Politics

Social life; what we do, where we are, with whom we are connected---fears – spaces of
existence (there are three types of fear; personal, private, public.)

Personals fear: centered around the family– immune from the power

How do define power in terms of personal fear? – in traditional family, father figure is the
state, mother is like a prime minister. – man are not structurally more powerful but the way
gender roles are arranged like this.

Relations with a group of friends, start working and become colleagues, became a member
of association-label union : private, fear centered around economic, civil relations
friendship

Publics fear: most abstract fear of all, centered around state and political relations, as a
society we need to stay together so we need to take an action. Public existence; voting,
supporting political party…

These three fears are connected each other. There is always comes and comes.

What happens in the economy both influence personal and public levels so it affects
personal and public levels.

What is the essence of politics? Where is politics in the family, in the economy..? what is
the core consept of politics? – human relations, because in politics there is always people in
the center. In friendship and family there is also a human relations. –power relations, matter
of rights and responsibilities, security…. *in all areas of life, many things are done not on the
basis of compromise or mutual agreement, willingness but on the basis of some sort of
threat. If you don’t do this you will be punish…. (setting limits to action even to thinking,
human behavior) the public bodies produce those limits, and those limits limit family,
economic actions. If we don’t pay our taxes the tax authority becomes a problem for us,
there will be a punishment in turn.

What is the distinguishing nature of politics as opposed to economy, civil society, family..?

*Power shapes into us into our social actions, gender roles, political choices, it shapes the
world. It teaches us everything from the baby age onwards... in many cases we react and
resist and become somebody else totally different, sometimes we change the rules
sometimes we change the game.

When there is power there is always resistance, power is defined by resistance, when the
core of resistance change the game can be change.
Political scientists tend to see power, always look at how power generated, maintained and
changed by asking ‘’who is setting the limitations, who is obeying who, who is making
decisions..?’’

Power is something that you cannot see, just comes and shapes you. We analyze power
mostly in publics fear. The state is the key actor, authority which sets the boundaries, it
has to authority to use violence. We give a lot of importance to distribution of power. the
state sometimes directly generate power by using bureaucratic organs *başka toplumsal
kesimleri başkalarına karşı güçlendirebilir para vererek, ayrıcalık sağlayarak…*

By changing the rules, you influence the family structure.

The major point/subject matter of Political science is power.

Power making make people do something normally they wouldn’t do it. You apply a set of
punishment (violence, force for threatening for someone…)You basically force people.
Power makes people to see the world the way they cannot see it. (their codes of conduct,
honor – evaluate and shape the understanding of world.) they start seeing the world
through your perspective. (important part of power!!-it is like raising a child (all these
notions you inject into the child, this child will see the world the way you want.))

-religion is very important area where your understanding of life shaped(what is allowed,
what is not allowed…) =this is a very important dimension of power. (religious punishment
not only in this world, but also in the other world)

Power shapes us and all the material around us. – life is full of power. (personal, public,
private) there is punishment, there is also conditioning of your values, symbolism,
perception. Life is formed by power, power brings/create life.

 When there is power there is resistance! – it never ends, throughout our life there
will be our resistance over power, this interplay what makes us, our lives will
continue forever.

Can you imagine an existence in which there is no power? Can we imagine a freedom like
this?

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Max Weber lived in Germany, he was born in the second half of nineteenth century, died in
the first half of the twentieth century. – Conceptualization of power=in political science
mostly dealing with public fear as a disciplinary concept. our more focus is publics fear
believing that publics fear with its capacities there is so much power generated in the public
fear and that power go down tends to spread down and shape in a sense and influence
power relations from the state to society, from the society to family. Power always flows
back and forth among these tree fears- what goes on publics fear is so important that it has
a tendency to influence by a great deal power relations at the other fears. Why the state is
highly important instuitition in humans society.

As people on which the authority is implemented, we tend to legitimate, see the authority
through a certain perspective as a power with which we have to obey. Why do we see the
authority like this? How does the authority prevent itself for us? How do we justify the
authority? Why do we obey the authority?

Weber says that the first type of authority is what we calls charismatic authority. What do
we mean by charismatic? This is the earliest form of authority, we can see that kind of
authority in the tribal society, early human societies. Charismatic authority continues to
exist. Charismatic authority was the dominant authority.

Characterization of charisma? – that a person has a certain charm, It must be someone

who knows his or her ways over words. Influence people with their charm.

Weber says, in medieval times, there was the traditional justifications of traditional
authority. It is justifying authority with respect to tradition. You have the power not
because you have the charisma, but because the traditional authority requires in a way.
(because you came from the saray, you would be prince.) traditional authority is still in the
sahne. *ismet inönü&erdal inönü(son of ismet.) in addition to other elements, traditional
authority still used. In certain societies, Saudi Arabia, Arab emirates last names matter, you
are entitled to the certain thing just because of your family name.

Rational power (rasyonel yasal güç) born with the modern state. Power is the legal rational
order, nothing about personal charisma or traditional background, it has to your
bureaucratic positions. – who had certain education, who earned that position who are
entitled to come to this position because of his/her qualifications. Power depends on
objective qualities and qualifications; experience, education, winning the elections (clear,
fair) Meritocracy (liyakat) is the essence. Positions are linked to qualifications, so anyone
who has such qualifications can come to this position. We tend to justify power as citizens,
power should be rightly occupied. High positions should be filled in with the people with
competitive process. That’s what makes us believe and obey.

We do have traditional and charismatic elements but the dominant element is rational
power.

Albert Hirschman: exit, voice, loyalty

If you are not loyal, sometimes you raise your voice. (active opposition, demonstrate,fight
with the security forces, take risk, put in prison…) showing disagreement with raising voice.

Why people raise their voices/use active means of opposition? – if they can show their
rightness, they can get the power or other opportunities.

Exit? What do we exit from, what forms of exit exist? – Syrians just escaped from the Syria,
they didn’t raise their voices or support the government. For a millennia, people escape.(also
recently in Iran,china,turkey,russia )

Its not direct migration but its an escape from the public’s fear to the more private and
personal’s fear. This is also the other explanation of exit. You are not dealing anymore with
public politics. (not follow the discussion among leader, even not voting, something like
nihilistic behavior.)(you exclude yourself from the politics-neither support government nor
support muhalefet.)

*çekoslovak intellectuals who were very highly disappointed with the regime, but they
couldnot leave the country, they couldn’t oppose to government because of the risks (prison
etc.) so they retreated their personal lives. – in the soviet union before the collapse of
socialism millions of people used exit option. *literature was circulated among people to
people=biri yazdığı kitabı eliyle birisine veriyor, o kişi bir başkasına…

Vysotsky, Brodsky, Tarkovsky, Shostakovich these people were sometimes in the system
sometimes out the system.

How do we make decisions? We start thinking, we start making references, we take certain
belief system, values as a reference. That system of thinking gives us three important clues;

1.some existencial (ontological) questions (varoluşsal sorular): we want to answer very

basic questions - who am I, who is men?, what is globalization?, why certain things are
happening?....

2.epistemological questions: whether something is true or not. We don’t want to believe

that things are happen without reason, we wonder the causes of this consequences. Those
types of questions are very important. If someone tells that this is the case, how can we
know that it is true?

3. axiological questions: judge the utility, cost & gain of a situation, is this beneficial or
harmful, what is the value of certain actions

Difference between risk & uncertainty

 Risk: We can somehow conclude how certain things are going to turn out. You have the
information to measure the probabilities.
  Uncertainty: You don’t have the information to measure the probabilities. The outcomes
are likely but you don’t know how likely they are. You are in total darkness. Most of the
decisions we make in life, we make in darkness/uncertainty.

Many decisions are asking for us to make them quickly, when we are faced with situation in
which we have to rush to a decision the best thing is to take as much as time possible and
take into ontological, epistemological, axiological questions. – fast thinking & slow thinking
*Daniel C. - thinking fast and slow

About the importance of push factors; in some cases, you are ready to take action
(sometime you are awakened) outside factor which make you think more clearly and
rationally

Ideologies
Ideology is actually a collection of beliefs, systems of thinking, worldview and it proves us
answer and ontological, epistemological and axiological answers.

Ideologies provide us with answers, a very important cloud in which we live (we form our questions
and answers inside that cloud) It’s a modern system (came into being in the last 200-300 years) Great
thinkers started producing ideologies.

Mystery in modern ideology (liberalism)

Complementary ideology (socialism)

Conservatism (muhafazakarlık), anarchism, nationalitsm…

Science and technology has become tool between us and nature and other human beings.
We communicate by always putting technological device between us. There is always an
arayüz between us and us. The level, the intency is so big and geometrically bigger and
bigger. And that interface putting interfaces between our minds and body… (it shapes us.)

Producing products by using machine is something unimaginable before the age of

modernity. Modernity changes our minds unimaginably.

18th century called early modernity

19th century beginning of modernity

20th century late modernity

21th century post modernity

If you are a liberal and not happy with the liberality, you should change your ideas from
liberality to sociality. Modernity has been powerful system when its produce its oppositions.
Basic Modern Ideologies:

- Liberalism: Liberalizm, bireysel özgürlük üzerine kurulan bir siyasi felsefe veya dünya
görüşüdür. Bireysel özgürlük ve bireysel haklar düşüncesiyle yola çıkan liberalizm, daha
sonraki yıllarda farklı türlere bölündü ve bireylerin eşitlik ilkesinin de önemini vurgulamaya
başladı. 
- Socialism: üretim araçlarının kamunun, devletin elinde olması, ekonomik etkinliklerin kâr
yerine insanların gereksinimlerini karşılaması gerektiğini öne süren, değer olarak emeğe
önem veren, toplumun örgütlenmesinde köklü değişiklikler amaçlayan siyasal öğreti.

Individualism in liberalism

Individuals were equal before the law, ahlaki olarak aynı değere sahipler, hangi aileden
gelirlerse gelsinler insanlar eşit olarak doğarlar ve doğal haklara sahip olurlar. Human rights-
women’s rights- rights of the minority goes back to the natural rights. Individuals who ever
they are they possess what liberals cause reason. It doesn’t mean they are very well
educated they have muhakeme kabiliyeti .the state/the leader/someone cannot say that for
me this is good for you cause everyone has a unique ideas. *this religion is good for you, this
sexual orientation is fits you, vote for this party because it is the best for you…. Liberalism
does not believe some sort of collectivity, (halk için/insanlık için konuşma..)

 Açık alanda sigara içen birisini çevredeki kişilere zarar verdiği için uyarabiliriz ama
kendi evinde içen birisini uyaramayız. Kimseye zararı yoksa kendi kararlarını kendisi
verebilir. (individual choice)
 In liberalism all these instances are decided what legally by justice court. *Is it
drinking a matter of individual or public?*
 In liberalism, individual comes first.

According to liberalism all the individuals are equal but they are not all equal when it comes to the
consequences of their actions. They are equal before the law and they all have inalienable, natural
rights. But there is no equality of outcome. Equality of outcome is completely unfair and immoral,
you cannot justify this within the liberal framework. So economic equality ca not be justified since it
would require equality of outcomes. The uncertainty of outcome and competition is the basis of all
human progress. In the 20th century the two main political ideologies came to affect one another
and hybrid regimes starting gaining popularity. Because both regimes left on their own and run into
serious problems.

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Consent is the basis of the existence of government. How do we show our consent? One typical way
is by participating in democratic election processes. Only the government emerging from these
processes, based on the consent of the governed, can be a liberal government. The basic functions
of government should not be collected in the hands of the same person or same few persons.
 - Legislative Function : Ability to make the laws (The congress, parliament etc)
- Executive Function : Executing those laws and regulations
- Department of Justice: They look at whether the citizens complain about these laws or their
execution.

● Yasama, yani yasa çıkarmak;

● Yürütme, yani mevcut yasalar doğrultusunda ülkeyi yönetmek ve
● Yargı; devletin egemenlik yetkisinden aldığı meşruiyet ile ve onun adına hukuku yorumlayan
ve hukuk kurallarını uygulayan organdır. 

According to liberal ideology these 3 functions or powers should never be in the hands of the same
people. When these three powers are in the hands of different people they control one another,
they check and balance one another. /Separation of Powers (Divided Government)/ In ideal
situations there must be a high degree of autonomy between these powers and a high degree of
accountability.

 Güçler ayrılığı ilkesi, adil bir yönetim için gereklidir. Aynı zamanda mahkemelerin herhangi bir baskı
altında kalmadan özgür bir şekilde karar verebilmesi için bu ilkenin uygulanması zorunludur.
Birbirlerinin karşısında bağımsız olması gereken ve her biri farklı bir statüye sahip olan bu güçlerin
ayrı olması güçler dengesinin sağlanmasına yardımcı olur. Bir ülkede yürütme gücünün ve ülkedeki bir
uyuşmazlığın giderilmesini sağlar.

Yargı gücünün başka organlara verilmesi ve bu organların birbirinden bağımsız olması adaletin
sağlanması için çok önemlidir. Aksi halde ülkede pek çok durum çıkmaza girer ve diktatörlüğün hakim
olduğu bir yönetim biçimi kaçınılmaz olur. İktidarı tek başına ele almış olan bir kişi ya da grubun,
grubun dışında kalanları nasıl sindirdiği ve baskı altına aldığının tarihte pek çok örneği vardır.

The three central tenets / doctrines of liberal ideology:

1. Constitution

2. The government is based on the consent of the governed

3. Separation of powers

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Positive & Negative Freedoms

Liberalism is called classical liberalism. The liberal ideas gained real traction especially in the 19th
century. A lot of the countries implemented liberal values in their policies.

The kind of liberty/freedom that is expressed in the classical liberalism is NEGATIVE FREEDOM. I
am already born with liberty and the government cannot give it to me. The government should only
do the following; not taking my liberties from me. This means freedom or liberty from arbitrary state
interference in my life.

Classical liberalism also believes in equality of opportunity.

The other conception of freedom is POSITIVE FREEDOM. Those freedoms which government
intervenes and gives you, acmes to better material conditions and what not are called positive
freedoms. Positive in the sense that it requires a certain action and intervention by the authorities.
State can create policies to level the playing field. By raising certain groups’ living standards within
the community and giving them certain rights they did not possess before. These policies are aimed
to raise the conditions of disenfranchised people within the society and to give them positive liberty.
Neo-liberalism is against these positive rights and distribution of these rights by government
regulation and welfare programs.

negatif özgürlük: ''kimsenin kölesi değilim''

pozitif özgürlük: ''kendimin efendisiyim''

Socialism
- Liberalism emphasized freedom; socialism emphasized equality and solidarity. Liberalism had
some equality as well but doesn’t encompass all of them. Individuals must have freedoms in
liberalism.
- Socialism puts emphasis on equality and solidarity. The ones who will use them are the
collectivity.
- Basic constitution of society in socialism is some sort of community/collectivity. You can’t
abstract individual apart from the collectivity in which the individual belongs.
Collectivity>individual.
- Major collectivity= social class in capitalist society.
- Social class; Group of people who accompany a place in economy in areas of production.
- We all belong to and exist in a social class. Artist and such (In Turkish, kobi) are not in a wage-
earning category but they are also not capitalists.
- No private property. All economic production controlled by authority. There’s no capital.
Everyone in society is a wage-earner. Not same amount but no classes.
- Marx: “Classless situation is the only way to find out our true identities/individualities.”
- High-tech is also controlled by authorities. NO PRIVATE PROPERTY
- There is no state.
- Collectivities determine you.
- No capital, no private property!
- The society has a duty to help everybody in the society. Regardless of how much you
contribute, you deserve all these good things which I wasn’t fast enough to take note of.
- A portion of common budget should be kept aside to meet the basic needs of society.
- After everyone is happy, then we can think about doing individual stuff. But it’s not a
necessity.
- BASIC NEEDS MUST BE MET BY PUBLIC RESOURCES. AFTER THAT, IF YOU WANT TO
WORK/EARN MORE, GO AHEAD.DİSAGREEMENT BETWEEN WHETHER THERE SHOULD BE A
LIMIT BETWEEN HİGHEST-LOWEST WAGE WHICH CAN’T BE PASSED.
- Private property (you exploit other people, it’s capital) don’t exist but personal property (You
- Who’s gonna replace capitalists tho? Who are the public owners? The state? What if there is no
state? A form of collective ownership. But no collective ownership that wasn’t state ownership
ever existed.

Social Democracy
Demokratik sosyalizm, sosyalist düzene geçişin devrim, silah veya şiddet gibi yollara başvurmadan,
demokratik yollarla gerçekleşmesi ve demokrasinin kısıtlanmayıp daha da geliştirilerek
uygulanması gerektiğini ileri süren siyasi ideolojidir.

 liberalism + socialism
 in Sweden, Germany, Scandinavia
 Social democrats believe in the productive capacity of capitalism (free market, private
property.) But when it comes to distribution, they don’t think market can do that allocation
truly. So, the government must intervene and regulate the distribution
-very heavily laws of regulation (direct government ownership)
*Government regulates drug companies.
*European Union is a community of regulations. / Sosyal korporatizm, sermayeci iş
veren ve işçi arasındaki anlaşmasının sosyal yollarla sağlandığı anti-kapitalist ve anti-komünist
ekonomi modelidir/
* Emeklilik is one of the most important gains of social democracy.

Neo-liberalism; ekonomiyi bir din olarak kabul eder ve en klasik şekliyle ekonomi işlerinin devletten
ayrılması ve piyasayı serbest ekonominin, daha ötesi özel teşebbüs ekonomisinin yönetmesi
gerektiğini savunur. küreselleşmenin bir uzantısı olarak onu illaki desteklemesi, önermesi ve "yeni
özgürlükçülük" gibi bir kılıfla tanımlanmasının yanında aslen klasik kapitalist düşüncenin
makyajlanmış bir reprodüksiyonudur.

Conservatism
 It is not an ideology but a certain position towards life.
 Conservatism is a reaction to modernizations.
 Muhafazakârlık, geleneksel sosyal etmenlerin muhafaza edilmesini destekleyen politik ve
sosyal felsefedir.
 There is no equality in conservatism but there is a complementarily. (Kadın ve erkek eşit değil
ama birbirleri olmadan da olmazlar, birbirlerini tamamlıyorlar.)

Reactionary Conservatism; when modernity became the order (capitalism, big cities…), conservatism
became the defenders of this new order. They might have even be influenced by liberalism/socialism.

Reformist Conservatism; we should at least take some measurements to help the poor and needy.
(in the form of charity.)

Social Conservatism; Sosyal muhafazakârlık, geleneksel değerler olarak görülen şeylerin

korunmasına odaklanan bir siyasi ideolojidir.

Neo-Conservatism;

 Twin sister of neo-liberalism

 Has become the dominant ideological system of late 20th and 21th century.
 Neo-conservatism says that social conservatism is wrong for using government policies to
organize social help. Government is not a charity. (We need charity but it is not the duty of
government.
 Neo-conservatism was also defending the counter revolutions. It tried to bring back old
hierarchical orders.