�la�s � �----------------------ilU

s �IX
For ·amp1€.
Liqui j Al
A mixrure containing naphthalen and urea can be separated b;
:;
- .1
·,,���f:-,,,,,1,
this techruque. Urea dissolves in water \ hile naphtha n r-mains
1____

insoluble. Ur� is recovered from the filtrate by evaporating water. Buchner

funn I
p rf

Sometime for separation purposes the filtration of a hot solution is

required. For example. a mi>..'ture of anthracene and benzoic acid is
separated by dissolving it in hot water and filtering the hot solution.
Benzoic acid crystallizes on cooling v.:hile anthracene remains as an Filtrate

insoluble residue.
(a) Filtration through Buchner funnel
If the water soluble component of a mixture is apprecial�· _ luble in
hot water but only sparingly soluble in cold water, then to separate
the mixture, filtration of a hot solution is required. This is carried out
Ftlter paper

through a fluted filter paper to avoid crystallisation during filtration

and also to remove suspend impurities. If the solution to be fil1ered
is sufficiently large, then filtration is done through a 'hot water funnel'
to avoid formation of crystals in the funnel and its stern. The jacket
of the hot water funnel keeps the solution hot in the glass funnel
placed in it.

For example, a mixture of anthracene and benzoic acid is separated Rltration of hot mix'ture
(b) Filtration of hot mi>..'ture
by dissolving the mixture in hot v.1ater and filtering the hot solution.

Benzoic add dissolves in hot water but anthranCP, .:i� or.-r Upon filtration. anthrac.ene remains as a residue on
the filter paper while benzoic acid crystallises f!'on 1l1e -fHtrate on cooling.
Sometimes, the filtration is very slow and take.s a lnrig tirrn,. In su�� cases, filtration js can;ed out under reduced
pressure using a Buchner funnel and water suction pump are sbov.rn in figure below.

Separation of liquid - liquid mixture

(1) Vacuum distillation or distillation under reduced pressure
This technjque of distillation is applied to liquids which decompose on heating to their boiling point. We know i
that the boiling point of a liquid varies with atmospheric pressure i.e., at reduced pressure the boiling point l
of liquid is also reduced and thus liqwd distils at low temperature. 0
.e
C

(2) Steam distillation

This is a convenient method for the separation and purification of organic compounds (solid or liquid) from j
.o

non-volatile organic or inorganic impurities. This method is applicable to only those compounds which are t - 1i
� .6

volatile in steam, insoluble in water, possess a vapour pressure of about 10 - 15 mm of Hg at 373 Kand C � I �]
n
contai non -volatile impurities. Some of the compounds which can be purified by this process are essent i -: ,'c... �~ �

oils, nitrobenzene, chlorobenzene, etc. ;�f

1(ii3:f·1!!3:t31J.JiL_I...
: ·��-1
li·Ht334i
• I I I I I I I
h-----------�- I /
;
J
.... t.

. : -� i
__■__
E ,�f
1 ...Ll--1...
1 ...JIL----L_-1.._l--1...
.,L_J..._..!... .11_ _
1 __

How will you separate a mixture of trophenol and p-nitropheno!?

� _

volatile cemains in the flask.

- � ', I
::::r::i:a��o:�o-nitrophenol being volatile distils over along with water while p-ni·trop
heno 1 , •cm� 1;1,. m- ·-·--ti.
·
t

�_,
�. �:..,:
)' 1 �
--------------------------------------UP- �£<Jn..1��- .,
1

-
34
. 1
ALL••-~-------------=-==----==-=-====-~C~he~m~i~st:,,.z:ry
Separation of gas - gas mixtures
(1) Diffusion

In this methcx.i of separation difference in densities of component gases is used. The gas with lower molecular
I

weight di~uses faster than the gas with higher molecular weight. For example, hydrogen· (H zl and methane
(CH 4) , helium (He) and sulphur dioxide (S0 2) .
(2) Dissolution in suit~ble solvents
In this method of separation, difference in solubility of component gases in a given solvent is used . For
example, a mixture of carbon dioxide (CO 2) is soluble in potassium hydroxide (KOH) leaving behind carbon
monoxide (CO) . Here, in a mixture of ammonia (NH) and nitrogen (N 2) ammonia (NH) is soluble in water
and nitrogen (N 2 ) is insoluble.
(3) Preferential liquefaction
In this method of separation, difference in liquefaction of component gases in a giverrsolvent is used . For
example, a mixture of ammonia (NH) and hydrogen (H 2) can be separated by this method. Here, ammonia
gets liquefied under high pressure and hydrogen gas is left behind .
(4) Fractional evapo·r ation ·
In this rnethcx.i of separation difference in boiling points of the component gases is used. For example, when
air is liquefied, the major components of air, nitrogen (N 2) and oxygen (Oz) can be separated by subjecting
the liquid to evaporation . Here, nitrogen (N 2) has a lower boiling point and hence boils off, oxygen (0 2) has
a higher boiling point and remains behind.
Separation of liqu id - gas mixtures
(1) Heating: In this method o f separation, decrease in solubility of a gas with increase in temperature is used.
For example, when a solution containing a gas is subjected to slight heating below the boiling point of the
liquid, the gas escapes out leaving behind the liquid component. For example, separation of dissolved
oxygen (0 2) in water by heating water.
(2) Lowering the pressu re: In this method of separaLion, difference in solubility of gas in the liquid at different
pressure is used . For example, scx.ia water ca.i 1 b€ separated by this methcx.i . He re, when soda water bottle
is opened, the pressure inside th e bottle decr eases and carbon dioxide (CO 2) gas fizzes out of the bottle.
A s p e c ial method appl icable for all types of mixture is
Chro matography:
The name chromatography is based o n the Gree k word chroma, for colour since the method was first used for
the separation of coloured substances found in plants.
Types of c h romatograph y: The stationary phase can be either a solid or tightly bound liquid on a solid
support while the mobile phase can be either a liquid or a gas . Depending upon the nature of the stationary and
the mobile phases, the different types of chromatographic techniques commonly used are given in .

Some c ommon types of chromatography

S.No. Type of chrom atography Mobile/ Us es
Stationa ry
phase
1 Adsorption or Column Liquid / Solid Large scale separations
chromatography
2 Thin layer chromatography (11..C) Liquid / Solid Qualitative analysis (identification and
characterization of organic compound)
3 High performance liquid Liquid / Solid Qualitative and quantitative analysis
chromatography (HPLC)
4 Gas liquid chromatography (GLC) Gas/ Liquid Qualitative and quantitative analysis
5 Paper or partition chromatography Liquid / Liquid Qualitative and quantitative analysis
of polar organic compounds (sugars,
amino acids) and inorganic compounds.

J5
 ) ~
~~.:..:.----~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~
I k\ i. ·rn 11 1;11 11111 ti"' p1 11t l1111· ii 1v()IVt'd, cl 11 <1111,do!jtuphy
,11 in i1
A.I.La• ! •llll
b , divid<,d il <J th,· f Jlinwit ,g two o itcgark:<,:
(,\)/\ l•,o tpt l1l1 11li1rn1h1ll'!P<1 Jllil/ (h)i>a rtltion .hrorn nt Hraphy C
dimrpU011 d11 >Ill 1ton r ,ph 1: :
l't1 111 ph· . T l1 h. 1111'1!1 id bl, ,sv I 11111111 tlw dilflm·nll,.1 1, dsorplion of tlH! v riou~ o mpo ne..nt s o f ,; mixture on° '1,. r
~; 11 11 1l1l1• ,H IMWIH ·11 t :-. uch 1s sill , iwl ur .ilurnin, . Since som, ·omp0und are more stro ngly adso rbed th an th e

1,1lw1 . tl1t' Y will 11 .iwl thr()U!-11' thl' coh111111 ill dlff<•rc11l rat~s a11d thu · get sepa rated.
'l 1;,cs ds irpH n clwol'natogrnphy
/\dst)II tlo n ci11rn11<1l n!lrnph y Is o f tile• followin g two typ s:

(\) l' ,Jumu ,hmni, Jnsmphy (l»T~:,:: :~:::o::::yrompound (XI ~

Rd<•tttion factor (H values - 11 is dl•fi11<•d c1s R ==
1) f
Distance travelled by the so1vent rom
1 (Y) •
~
I
Sinn·, the sol\1!'11t _trrn,t ,,lw,ays n1ows faskr on the TLC plate th an the compounds, R1 values are usually ~ I
l'Xpn.'SS ·d <IS ,1 dvnrnnl frac hon. e::--!"
Partition chromntography: ~
Principk>: P;ipcr chromatogra phy wnrl~ on the principle of partition that is it is based upon continuous differential
p 1rtitionin11 of the v,,lious componmts o f the mixture between the stationary and the mobile phases.

C{·) :ti#; JttJ Ii: tJ !!3:td Ila...__________________

Name the method which is most suitable for separation of the following:
(i:l) Oxyg1.-> n frt m liquid air
(b) Red blood cell from plasma
(d Petrol and kerosene from crude oil
(d) Coffee g1c:1i11 s from co ffee solution
(e) Pieces o f stC'cl from e ng ine o il
(0 Amino acids from fruit juice sol11tion
(g) Ethanol and c)the r
Explanation
(a) Oxygen from liquid air = Fractional dlstillaliun
(b) Red blood cell fro m plasma = Cenlrifugalion
(c) Petrol and l<c rose ne from crude o il = Fractio nal distillation
(d) Coffee grain from coffee solution = Fillralion
(e) Pieces of steel from e ngine oil = Magnetic separation
(0 Amino acids from fruit juice solution= Chromatography
(g) Ethanol and ether = Fractional distillation
-......J.

, Iii Some Additional- 'Topi-c s.

(1) Nor~m:a~l~it~y~(NN~)_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _:.....:_.:_::__~.:_--~--
,,

Normality of a solution may be defined as the number of gram equivalent of solut e present per htre
. of tl •p
solution. It is denoted by N, · - - - -- - - -- ,__
Mathematically, , ,
'I ' ..' ·;.,
N = ____ ____;_________
Gram equivalents of solute_ ~-
Volume of the solution in litres I '
~ '
6
·('c (I ~
N = Weight of solute in g
Eq. wt .of solute xVolume of solution in litre

Strength of solution in g/litre

N = --=---- - - - - ~ - : . . . : .
Equivalent weight of solute
The unit of normality is equivalent lif 1 .
36
 "'- =~~=~~~-~~
(;rum eqw Chemistry
I
va em mass of the solute can be dete nnined by using the fo rmula
G1 am equivalent mass = Molar mass
z
where z ·is a w hO Ie number and re presents.
(i) the number of H' · f ·h db ·.
.. . ions um1s e Yan acid m olecule in so lution i e., basicity of an acid.
(u) the number of OH- · f ·h db ,
... 10ns um1s e ya molecule of base in solution i.e. acidity of base ·.
(m) the number of I ct · I d· • ·
e e rons mvo ve m oxidation of a reducing agent or reduction of an oxidising agent.
Some co mmon · t · f h
repiesen ations o t e normality of solution are shown below.
N = Normal solution
N
2 = 0 .5 N = Semino rmal
N
5 = 0 .2 N = Pentanormal
N
10 = 0 . l N = Decinormal

l 0N = Decano rmal

IMM@i'tJ 13: M!!MMf U1________________

Calculate th e normality of NaOH solutio n containing 50.0 gm NaOH in 5 .0 litre solution.
Explanation

.
E qu1valent M .W. of NaOH 40
we ight o f NaOH = - - -- - = -- = 40
Acidity of bctse l
. Ients in 50 .0 g Na OH = 50 = 1.25
N o . o f equ1va
40
Equivalents of soluie 1 .25
Normality of NaOH solution= V I f 1. ti . 1.1 = - 5- = 0. 25N
o ume o so u on m 1 res
(2) Molarity (M)
Molarity of a so lution is defined as the number of moles of the solute per litre of solution . For example, a
molar (1 M) solution of sugar means a solutio n containing 1 mole of sugar (i.e., 342 g) per litre of the
solution .
Thus m athematically,
Number of moles of solute Mass of the solute
M = Volume of solution in litres [No. of moles = f
Molar mass o so Iute
l
Wt.of solute in gms
or M = Molecular wt. of solute x Volume of solution in litres
Therefore, unit of molarity is moles lit-1 . It is the most common way of representing the concentration of the
solution.
Relationship between normality and molarity of a solution

- - or Normality = Molarity x Acidity o f B ase or Bas1c1

Mal.wt.
Normality= Molarity x - . ·ty o f ao.d
Eq .wt.
where acidity of base= No. of re placeable OH- ion
and basicity of acid = No . of repla ceable H +ion .
Eq.wt.
Molarity = Normality x Mal.wt.
 ~r..' ,., , .
Class IX ALUM ~ -
(3) Molarity (m)
Molality of a solution may be defined as the number of moles of the solute disso lved per 1000 g of the '
! J,
solvent. For example , a 0 .2 molal (0.2 m) solution of glucose means a solution obtained by dis~olving 0.2 -1 p

gram mole of glucose in 1000 g (1 kg) of water. ~ __j_

Mathematically, . J_
Moles of solute
Molality (m) = - - - - - - - ' - - - - -
Mass or solvent in kilograms
No. of moles of solute
Molality (m) = - - - - - - - x 1000
Wt. of solvent in gms

Mass of solute in grams 1000

m= X
Molecular mass of solute Wt. of solvent in gms
It is expressed in units of moles kg-1.
The value of normality and molarity varies with temperature as the volume of solution containing equivalents
or moles of the solute increases with rise in temperature. However, molality is temperature independent
because here volume term is not involved.
Following is the relationship between molarity and molality derived from the formulae of molarity and
molality.

Molarity Mass of solvent in kg

Molality Volume of solution in litre
(4) Mole fraction (x)
It is defined us the ratio of the number of moles of one component (solute or solvent) to the total number of
moles of all the components (solute plus solven t) present in the solution . It is denoted by 'x' .
Moles of solute
Thus, x = - - -- - -- - - - - -
s.o,.., Moles of solute + Moles of ~olvent
For example , in a solution contain ing n i moles of so lute and n 2 moles of solvent the mole fraction of solute
(x'°"") and mole fraction of solver t (x,.._,...,,.J are

The sum of the mole fracti ons of all components present in the solution is always one and has no unit.

=1

Mole fraction of the components is always temperature in dependent.

Thus. in a binary solution. if we know the mole fraction of one component, the mole fraction of the other
component can be calculated.

Ii·1:ti 3; i1iz1 Ii :fs1 !!3:trl II►

4 .0 g of NaOH is contained in one decilitre of a solution . Calculate molality of solution and mole fraction of
NaOH . [At. wt. Na= 23 ; 0 = 16; Density of NaOH solution is 1.038 g/cm 3]
Explanation
(a) Calculation of molality of soh.ition
4
Moles of NaOH = 40 = 0.1 mole
Volwne of solution = 1 Dec11i rre = 100 ml
Weight Of 100 ml solution of density 1.038 g/cm 3 = V xd = 100 x 1.038 = 103.8 g
So, the mass of the solvent= mass of the solution· mass of solute= 103.8 - 4 = 99.8 g
Moles of solute
:. Molality = Kg. o f th esoven
I t

38
 0.1 0.l x l000 02
99 .8/1000 = 99. 8 = 1. m
(b) Calculation of mole
·,
fraction of NaOH .
Moles of NaOH = 0.1 mole
, 99 .8 ,
Moles of water in 99 .8 g water= 18 = 5.55 mole

Moles of NaOH 01 0 1
X NaoH=-M-o-le_s_o_f_N_a_O_H_+_M_o_le_s_o_f_w_a_te-r = 0 .1+.5 .55 = 5 .65 = O.Ol 7
(5) Mass fraction
Similar to mole fraction, mass fraction is defined as the ratio of the mass of one component (solute o r
solvent) to the total mass of the solution (both components) . For a binary solution contai9~g two compqnents
A and B, the mass fractio ns are ,

Mass fraction of A =
WA +Ws

Mass fraction of B = +
WA Ws

Ci•):t334i 1 013=tJ!!3:trllll·►
Calculate mass fraction and mole fraction of ethyl alcohol and water containing 9 .2 g alcohol in 18.0 g of water.
Explanation
Mass of ethyl alcohol = 9 . 2 g
Molecular mass of alcohol (C 2 H 5OH) = 46 g mor 1
9.2
Number of mole of alcohol in 9 .2 g = 46 = 0 .2 mo l
Mass of water = 18 g

18
So . number of moles of water= 18 = 1.0 mole

9.2 9.2
Mass fraction of alcohol= 18 + 9 _2 = 27 _2 = 0 .338

Mass fraction of water= 1 - 0 .338 = 0.672

0.2 0.2
x.thano1= 1.0+0.2 = 1.2 =0.167

xwater = 1 - 0.167 = 0.833

(6) Formality (F)
The term formality was first of all used by Pauling to express the concentration of a solution. This is defined
as the number of gram formula weight of ionic solute present per litre of the solution .

.
F~ormality, Moles of the ionic solute Mass of the ionic solute in gram per litre
F =----------
Volume of solution in litres Formula mass of solute
For example, formality of a solution containing 5.85 grams of common salt per litre of solution is 0.1 or the
solution is 0.1 formal.
(7) Mole percent
Mole percent for a solution may be defined as the number of moles of a component (solute or solvent) in
100 moles of solute plus solvent.
Mathematically,
Mole percent = Mole fraction x 100
 Class IX ALL.Ml ,4
- - -For
-example,
--- -percent
mole - -of-a so- --
lution --6-
con taining -of-
moles --
e thano l in ]-- - o[-
4 moles is ca lculat.ed ~
water- as ( t
.,
~~. ~
,JJ. -
"'4
6
Mo le fractio n o f..ethan o l, Xc 2H 5o H = 6 + 14 = Q. 3

The refore , Mo le pe rcent (ethano l) = 0 .3 x 100 = 3 0 mole %

Classification ot'colloids on the basis of i~teraction between differ~ nt phases
Depending upon the nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium, coUoids are classified as,
(i) Lyophillic colloids: The dispe rsed phase has great affinity fo r dispersio n me dium , in suc h cases the
dispe; sep hase does not easily get precipitated and the colloids a re quite stable . The so lids obtained a fter
evaporation of the me d ium can be easily brought back lo the colloida l state by sh aking the so lids with the
dispersion medium .
The colloids are th us reversible , For example, gum , gelatin , starch , pro teins a nd certain polymers in organic
solvents. '
If water is the dispersion medium then the colloid is called hydrophillic collo id.
(ii) Lyophobic colloids: The dispersed phase has little affinity for the dispersion m edium . These sols are
relative ly less stable . They can be easily precipitated by addition of sma ll amount of ele ctrolyte. Once they
are precipitated , they canno t be easily brought back to the colloidal state .
They are thus irreversible , For example , gold sol and sulphur sol, etc . if water is used as the dispersion
medium. The sol is called hydrolyophobic colloid.
Difference between Lyophillic and Lyophobic sols:

S. No. Property Lyophillic Sols Lyophobic Sols

1. Surface te nsion Lowe r tha n that of the medium . Same as that of the medium .
2. Viscosity Much higher tha n lha t of the Same as that of the medium .
medium . -
3. Reve rsibility Reve rsible Irreve rsibl e
·"··---~- - .~--·-·---··~- -
4. Sta bility More sta ble _........ --. Less stable
Particl es can' t be detected even
- Par ticles ca n be detected unde r
5. Visibility
under ultra m.i croscupe ultra microscop e .
6. Migra tion Particles may migra te in e ither Particles m igrate e ithe r towards
direction or do not migrate in a n ca thcx:le or ancx.le in an e lectric
electric fi eld. field .
7. Action of Addition of smalle r quantity of Coagulatio n takes place.
e lectrol yte e lectrolvte has little effect.
8. Hydration Extensive hydration takes p lace . No hydration takes place .

Classification on the basis of the particles of the dispersed phase

Sr. Macromolecular
Multimolecular Colloids Associated Colloids
No. Colloids
1. The y are forme d by the The y are molecules of The y are fo rmed by the
aggrega tion of a large number of la rge size . For example , aggrega tion of large no. of ion in
atoms or mole cul es gene ra lly have polymers like rubber, solution. For example , soap sor I
r
/
diame te rs less than 1nm . For nylon, starch, proteins etc . I

e xample, sols of gold , sulphur.

2. Their molecular ma sses are not The y have hig h molecular The ir mol~d.1l~·f riii ss~·s a re j
ve ry high . masses. generally high . I

3. Their a toms or molecules are he ld The y usually have Their molecules contain be ;~ ·
toge ther by we ak vander waaJ's
fo rces. -
. ------:-: ~--~~-
lyop hobic characte r. lyophllllc a~ 1l_yophobic g· .. ,, , · '
. '
• I .
. '
~. . t· ..
+ -. •
I
•. _J

4'0