the least influencing parameter among the selected variables; the

surface roughness is slightly increasing with increase in depth of cut.

● It is observed that the surface roughness obtained in machining of AISI 4340 is

more when compared to AISI 52100 steel at same cutting conditions.

● The predicted and measured values are fairly close for both AISI 4340 and AISI

52100 alloy steels, which indicates that the developed models can be effectively

used to predict the surface roughness of these alloy steels.

● For achieving good surface finish of hardened alloy steels high cutting speeds,

low feed rates, and medium depth of cuts are preferred.

7.3  LIMITATIONS

● Many factors are influenced on surface roughness during the machining process.

In this work only three machining parameters such as cutting speed, feed and

depth of cut are considering to study the affect on surface roughness.

● To perform the hard turning operation we require high rigid machine tools.

● In this work, Fuzzy model was developed based on only three levels of fuzzy

membership functions for each input.

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7.4.  FURTHER SCOPE

● In the present work experiments are conducted only by considering the cutting

variables like speed, feed and depth of cut on surface roughness. Further

experiments are required to study the influence of other parameters like tool

geometry, cutting fluids, and different types of coatings on surface roughness.

● The accuracy of the developed model can be improved by considering more

number of parameters and levels.

● Further study could also consider the tool wear that would affect on the surface

roughness.

● The fuzzy model can be improved by considering more levels fuzzy membership

functions

● In addition, artificial intelligent systems such as the neural networks technique,

simulated annealing, and Genetic Algorithm (GA) techniques might be used to

predict the system outputs.

107
  
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