7.

4 SINTERING OF MULTICOMPONENT SYSTEMS

Sintering of multicomponent ~y."tcm~ 1n P/~f 1~ cnmrnun. ~,nee ir b unc nt rhc nll)'.'1{ tmpon.:r::
methods of forming alloy\ \tar1ing from clcrnenwl f)<)\\dl'r~. S111tenng of ek~mentJl J)'J" de" ·,
advantageous in n1any \vay~. for cxan1pk. H J\ cibY co con1pacr a nlL\tUrt· of ,ron Jnd i:arbor.
pcn-\·der~ rarher than ~1ntcn ng )tee l powder~ . ()rher L' xarnplc~ 1nL·IuJc hr~,~~ anJ bron1t' po'4dtr-
from elemental powder\. In the ,1nrcnng of n1uh1con1rxn1cnr :-,y~ccnh. the n1accnaf crao~~<.
,nechan ism~ involve ( 111 add1 tiun ro .\clt'-d1ft'u.-.,1on L·auscd hy l·apil la~ fon·c~ ,. ,nt(n.1iftlbutn ol
rhc components into om.: another (due to cc mccncr:tr1t ,11 gradient, rhruugh \ al·anl'} n1o~ement
 ------ --
such systems may also i -------- .._
---...._____
of - . . nvolve I -------
. ,ering consists of a low- me lting con, t 1c fllrn . . -- ---- Cham
51~reg~te (e g . W -Co, hard metal) Ponc111 Wh 1,n,c>n <lf . - ·--~ 7 s.,,
;1i~ en1ture . . o~c lllt.: lt1 11 " liq111<.1 n 1. •:rr'J -
cn1P • f g ~
l
cintenn_ g o Powder
:l ;;, Aggregates
i1111 ,, btt
,•wt,
,1 n,';'. . . . .
Ill, th~ 1· ,·~dc-r
1,4• formation "'1ith 1'-4o
'- 'lli(cr,
,'.)~
. - case, during si ntcring, diffusion oc liqllid p
1s .. 11 The extent of homogeni z, t · curs and ha~
In 11105 ,tio · . d ion d rnav
con1P • which in turn d e pends on particle .· epcncts <in -h re,u11 in h
ents. b size s·11 t e d·,-1 fu,10n .r,rn r1gtn1;,Jti,
~lef11 . ·tuents will not e equal, with on '· Hering te,
s11 t· . e comp nperat Coen, It) c,i
of c011 · 11 the case o 1ron-carbon mixtu. onent diff . Ure and t c1cnt, r1f •
nple, J • • I e, <.: arb . u~1ng I· irne I '~,('.
~~ar b O n This occun-ence ot Kirkendall t·t· on diffuses il:,tcr th· nterctitr'u
car · . e ect d · · rnuch f· iln tht: 1 ' in
,n[() , ri on which may cause pores to ap unng sintenn il\tcr 101 1)>ther 1--r,r
centra ' pear and g may I in,n 'h
con nt This pore growth may be offset b grow, in tu cad ti i tx . '· an 1run
rnpone · . • Y the h · rn caus1 1.:t--., \ Gn
co . of atoms mto vacancies. In many m 1 . s nnkage < f · ng the gro¼th 1.::
d,·ffusron II d d u ticompon J pore\ b , 1,f •t.
sometimes ca e as opants, is added int . ent systems . . ) the n1Jrrn:i1 ' ~
hase. • h ent1onall . · · il !->mall . '1<:l!
P JOO times . This p enomenon , known . Y to increase th d amount ()f ~u ,
about l'k as acr1var I . e ensrfic >nJ
. cory metals I e tungsten, molybdenum ta t ec. s1nrering i. . a1ton rate) b,
retrac . , n aIum haf · · s 1ounct t -'
d
·um as the activators. The significant im · nium and rhen u ()<.: cur ,0
Pal Ia 1 e of dopants has been attributed to the enh· provement 111 · . um w11h k
1
d . sintering char· . nit: ·el c1r
presenC . ance grai b actenstic~
resence of dopants at the gram boundaries of these ref n oundary d1ffus1on cau"C.d : th-:
p ractory metals. y the

7.4.2 Liquid Phase Sintering

This technique is another example of multicomponent sinterin . . _ _
. 'd . d 'f· . gm which a liquid h· . t·
during sintermg a1 s m ens1 1cat1on of the compacts. Liquid h . .· . . P a~e orme<l
. . P ase smtenng emplov . .
amount of a second constituent havmg relatively low-melting . D . . s_a ~ma1I
. . . d b h . . point. unng srmenng th"
temperature . 1s mamtame a ove t e meltmg .
point
.
of. this low-melting~ constituent.
. -· ~
~o that 11
is present_ either thr~ugho~t or for a part of the s1_nten_ng _process, as liquid. The liquid phase
helps to bmd the sohd particles together and also aids s1gmficantly in densification of the green
parts. This process is wide]y used for ceramics including porcelains and refractories. Metallic
systems include tungsten-copper and copper-tin systems. In the case of tungsten-copper. both
rhe elements are mutually inso]uble and copper remains as a liquid phase during sintering, \\hile
in the case of copper-tin, both are soluble in one another, with tin forming a liquid phase that
remains only for a part of the sintering cycle.
For liquid phase sintering to occur there are three main considerations:
(i)Presence of an appreciable amount of liquid phase.
(ii) Appreciable solubility of solid in liquid.
(iii) Complete wetting of the solid by liquid.
Liquid phase sintering involves three main st ages: d Toe solid
. .. h Ii uid phase has forme .. .. to
(1) Initially particle rearrangement occurs once t e q . forces. This gives nse
. t· face tens10n
particles flow under the influence O SUr
efficient packing.
' Powder Metallurgy: Science, TeehnoIo
.
(ii) Solu11on an ie
I
. .
. '
gy and Applications

d . prccip1tatwn proce.. .
ss· rn this stage, smaller particle~ ct· -.. . ·
. . ,~~rI
·t This causes the particle centres to appr · >vt fr
they ·,re in contac . . f (><1<.: h ,,.
areas w ie_rc ' . .. I ed material is carried away rom the contact , l:ili.J.,,.
densifica1ton. The disso v . arert., __ i
· · m larger particles. ~r
rcprec1p1tate t . ._ . ,
st the rate of densification slows and fi1 , ·
( j j j) Solid state si nten ng: I11 this age, _ . . _ nctlly \ltiv,
. _. _ . I' .d hase sinten ng w1 th 11 me and the progress of den ..
The dtf lercnr ~tcps ,~ iq_u1 p 6 This form of liquid-phase sintering, abo kSlfil4t1r~_
·1re shown schematically m Figure 7. . . I t· th W N. F no.,.,n ·.
' . . _. • • h been used extensive y or e - 1- e, W-M0 . ~-
'persistent l1qu1d phase smtenng as -Ni+t.
WC-Co and W-Cu systems.

Time --+
Figure 7.6 Stages in liquid phase sintering: (i) liquid flow stage, (ii) solution and reprecipitation stage, and
(iii ) solid state sintering stage.

In another form of liquid phase sintering known as transient liquid phase sintering, the
liquid formed is temporary in nature. In this case, the liquid continues to take the solid into
solution until it reaches a point when the solidus boundary is reached and the liquid resolidifies.
An example of such a system exhibiting transient liquid phase sintering is 90Cu-10Sn bronze
used in preparing self-lubricating bearings. During sintering, the tin melts first, forms solid
solution with copper and quickly resolidifies.
Liquid phase sintering will be effective only if the liquid phase completely penetrates
between solid particles. Liquid phase sintering involves transport of materials (atoms or ions)
from surfaces of higher energy to surfaces of lower energy (surfaces with small radii of convex
curvature have higher energy and surfaces with small radii of concave curvature will have
lower energy).

Mechanism of Liquid Phase Sintering

The mechanism of liquid phase sintering is complicated because chemical forces are also
acting during sintering. A solid skeleton forms similar to solid state sintering during the final
stage. In the mic~ostructure of the final product, two different phases can be clearly
distinguished. In this case, the solid particles are coated by the liquid in the initial stage. In
liquid phase sinte~in~, the grains (solid) are separated by a liquid film. Because of this, the
dihedral angle ( f!) 1s .important. ~onsider two particles in contact with a drop of liquid between
them as shown 111 Figure 7.7. Smee the driving force for diffusion is the reduction in surface
 ~-- u,1ace energy
. term is very import•ant. 1. .. . c.;hapte,-~ -S. .
1
rhe 5 ur) is given by the equation he surface , ntenng .
11'1'· ·d vapo energy f
.,i,fe:- (qt'' - cir the b
>1id- '
( 0 ::: Ys- /2v a ovc systern
' .f I 1- .r

v: are rhe interfacial energies betwee

.tf1 d 'J -.1'
-nct't' Y.·~•· ,specfively. n two solid . . <7.26J
,, . ces re:, Purt1cles and r .
1cr/ll •quid-solid
'"

Grain
Grain

r$
11 Schematic representation of dihedral angle between two sol'd
Figure • with them.
.
• part1c1es and liquid phase rn contact

For complete wetting 0 should be 0 °. When the dihedral angle • .

. . . • . is zero, It means that the
cw0 liquid-solid rnterface
. can be .mamtamed
. at a lower energy than a smg . .
. 1e so 1d-soltd
1
inrerface. A negat1ve pressure gradient IS developed because of the small negative radius of
curvature of the liquid droplet. This fo~ces the part~cles to come together. At the contact point,
compressive stresses are developed. This compressive stress leads to increased dissolution of a
material at the contact points and their movement away from contact points cause the centre
of rhe particles to come together giving rise to densification. Shrinkage will occur only if the
liquid wets the solid and the solid has a limited solubility in the liquid. The dissolved second
phase particles re-precipitate elsewhere due to differences in solubility between the small and
large particles.
If the dihedral angle is positive (i.e. 0 > 0°), then grain boundaries may appear between
rhe particles and an aggregate of two or more grains wiJJ be established. This situation will lead
to the fonnation of a rigid skeleton, which will hinder further densification.
For liquid phase sintering to be effective, the following conditions muS t be met:
(i) Initial particle size must be small for solid as well as liquid phase ~i~tering. Small
. . I d so the dn vmg force for
particles have higher surface energy/umt vo ume an
sintering is large h
(ii) T . . d'ffu
I
. that occurs, is only throug
emperature control is necessary, smce any swn much with
J' ·d · 1· ·d phase does not vary
iqu1 phase. Diffusion coefficient m iqu, •og and subsequent
1
temperature. However, too high a temperature may lead to s umpt
deformation of the compact. . . as possible, to avoid
(iii) The amount of liquid phase must be kept as nunimum be present to penetrate
deformation of compact. However sufficient amount must
th e adjoining grains.
 .
Powder Metallurgy: Science, Tee hno Iogy and Applications

7.4.3 Advantages of Liquid Phase Sintering

The advantages of liquid phase sintering are: . .
st
( i) Enhanced kinetics due to the presence of liquid phase, 1.e .. ~a ~r atomic dif .
.d • tering and hence faster dens1f1cat1on . The fus 10n
compared to so II state sm .. . R d . . caPill
.
attraction due to wettmg a . !lows rapid dens1f1cat1on
p . e uct,on
f . . in int
erparral'I,
·i

friction leads to faster rearrangemen t of particles. resence o .11qu1d ph ase aid 'C.le
material flow and better packing. Sharp edges a nd corners are dissolved in the Ii s 1n
· m
resulting · eff..1c1ent
· pac k.mg. qu,d
th
(ii) Use of additives with lower melting temperatures an e base metal Powdth
enables sintering to take place at lower temperatu.r~s. . . . er
nd
(iii) Processing of difficult to sinter materials such as silicon nit e 15 possible. Do .
can also be done to lower the sintering temperatures, especially in the ca Ping
Se Of
ceramics.
The process also has certain disadvantages :
(i) Proper control is necessary. Too much of liquid phase may cause the collapse of
object under its own weight.
(ii) Enhanced kinetics can lead to grain growth.
(iii) Possibility of grain boundary segregation can lead to deterioration of c
reep
properties.
(iv) The control of microstructure is more difficult as the liquid phase tends to increase
grain growth .
(vi) The high -temperature properties of the sintered material are lowered due to the
presence of the liquid phase at the grain boundaries . Shrinkage is also more, though
may not be present throughout the sintering process.
The driving force for various material transport mechanisms operating during solid and
liquid phase sintering is summarized in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3 Summary of the Driving Force for Various Material Transport Mechanisms Operating During Solid
and Liquid Phase Sintering

Type of transport Material tramport mechanism Dril'ing force Densification

Vapour phase Evaporation-condensation Vapour pressure gradient
between convex and concave
regions No
Solid state Diffusion
(i) Surface diffusion Chemical potential No
(ii ) Grain boundary diffusion Chemical potential Yes
(iii ) Volume diffus1·c>n Chemical potential Yes
(iv) Viscous flow
Yes
(v) Plastic flow Yes
Liquid phase

------_:____:__:_:,:_
Viscous flow
Solution-precipitation
__ Surface tension
Surface tension No
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -- - ~ ' . _ - - -
Yes
 ------
~s
7.
::::::--~;:---------------~C~h~a~p~fe:_r!_7~S~in~te~r~in~gJIUliijl
VARIABLES
■

~~
. variables
.
in sintering include the following .

Process Variables
7.s.1
(i) Sintering temperature: Increasing the sintering temperature greatly increases the rate
and magnitude ?f a~y changes occurring during sintering, due to increased diffusion.
(ii) Sinten~1g tzme: _The degree of sintering increases with increasing time, though the
effect is sn:all m companson to the effect of temperature. The loss of driving force with
increasing nme ~t an~ temp~rature is one of the reasons why it is so very difficult to remove
all porosity by smtenng. It is possible to achieve the desired properties of the sintered parts
by shorter sintering times and correspondingly higher temperatures. However, the maintenance
costs and energy consumption of a furnace increase when its operating temperature is raised.
Longer times may also result in grain coarsening, which affects the mechanical properties
adversely.
(iii) Sintering atmosphere: Sintering atmosphere plays a vital role in bonding of the
particles and hence in influencing the properties of the sintered part. Atmospheres not only
provide protection against oxidation, but also help to reduce surface oxides, thus, aiding the
sintering process.
The proper production, use and control of sintering atmospheres, which are essential for
the optimum use of the powder metallurgy process, are described in a later section.

7.5.2 Material Variables

Important material parameters that affect the sintering behaviour are:
(i) Particle size: Generally, finer particle size leads to increased sintering. Similar-sized
particles have a greater pore/solid interfacial area producing a greater driving force for
si ntering. It promotes all types of diffusion transport, e.g. greater surface area leads to more
surface diffusion, small grain size promotes grain boundary diffusion and a larger interparticle
contact area to volume diffusion .
(ii) Particle shape: The factors that lead to greater and intimate contact between
particles and increased internal surface area promote sintering. These factors include decreasing
sphericity and increasing macro or mjcro-surface roughness.
(iii) Particle structure: A fine grain structure within the original particles can promote
sintering because it favours several material transport mechanisms.
(iv) Particle composition: Alloying additions or impurities within the metal can affect
the sintering kinetics. The effect can either be deleterious or beneficial depending upon the
distribution and reaction of the impurity. Surface contamination such as oxidation is usua\ly
undesirable. Reaction between impurities and either the base metal or alloying additions with
impurities at the relatively high temperature may be undesirable. Heterogeneous nature of
powders (e.g. alloy powders or powder mix) promotes enhanced diffusion and improves
sintering kinetics. Dispersed phases within the matrix may promote sintering by inhibiting grain
boundary motion .
 , Powder Metallurgy: Science,
.
'echnology and Applications
T
Chapter 7 Sintering
( )G . ., ·e in green density signifies
. · A dcacas . . an. increasing amou nt of . res. Typical PIM m1crostruc1ures arc characterized by porosny. Pores
· ontains Po
lem·il)•
v ree11 £ • . • ·1 realer driving force tor s1111cnng. Although the 'Olcrn~, · · h k A
surface area and rnnscqucntly. ' ~ reasing green density, the absolute value of Pcrcenia
1 that it c O n or closed. Wtth progression of smtcnng, pores continue to s nn . t
chan"c in density mucascs wtlh ec . . ., I lhe iin1 8c e~c~PfO tWO types. pe·ty the formatton of isolated pores commences. In the case of alloys,
" rcmmns
dc11.1i1y . h1ghcs1
. . Ihc hig
lor • hc·r 011rcen dens11y m,Hena . cl'cq arc ul 5c,1, 1otal porosli ~wdcr blends docs not always result m homogeneous, well-diffused
. 1 menta p ·r
at,O1ering of1ures
s1n c e . Such heterogeneity 1s generally detrimental and leads to non-um arm
.1 rostruc h sintered parts. .
7.6 EFFECTS OF SINTERING 111 ' perties· in t e th· 1s an other important aspect m smtenng. There 1s normally a large dnvmg h
pro Grain growg h Grain growth in a sinter mass can be somewhat different than t e
. ch1mge of d',mensions,
· structure or both.
. These changes will
. inlluencc 1h f rowl · I. consisting
· of grams
Sintering resulls III . f0 rce or gratn tal since the former can be treated as a two-phase . matena
.
propenies of the smlcred pan and are briefly discussed in the following sections.

7.6.l Dimensional Changes

c
cot entional me ' reen compacts as well as m the developing smter mass represents a very
ores. Porosity in g ratn growth. The addttton of a foreign component in the powder blend
anf puve hindrance t~ g bonding between adjacent particles and the formation of gram
efaec drastically. h1:u~~a grooves may also tend to mh1b1t gram growth smce the moveme;~
Changes in dimensions resulting from sintering represent an importam aspect Ill Powder rn
boUyndanes.oundary
Gralll baway fryom its. groove leads lo an increase in the grain boundary area a
Mcra/lurgy. especially with respect to large scale production °~
parts With small dimensional
of gra!ll b
r
· crease in gram boundary energy. res is
I
tolerance. The fundamental process of sintering leads to a red.uctwn ,n volume because of PDre nsequentl y an in owth so that gram boundanes do not pull away from po d I
shrinkage and elimination. Following facron; arc important m this regard. \
co The control of gram gr . I . . rtanl to have as uniformly sized a starting pow er t

h' ve zero porosity. t is impo . . M· umes a proper

(i) £ 11rrapped gaJeJ': The expansion of gas in closed porosity can give rise
:.it:; : ~~en;~a~ :~u~~::~:sulttng m full
essential to ac '.e reduce separation of pores from gram boundanes. any d with 0.05%
expansion of rite compact. . . . 10
as pos~b~~~~;l~~st: vital role. A typical example
(ii) Chemical reactionJ: Hydrogen is a common component ot smtenng atmospheres add111v · h . dditive is preferential1y concen
0 where t ea
and can often diffuse through 1he metal to isolated portions of the compact where it reacts With
oxygen 10 form wmer vapour. The pressure of the water vapour can lead to expansion of the Mg '. . . I'd state dunng sintering at a
dens1f1ca110n. , f phase transformations may occur m the so I h . tering temperature.
enrire mass. It is also possible ro have reactions that lead lo the loss of some elemenr from the Many ty~:t~re or during the cooling of the metal. from t e r~:i itation hardenmg.
sinter mass to the atmosphere such as volatilization. resulting in the shrinkage of the pan. constant tempe f auons include martensittc transformation and p ~ant example being
(iii) Alloying: Alloying may take place between two or more elemental powder, very Important trans orrn structure mfluence such transformations. an I~~ f the mass for a
often. leading to compact expansion. This expansion. which is due to the formation of a solid . , d fine gram · h h I conducuv1ty O .
Porosity a~ . d steels. Smee porosity reduces t e t erma hout a sintered metal is
solution. is often offset by shrinkage of the original porosity. Dimensional changes may also
occur in a binary system where the rate of diffusion of each metal into the other is different,
the case of s1~1e7 ; condittons, the prevmhng coohng rate throug would have bearing on
given set of coo mg 1·
I I than or C
onventional components. This is tum
·
\.
(iv) Shape cha11geJ: Green piirts invariably contain variations in green density. Such considerab y ess . which is dependent on cooling rate. . h· se smtering is very
variations can lead ro subs1an1i:1I changes in shape because of the strong dependence of martenstic transfom1at1on, f a proper llllcrostructure dunng hq~1d p ;~ctii1ty. During liquid
sintering. especially shrinkage. on green density. Low-green density regions will exhibit a
greater amounr of shrinkage during sintering. For example, a cylinder with a relatively high
UD ratio compacted by a single action method would have a gradually decreasing green density
from one end 10 the other. Such as cylinder prepared by a double action method on the other
The development o
. · g the require
d mechanical properties. m particular
. . ses The s a
h pe of the pores
important for at1,1mm . 1 el falls down while gram size mcrea . h pores are irregular.
phase smtenng. poros1? e; phase sintenng. Dunng the firs~ sta~, a~l; attaining a sphenca\
\
vanes rapidly dunng 1.qu1 cylindrical network of pores be ore m s·1nce they depend on
hand, would likely achieve an 'hourglass' shape. Many times. the shrinkage (or expansion) is which later transforms mto. a ., change dunng hqmd pha.se smtenng, ctura\ featun:, w1·ii be
different in two dirr::crions, i.e. axial and radi,11, and must be taken into account during design shape. The mte1face .:nerg1es can. d temperature. Hence the mtCrostru
f ·e contammauon an
of lhe compacting tools. Parts with complex and asymmetrical shape, exhibit uneven shrinkage solub1hty, sur ac . uid phase smtenng.
varyi ng with time dunng 1iq
during sintenng and in order to achieve the desired tolerance, sizing operation is genernl/y
earned our. From rile users point of view, it is easier to mamtain narrow tolerances on the
contours than on the axial dimensions.
N SINTERED P/M PARTS
7 7 POROSITY I . to sintering can be
7.6 .2 Microstructural Changes • 1pact pnor
. f the PIM parts. The green co~ orosity. This porosity may
Porosity is inherent to most. ~ nsisting of powder particles and p·r y may nut be too large
When green compact is sintered, the original particle boundaries can no longer be observed. . ted as a two phase matena co . The reduction in free en1; g
Instead. the scructure becomes similar to chat of cite mecal 111 wrought and annealed conditions, trea d during s111tenng.
or may not be remove
 .
and Applications
-~, ·"---._
1
Powder Metallurgy: Science, Technoogy . ~ ,,
. rosity. Thus, the srntered products a '-,,
. 1 · me residua1 po . t· h • re frer, ,
and general1y this resu ts m so n the propert1es o t e srntered cornp ·'ilJr•~
more or less porous and this has an intluel~cet . °ns In fact, some of the applications acft. Por,~11_:._
. · PIM app 1ca 10 · . . . - o p •-Jr
is a desirable feature m certain . •ty t·or instance, m 011 impregnated b . ¾~ 1
. ·b ton of porosi , . . ean ,rt
based on the controlled dJSm u ~ . d·fc rent
1 1 e,,
degree of porosity 1s desired r ngs ah :
t plicatwns ' or ex •io
porous filters. For dif1eren ap
c 1
- ' . f·1ters By properly selecting the . anip •
m . . dvantaaeous m I • conctir '·
about 10 vol -10 porosity is a . 0 • requirements. Prelubricated b . 10ns 1_:
. . h . be tailored to service eann oi
smtermg, t e porosity can . • would be either difficult as · gs arii
employed in applications where normal Iubncation . . bl . in the case •
sludge pumps or when the lubrication leads to ~ontam~natwn pro ~ms m products such of
c d h
100 . 1 an d textJ.1es. Small motors fitted. hwith
, p annaceuttca PIMsuch beanngs · canbl be usect W1_tJio0ai
lubrication for life. This is a typical product, whic a 1one _is capa e of deliverj t
However, m . most of the other app11ca11ons,
· · porosity is an undesirable
. . one. and has ng. ~
10
eliminated or kept to a minimum. For example, in structural ~eram_ics, th ~ re_siduaJ PGres ~ ·
be the starting points of crack under load. Therefore, a reduction of porosity is needed in ;'
applications. Typical porosity in convent10nally . pressed an d srntere
. d PIM products vanQ suer.'
between 5 and 20%. If the porosity levels in the sintered p~rts are above the specified !ere/~:
it can be reduced by secondary operations such as repressrng. In case very high or close ~.
theoretical densities are needed, as for structural parts, recourse to costlier operations such :~
sintering followed by IDP, hot pressing, or CIP fo llowed by HIP must be resorted to. 4)
Porosity present in PIM products depend on a variety of fac tors such as
(i) Compaction pressure and time.
(ii)Compaction temperature: Die compaction in variably results in significant arnounr c,:·
porosity, whereas hot pn~ssing or HIP result in lower porosity levels due tc
enhanced material transport due to di ffusion as well as plastic flow of ma1erial ..
J.
high temperatures. Hot compacted PIM parts ha ve a higher densi ty and duc1ilit\' ih "
that of a cold pressed and sintered part. , d.

(iii) Shape of the part.

(iv) Powder particle characteristics such as size anJ shape.
(v) Material constitution: A lloys shm-v different sin tcn ng charac1eri si,cs rhan merJb ar,~
densification accordingly varies
(vi) Sintering temperature and time: Sufficienr 1cmpcr;t1ure and llll1L' are needed for
good densification.
(vii)
Secondary and fi nishing treatments such ·1s rt'J)r, • I ,·· 1
(viii ) · · • · l .
'>S l ng i..l llL 111 I lr~lllllfl .
The type and amourn of lubric"mt-- u •d / • •. · · J i:
_ . ' · -"c ld\ c a s1g11J/1canr 111llt1t'n t·e lHI rhc lc\'c 01
poroslly rn the srn tercd p.tn Pn~ "t:lll'c 0 1· I I . t· · d th"
_ _ _ . · · ll ) f l l'.tll ( ;1 kL'I.-. .', lf} I L' flll g J /1 "
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