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The Language of Visual Theatre
The Language of Visual Theatre
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The language of visual theatre [microform] : sign and context in Josef Svoboda,
Meredith Monk, and Robert Wilson /
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Doctor of Philosophy
University of Washington
1994
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Abstract
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Acknowledgments:
List of iii
Illustrations..........................................................................................
Introduction 1
......................................................................................................
Bibliography.............................................................................................. 299
........
Enlargements............................................
.
List of Illustrations:
Figure Page
8. The Duck/Rabbit.
E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion, (Princeton: Princeton
University Press,1960), 5........................................................................
47
9. Dali Atomicus.
Photograph by Philippe Halsman.......................................................... 70
10. Panzani Advertisement.
Roland Barthes, Image Music Text, (New York:
The Noonday Press,1977).......................................................................
73
15. Fountain.
Mary Ann Caws and Rudolf E. Kuenzli, eds., Dada/Surrealism,
(No. 16,Duchamp Centennial ), 65.
Photograph by Alfred Stieglitz................................................................. 93
16. L.H.O.O.Q.
Ibid., 152......................................................................................................
93
21. Oedipus-Antigone.
Svoboda, Tajemství Divadelního Prostoru
Photograph by Jaromír Svoboda............................................................131
26. Minotaurus.
Souvenir program, (Prague: Laterna Magika)
Photograph by Vojtech Písarík................................................................140
30. Rusalka.
Helena Albertova, "Even a Disciplined Stage Designer Has
His Dreams: An Interview With Josef Svoboda," Theatre Czech
and Slovak, (Vol. 4, 1992), 56
Photograph by Vojtech
Písarík.................................................................151
35. Quarry.
Robb Baker, "New Worlds For Old: The Visionary Art
of Meredith Monk," American Theatre,( Vol. 1 #6, October
1984), 9. Photograph by Johan Elbers..................................................181
36. Quarry.
Robb Baker, "Living Spaces: Twenty Years of Theatre with
Meredith Monk," Theatre Crafts, (March 1985), 37.
Photograph by Lauretta Harris................................................................181
39. Atlas.
Bonnie Marranca, "Meredith Monk's Atlas of Sound,"
Performing Arts Journal, (Spring 1992), 25.
Photograph by Jim Caldwell....................................................................198
41. Juice.
RoseLee Goldberg, Performance: Live Art 1909 to the Present,
(New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1979), 93.........................................209
dynamic world is located. Spoken and written languages1 extend over time, as
does vision, but have the ability to fix our shifting reality. As the phenomenologist
Maurice Merleau-Ponty has pointed out, "We never cease living in the world of
that exists between these two worlds. Verbal language is a classification tool,
used to segment and categorize the waves of perception that bombard us in our
daily lives. We apply names to things and classify them under specific linguistic
headings. Table, chair, dog, cat, springtime, joy... denote certain fixed categories,
or concepts, that help order our seemingly disordered environment. They are
labels used to qualify an ever changing world of perception. A rock may look like
a fairly stable entity, but does it look the same in moonlight as it does at noon?
These verbal tags merely classify like objects, and must be transcended to
meaning that are discrete in their usage. If each of the words that I have put
1 While there are certain differences in their usage, one being sound
oriented, the other sight oriented, both are governed by a similar set of rules. For
the purpose of this visually oriented discussion I will hereafter refer to both
systems under the general term "verbal language."
2 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, The Primacy of Perception, (Evanston:
they would cease to be useful for communication. When I write "gatar ghtyeed
another language, but quite simply you would not understand what it was that I
meaning for you, or me for that matter; they are simply combinations of letters, of
symbols from the English alphabet. I could replicate the same "sentence" with a
∂´®ß†´©å˜ø˜ ßπ´¥´˙å˙," and the result would be the same. There is a hierarchy of
correspond to certain sounds. Thus if I write, "a, b,c,d..." you are able to
distinguish one written letter from the next, and link it with its appropriate sound.
These letters are combined into words which are then combined to form
aspect of language, I can't help but wonder if a computer were asked to calculate
all the possible combinations of the English language based on all known words
possible combinations might be achieved. Words are stable units of meaning that
that eventually all possible associations will be reached. While this may appear to
visual and verbal expression. The fact that certain rules limit the process of
Francois Lyotard enumerated the conditions for verbal language to exist as a tool
for communication.
The first is that their rules do not carry within themselves their own
legitimation, but are the object of a contract, explicit or not, between
players (which is not to say that the players invent the rules).The
second is that If there are no rules there is no game, that even an
infinitesimal modification of one rule alters the nature of the game,
that a move or utterance that does not satisfy the rules does not
belong to the game they defined. The third remark is suggested by
what has just been said: every utterance should be thought of as a
move in a game.4
The principle that "If there are no rules there is no game," is crucial for
Based on the system of rules as defined by the culture that the language
Suppose, ignoring the laws of grammar, I create a sentence that states: "Books
tummy archway and thus record all emotive remaining." Can this be considered
one of the many choices for combination that Benveniste described? While each
word and each letter are drawn from the finite system of the English language,
them yields little meaning. They are discrete units of signification stranded in a
meaningless context.
each word may be considered a discrete unit of signification, every unit is related
to and builds on previous ones, and it is not until the entire sentence has been
temporal structure that demands that the relation between units be clearly
defined, it is the sequential nature of verbal expression that provides the crucial
distinction between language and vision. As Susanne Langer has written, "A
temporal order of words stands for a relational order of things."5 The field of
vision is distinguished by its relational form, the contiguity of all visible elements
For the moment, I will sum up the distinction between the two systems by
stating that words are sequential, i.e., they add up to meaning through time,
later point). While the interaction of the two systems assumes that all visual
experience can be labeled and broken down into its constituent elements, Rudolf
Arnheim has pointed out that "perceptual experience cannot be described as the
red lines, blue dots and a white field, but the simultaneous impact of the painting
painting rather than talk about it. This underlies the basic hermeneutic problem of
the relation of the parts to the whole. While the field of visual perception can be
broken down into its parts they individually do not add up to the whole.
analyzed sequentially, but the distinction between them is that vision can be
time. Granted, that as one's adeptness at reading increases the sense of moving
from one isolated point to the next is significantly diminished. Yet, despite the
speed at which the material is absorbed, a temporal process is still evident. While
it is true that certain words can take on various meanings depending upon their
fact that the word "present" can be used as an adjective, as in "she was present
in the room," or a noun, "I've received a Christmas present," the restricted choice
of definitions underscores the fact that context is important to the meaning of the
answered it," and expect to receive the same reaction if I used the word "rang"
instead. Due to the rules of combination and the discrete meaning attached to
communication that the visual plane does not. Words help categorize and name
concrete objects drawn from the world of perception. Words have the
discuss that which is not in view. I can describe a field of red flowers swaying in
the wind, and expect that if you understand what each word means, then
conjuring up this image is not so difficult. But, this description relies on the
never seen the color red? This interaction between the physical world and the
"When we're asked 'What do the words 'red,' 'blue,' 'black,' 'white' mean?' we
can, of course, immediately point to things which have these colors, - but our
ability to explain the meanings of these words goes no farther!"7 The two
can be replicated visually only if there is a link between the image and the word.
to represent abstract concepts that have been explored through language. Take,
8
for example, the symbol for infinity, . While embodying the abstract concept
asked to present these ideas in a visual way. While it is true that the results do
visually represent these ideas, I am not convinced that they are identifiable
Understanding the meaning of these images requires that I first discern what it is
they are trying to indicate. They may be abstract concepts represented visually,
but they are ultimately dependent on their connection to the system of language.
There is an interplay between the presence of the visual world and the
phenomenon is absent, the individual word is dependent upon the initial presence
of that phenomenon to establish its signifying power. Words can discuss absent
objects, but the verbal label must be linked to the visible or tangible material
world. What do "red," "blue," and "tree" mean? They are concepts dependent
J.J. Gibson, "A Theory of Pictorial Perception," Sign Image Symbol, ed.
8
two systems. While one excels at concrete percepts and the other at abstract
concepts, it is the fusion of the two that allows for perception and thought. But
"language is a very poor medium for expressing our emotional nature. It merely
names certain vaguely and crudely conceived states, but fails miserably in any
one of Langer's mentors, Ernst Cassirer, when he wrote that "Language is, by its
linguistically derived concepts, they are no substitute for the impact of the
9 Langer, 100-101.
10 Cassirer, 109.
9
familiar likenesses of some generic label or explanatory
abstraction.
Aldous Huxley - The Doors of Perception
Susanne Langer believes that all thinking begins with some form of sense
which function as labels, categories for sense perception, and it is the interaction
of these categories with perception that allows for cognition. The difficulty with
the correlation between the two is the tension created by the difference between
also possible to say that it abhors isolation? Just as nothing in the physical world
is in some visual relation to other elements (an action that is similar to the
colors, shapes and images. As Mitchell has pointed out, "The image is
unique reference or 'compliant.' Its meaning depends rather on its relations with
all other marks in a dense, continuous field."12 Language, however, has the
11 Langer, 266.
12 Mitchell, 67.
10
special capacity to embrace abstract concepts as well as describe elements that
are not immediately visible. Through language I can ask you to imagine an
entirely isolated element, like the example of the secluded, enduring monolith.
component in the process of visual perception as well as how the mind organizes
images, mental images, sound images, poetic images, etc... they all relate to the
dynamic process of "seeing," whether it be with the mind's eye, or the body's. In
his Ways of Seeing John Berger defines an image as "a sight which has been
been detached from the place and time in which it first made its appearance and
perceptions.
fully presented to perceptual sensory organs, and such utilization is a part of all
words, sounds, thoughts or by the medium of one of the many visual arts
manifested in the material world the nature of the image is predicated on the
interaction of thought and perception. As Aristotle wrote, "To the thinking soul
it avoids or pursues it. Hence, the soul never thinks without an image."15
elements. While I can perceive the overall visual pattern created by the image
concurrently, its composition relies on the relational aspect of its individual parts.
sequential. I can apprehend an impression from the image as a whole, and then
between sequential and relational elements is not quite captured in the process
its placement, it is impossible to glean the entire sentence all at once. There is a
apprehended by moving from one word to the next, and subsequently analyzed
as a coherent whole.
its use. By comparison objects and visual images appear to have an unlimited
properties of the image and that of the material object. Part of the difference is
to a three dimensional element. The object is present before me, I can see it, but
I can also pick it up or walk around it. The image, by virtue of its replicated
a painting, but I cannot hold the objects that it reproduces. The object is limited
by its physical presence, the image is not. While a coffee cup may be used as a
planter or goldfish bowl, its function is limited by its form. It is designed to contain
things, and though perhaps it may be used as a door stop or a bookend, it would
wake of the formal arrangement that the image presents. The theatre, as a
shares the strengths and weaknesses of both the object and the image. It is
possible to give objects new "meaning" through their use and combination with
other elements, but impossible to transcend their physical limitations. I may use a
a performance, a gift, a table, a cat, but I am limited by the form of the box. It
would be difficult, although not impossible, to use these same boxes to represent
images function quite well for the presentation of concrete information. Pictures
and models are good for representing objects, tools, mechanisms, organisms,
places, scenes and environments, whereas words are essential for learning
about properties, groups, classes, and universals.16 Though useful for concrete
impossible to express the thoughts contained in this work with images alone. It
constructed from percepts derived from his or her own individual experience.
The difficulty in dealing with mental images is that there is a large degree
for information, dissected into its individual parts, but it is in the reassembling of
these parts within the mind that the image as a whole may become indistinct.
While a mental image may enable me to recognize a friend's face through the
completely describe or draw an exact replica of his or her face. While I may be
able to envision the image of a tiger, I am not able to count its stripes.
of the visual world. As I view a painting I see it in its entirety, but scan it
sequentially, as I might pass over the face of my friend taking in the eyes, the
nose the mouth, etc... In this respect, perceiving visual images and constructing
visually apprehend the whole and then scan the individual parts, providing my
mind with more specific information. Verbally, however, regardless of the format
in which the information is presented, oral or written, or the speed with which I
am able to move through this information, I will always apprehend the parts
before the whole. While it may be argued that one cannot take in all of the
that of piecing together a jigsaw puzzle. I have the composite image presented
on the box and assemble it by conjoining the individual fragments. This locates
both the process of perception and mental imagery within the context of a
dynamic system, balanced by the interaction of the parts and the whole. But, as
the cognitive psychologist T.E. Richardson points out in his study of Mental
Imagery and Human Memory mental images come already interpreted and
were torn off of a picture.17 Although some elements may seem "fuzzy," like the
indistinct number of stripes on a tiger, while others may appear crystal clear, like
the eye or nose of a close friend, the image has a certain totality.
The distinctiveness of the nose or the eye, or the fact that the image of a
tiger is incomplete without stripes, can be explained by the tendency of the mind
to latch onto that which is most obvious. The tiger's stripes stand out because of
their visible contrast in coloration from the rest of the tiger. Likewise, the eye or
the nose is discerned from the rest of the face to provide a unique physical trait
fragments with the simultaneously apprehended whole. The human mind cuts up
the visual field into a mosaic of bits of information that are then reassembled
mentally.
In his cognitive study of brain disorders, The Man Who Mistook His Wife
past, Dr. P. was able to successfully identify only a few of the images. As Sacks
writes,
fragments, but unable to synthesize them into any type of coherent whole.
Through his questioning of the music teacher, Sacks came to the conclusion that
Dr. P. was able to recognize the jaw and the teeth, but not the entire image of his
image as a whole. Sacks also describes the sharp contrast between sound and
vision, as Dr. P.'s ability to recognize individuals by the sound of their voice had
not diminished. In this area his capacity for synthesis was still active; it was
In a postscript to the piece Sacks asks, "How should one interpret Dr. P.'s
relation to one another and to oneself."19 For some reason the mind of Dr. P. was
Oliver Sacks, The Man Who Mistook His Wife For a Hat, (New York:
18
representation E. H . Gombrich addresses in his essay "The mask and the face."
"We could not perceive and recognize our fellow creatures if we could not pick
out the essential and separate it from the accidental - in whatever language we
may want to formulate this distinction"20 Dr. P. was able to perceive things
visually, but not draw the distinction between the essential and the accidental.
Like you, I too have tried with all my might not to forget. Like
you, I forgot. Like you I wanted to have an inconsolable
memory, a memory of shadows and stone. For my part, I
struggled with all my might, everyday, against the horror of
no longer understanding at all the reason for remembering.
Like you I forgot . . . Why deny the obvious necessity for
memory? . . .
Marguerite Duras - Hiroshima Mon Amour
language. It is within this area that the distinction between the processing of
words and images becomes more apparent. Though there are certain
distinct from perceiving, imaging, or even from constructive thinking, but it has
20E. H. Gombrich, "The mask and the face," Art, Perception and Reality,
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970), 3.
17
intimate relations with them all."21 Memory, like the organization of the visual
number of inert metaphors that have been used to describe it. Although Aristotle
the sensory imprint left behind by the signet ring of perception, but the ephemeral
residue remaining after the initial perception has faded. One does not access
Human memory is quirky and fallible and reflects the dynamic, at times
suggested, the process of recollection is indeed a malleable one. "We fill in gaps
in our memory using chains of events that are logically acceptable," thus, in
21 Bartlett, 13.
22 A New Aristotle Reader, 174.
23 Ibid., 207.
18
essence, creating a new memory.24 Loftus's contribution to the field of memory
research has had a significant impact on witness testimony in criminal cases. Her
are combined with after the fact information, thereby altering the original memory.
While witnesses at the scene of a crime may believe that they remember exactly
Loftus's work places into question one of the overriding metaphors used to
convinced that computers, though created by the mind of a human, have the
ability to record and access information more precisely than the human mind.
One of the many strengths of the computer is denoted by its name, the
an organic entity that is caught in the ever changing flux of the material world, but
elements of human memory I am compelled to ask, "when was the last time that
a computer had a song stuck in its head?" The computer was designed to
human memory since it relies on a system that does not address the
psychologist Allan Paivio has described what he calls the duel coding theory. His
approach is that " images and verbal processes are viewed as alternative coding
systems exist for the storage and processing of nonverbal and verbal
information. As Paivio has stated, this hypothesis "assumes that the imaginal and
verbal processes are differentially available as memory codes for abstract words,
concrete words, and pictures. The image code increases in availability uniformly
over the three levels, whereas the verbal code is highly available as a
at large, offers insight into the processing of both verbal and visual information.
activity, Paivio examines the areas in which these distinct systems of storage and
25Richardson, 13-14.
26 Allen Pavio, Imagery and Verbal Process, (New York: Holt, Rinehardt
As the legend goes, he was present at a banquet when asked to step out
of the room only moments before the roof collapsed, crushing everyone else to
position in which everyone had been sitting prior to the collapse of the roof,
combining the sequential and spatial aspects of visual memory. Realizing that the
Simonides developed the art of artificial memory. While the guiding principles for
this activity grew hand in hand with the art of rhetoric to become more and more
"loci," much like the arrangement of seats at a table. These loci form a
sequential, spatial set of mental "hooks" onto which information that must be
remembered can be placed. All the recaller need do is mentally stroll amongst
the loci to recall the speech, the list, the information that has previously been
independent of one another, but nevertheless parallel. These mental actions may
function serially or at the same time, but unlike the spatial contiguity of vision,
each element in the system is not dependent on the other elements.28 It is this
27For further discussion of artificial memory see Frances A. Yates, The Art
of Memory, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1966).
28 Paivio, 34.
21
description of simultaneity in his 1920 essay "En Avant Dada: A History of
Dadaism."
functions of the separate storage medium for visual and verbal memory. Refuting
the theory that all memory is primarily linguistic in origin, cognitive psychologist
Ulric Neisser has pointed out the fact that animals and young children can learn
an active physical object, both muscle memory and spatial memory can exist
process indicates that there must be some form of non-verbal storage medium.
Cognitive research on human memory has isolated the regions of short term and
long term memory as well as iconic (visual) and echoic (sound) storage
shown in this diagram taken from Gregory and Elizabeth Loftus's Human
Memory.
Long-term Store
appears to be the area in which Oliver Sacks' patient Dr. P. had some sort of
of sensory store whether iconic or echoic and then, after being tested against
31Included in this division of storage media are also odor and tactile
senses, but in light of this discussion I will focus only on the visually and aurally
derived.
32 Gregory and Elizabeth Loftus, Human Memory, (Hillsdale, New Jersey:
short term memory is only about five to seven items,33 which indicates that a
great deal of the information that floods the iconic and echoic stores is lost in the
transference from one storage medium to another (this is perhaps why the most
disappear). As the fragments of information that pass through iconic and echoic
stores are scanned for pattern recognition, they are judged against previously
formed concepts in short term memory, as in the recognition of a single face, and
memory; i.e., data about all faces in general. It is this dynamic process that is
A
(info: physical Pattern Info about concept
pattern from environment) A Recognition of an "A"
program
Short-term store
Sensory store (info still
in spatial, or physical
representation)
Info about all
possible concepts
Long-term store
Beyond the interaction of echoic and iconic stores with short term and long
memory" fits into this structure. This is a process called eidetic memory in which
the mind so accurately records visual or aural information that the perceiver can
recall even the tiniest, most seemingly insignificant details with the utmost clarity.
Certain studies have shown that the specificity of this type of memory, as well as
who are more attuned to the visual world retain a greater amount of visual
information, and the same is true for those focused on verbal language. In his
short story "Funes the Memorius" Jorge Luis Borges captures the extent to which
an eidetic memory can be both a blessing and a curse. Funes's capacity for
We, at one glance, can perceive three glasses on the table; Funes,
all the leaves and tendrils and fruit that make up a grape vine. He
knew by heart the forms of the southern clouds at dawn on the 30th
of April, 1882, and could compare them in his memory with the
mottled streaks on a book in Spanish binding he had only seen once
and with the outlines of the foam raised by an oar in the Rio Negro
the night before the Quebracho uprising.34
Indeed, his powers of perception and memory are so advanced that on the two or
once in his observations, "but each reconstruction had required a whole day."35
language and vision by Emile Benveniste, his belief was that "We do not grasp
language that labels and concepts are applied to the whole of visual experience,
viewing this process as it affects and is affected by memory, Bartlett attests, "the
name, as soon as it is assigned, immediately shapes both what is seen and what
a visual experience drawn from the temporal and ever changing world. As Borges
describes:
Relying on his incredibly precise visual memory, Funes lived in the world of
images, of the concrete, and was unable to wholly function in the world of the
abstract. He simply did not have enough words to categorize and record the
Simonides, Allan Paivio states that "Objects and pictures are better remembered
than concrete nouns, which in turn are superior to abstract nouns... [however]
pictures are in fact inferior to words in sequential memory tasks under conditions
37 Bartlett, 20.
38 Borges, 65.
26
where verbal labels of the pictures are not readily available to the subject."39 This
percept and concept theory. Though they have independent features, they must
interdependent nature does not address the problem of why images are more
easily recalled than words. This discrepancy between the two systems may be
information is stored both visually and verbally (that is with a linguistic label
On the other hand, the process of information storage may work hand in
hand with the process of reception in determining why images are more readily
sequential fashion as it unfolds through time, then the whole is never completely
grasped. It is only through the rehearsal process of the echoic store that a
simultaneously and sequentially as the whole is perceived and then scanned for
individual parts. A denser amount of information floods the iconic store indicating
that visual information, composed of both the whole and the fragments, provides
entails a prior image affecting the reception of a present one through a temporal
structure that unfolds like a language. Each word in the sentence is judged
against what has come before it, and conditions what comes after it. The
39 Paivio, 178.
40 Ibid., 137.
27
interaction of short term memory and echoic storage ensures that by the end of a
sentence the beginning has not been forgotten. As someone listens to or reads a
as back. The interaction of visual imagery functions in the same manner. It is this
memory that was the basis of Russian film maker Sergei Eisenstein's concept of
montage. For Eisenstein montage existed as "a collision. A view that from the
collision of two given factors arises a concept."41 The moment after the viewer
receives and processes one image, another appears conditioning the reception
of the first. As Eisenstein describes in relation to his most discussed film The
Battleship Potemkin :
41 Sergei Eisenstein, Film Form, (New York: Meridian Books Inc., 1949),
37.
42 Ibid., 56.
28
Montage, then, is not the mere sequential arrangement of discrete visual units,
writes, "memory can take things out of their context and show them in
isolation."43 It is this removal from the original context that makes the concept of
the visual plane depends upon taking in the full scope of the information
presented while simultaneously scanning the horizon for more specific bits of
data. The bits depend on the whole and the whole on the bits; if something is
removed or forgotten then the entire structure is affected. With visual mental
visual sphere. As Ulric Neisser points out, the act of visual perception is a
constructive one, much like the artistic principles of cubism, in which multiple
perception in the respect that prior images are woven together with present
ones. New relationships are formed, and new contexts are devised.
classification of sense material, but the limited system of language implies that
William James captured this convergence of concepts and percepts with his
memory it was made apparent that as sense experience is classified, stored, and
retrieved, certain elements are simply filtered out. One of the most celebrated
terms used to discuss this process is schema or schemata. As Bartlett defines it,
44 Neisser, 140.
45 In the Peirce statement above the same idea is captured in his
philosophy of the perceivable world. "We can only think the world because we
have already experienced it; it is through this experience that we have the idea of
being, and it is through this experience that the words "rational" and "real" receive
the field of perception and used to organize and filter the expanse of these sense
impressions. As E.H. Gombrich points out, "All culture and all communication
depend on the interplay between expectation and observation ... it is one of the
reference that allows him to take the mental temperature around him with
assurance."48
what has been experienced in the past operates on a number of distinct levels.
These "habits" of looking at or experiencing the world in a specific way are not
necessarily innate to the human mind, but acquired through living in and
interacting with the world. The curious thing about learned elements is that they
are not perpetually inert, but, like the units of linguistic communication, they are
experience. This process is fixed, but alterable as new information is merged with
old to provide new experiences, new avenues of thought. But as James posits,
47 Merleau-Ponty, 17.
48 E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion, (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1960), 60.
31
conceive of a thing we define it; and if we still don't understand we define our
psychologist Erving Goffman puts forward in terms of his frame analysis. "I
organization which govern events - - at least social ones - - and our subjective
involvement in them; frame is the word I use to refer to such of these basic
the vast spectrum of sense-perception the receiver must have a stock of fixed
ways of perceiving.
down in the end, I think, to talk of such sets of labels."51 It is this statement that
As James rightly points out, the mediation between the two is necessary for
starting point, some initial schema, we could never get hold of the flux of
experience. Without categories we could not sort out impressions."52 The danger
in ignoring these learned ways of seeing is that they can be mistaken for the only
"natural" way of looking at the world. Most schema are derived from personal
49 James, 82-3.
50 Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis, (Boston: Northeastern University
world that are conditioned by education, media, language and a variety of other
material world, I would like to build on a comparison that Ernst Cassirer draws in
his Essay on Man: "Language and science depend upon one and the same
concretion."53 Both scientific analysis and the system of language share a great
language and physical isolation I can juxtapose two discrete items such as black
and white, on and off, one and zero. In reality, however, what is black without
white, or the concept of on without off? The binary crumbles in the wake of the
via the relationship of one to the other that they exist and take on meaning in the
province of language.
exist as linguistic concepts used to filter out information derived from percepts.
This is the basis for Thomas Khun's observation about shifting paradigms. At any
given time one paradigm may be dominant in relation to others. Though one way
of perceiving the world may take precedence, this does not rule out alternate
shifting system, alterable through new discoveries, new concepts derived from
53 Cassirer, 143.
33
the physical world. Like linguistic communication, through which we are able to
to the established truths that preceded him, Albert Einstein conceived of his
thought which continues to change and expand as we learn more about the
than the interaction of past, present and future. Extending this idea to a
and all others excluded. A statement's truth-value is the criteria of determining its
that allows this dynamic system to function. As a stable dynamic system, the
akin to the process of vision. Both are relational and interactive, dependent upon
54 Lyotard, 18.
55 Ibid., 25.
34
philosophical discourse, Truth and Method. His belief is that "The recognition that
problem its real thrust. ... Actually 'prejudice' means a judgment that is rendered
before all the elements that determine a situation have been finally examined."56
This is the interaction of the schematic memory with the immediate perception,
the concept with the percept. "The horizon of the present can not be formed
without the past... Rather, understanding is always the fusion of these horizons
in the interaction of language and vision. There is a central point at which the two
elements fuse, allowing the process of thought to transpire, as old categories are
Arthur Koestler indicates in his analysis of the artistic creative process, The Act
of Creation "An apple looks different to Picasso and to the greengrocer because
their visual matrices are different."58 The two must reach some point of
interaction if we are to believe that they can communicate at all. There must be a
he does not recognize (it may be a familiar object , but in an unusual position or
lighting); the lack of recognition perhaps lasts only a few seconds. Is it correct to
58 Koestler, 43.
35
say he has a different visual experience from someone who knew the object at
once?"59 This question foregrounds the process of schema and memory as they
address the same problem that Dr. P. had in synthesizing and distinguishing the
This type of shifting perception has been dealt with by both Wittgenstein
and Gombrich, among others, with the example of the image of the Duck/Rabbit.
labels to categorize a shifting visual experience, and each time he calls another
is possible to conceive that the triangle can represent each of these things
mediation of language. Through language I can comprehend that this triangle can
be many things at once, however, simply observing it, I cannot actually see it as
the linguistic filter is best observed in cases where the mind is unable to process
information in the standard way. The example of Dr. P. offers wonderful insight
into the synthesis of visual fragments as they relate to stored memory. Studying
the effects that autism and aphasia have on the functions of the brain in relation
Mind, and Brain the independent functions of language and vision. The
conclusions that he draws from his study of aphasia indicate that verbal language
continue to create significant works of art after their language powers have been
seriously disturbed; indeed more than one researcher has claimed that visual
from the logical restraints of the sequential activity of language, and functionally
indicate, there are a variety of ways to organize the experiences derived from the
61 Howard Gardner, Art, Mind and Brain, (New York: Basic Books, Inc.
Publishers, 1982), 295-6.
62 Ibid., 274.
63 Paivio, 38.
37
While the systems of language and vision are structurally different,
The mind is conditioned to view the world in a specific manner, and it is merely a
matter of becoming aware that it is possible to see things differently that changes
become interested in purchasing a particular type of car, I suddenly see that car
everywhere, the same is true for a book or specific recording. Certainly some of
this can be attributed to the impact of the media; after all, it is advertising's goal
to force me to notice these things, but beyond this, the activity of perception is
conditioned by what schemata I use to view the world, what frame I place around
my experience.
central to Bertolt Brecht's work in the theatre. The key to his concept of the
breaking up his pieces with placards, songs and narration, Brecht altered the
was not concerned with presenting a seamlessly woven narrative, but about
showing the choices both the actors and the characters make as the plot moves
38
from moment to moment. This approach allows the audience to see that the
events and their consequences are not unalterably locked into an inflexible
Brecht's The Caucasian Chalk Circle when the former palace servant Grusha,
fleeing from the palace guards with the abandoned royal baby, teeters over a two
thousand foot drop on a shaky wooden bridge. She is confronted with the option
of risking death by crossing the bridge, or remaining on the same side of the
ravine and risking capture by the guards. A simple metaphorical example, but
Brecht's work is filled with this type of crossroad. This mediation between one
alternative and another was also extended to the craft of acting in which the actor
was to be clearly separable from the character. Not only do we witness the
choices made through the movement of the plot, but in the construction of the
production.
"rough" form of theatre in which all the seams remained visible. Encountering
both the live actor and the intangible character, the spectator is able to see the
choices as they are made and trace the consequences as they are played out.
Brecht created a unified theatrical system built on the fact that the individual parts
could be discerned from the composite whole. As Brook points out in relation to
holding something up to the light, making us look again."64 By holding the fusion
of dramatic elements at bay, Brecht was successful in offering the spectator the
ability to witness the possibility of change, to alter the way in which the world is
perceived.
64 Peter Brook, The Empty Space, (New York: Atheneum, 1968), 71.
39
The Semiotics of Logocentricism:
analyzing the characteristics of sign systems and the laws that constitute them,
this discipline rests at the intersection of language and the visual plane. By
addressing not just individual words and images, but the culturally determined
spoken and written language as the primary interpretive system. Building on the
of semiotics has been drawn from the field of linguistics. As Kaja Silverman
signifying system par excellence, and that it is only by means of linguistic signs
language as the primary interpretive system for all other sign systems
linguistic terms, formulating an model that demands that every semiotic system
based on signs include: a finite repertory of signs and specific rules governing
these signs; further, these finite elements must exist independently of the nature
flags in which each flag has its own discrete meaning, the combinations of which
Deleuze states:
Can a "language of the visual" that exists as a dynamic perceptual operation not
only be conceived of, but used to discuss architecture, painting, sculpture, film
and theatre?
compile a series of definitions of some of the key semiotic terms. At the center of
this discussion is the "sign." Defined by Peirce a sign is "something which stands
that is creates in the mind of that person an equivalent sign, or perhaps a more
developed sign."68 In verbal language, signs are the discrete elements that, either
individual to another. This description implies a fixed structure, one in which each
sign has a specific meaning within a specific group or culture. As Saussure points
perfectly only within a collectivity."69 Yet, as Peirce's definition implies, beyond all
else a sign is something which is used to communicate between one person and
another. Though words as signs are caught within a defined system of cultural
its existence? One that has no stable meaning, but is able to communicate by
"combination of a concept and a sound image."70 One exists externally from the
He classified the concept as the signified and the sound-image as the signifier.
They are inextricably linked, as the two sides of a sheet of paper are: cut one
side and you affect the other. So for Saussure a sign can only be that which is
the complete make up of both signifier and signified, a specific sound or image
that rouses a specific concept. Eliminate one or the other and the sign does not
nature of the sign. Since the link between the signifier and the signified is caught
within the workings of a social structure, there is a bond between the two by
sound or written equivalent of the word "tree" relates to the mental concept of a
tree. But, the completed sign, the agreed upon link between signifier and
drawing of a tree represents the mental concept of the tree not by any social
Filtering his study of signs through the medium of spoken and written
language, Saussure's system deals specifically with the problem of static and
dynamic categories. He divided his theory into the synchronic, "everything that
relates to the static side of our science,"71 and the diachronic, "everything that
felt that "The multiplicity of signs, which we have already used to explain the
relations in time and relations within the system."73 One must either proceed
71 Ibid., 81.
72 Ibid.
73 Ibid.
43
motion. While it is possible to theoretically isolate signs from their context and
stable and the changing, it is impossible to look at its constituent elements and
not take into account how they function relationally within a sentence. This
incorporate what Peirce called the interpretant . There is the sign, which he terms
the representamen; the object to which that sign refers; and the interpretant, the
sign that is created within the mind of the receiver. Whereas Saussure's system
established a one to one correlation between the signifier and the signified,
that offers the possibility that the sign used in communication may not have
exactly the same meaning to the receiver as it did to the initiator of the message.
signs that would operate like "a storehouse filled by the members of a given
community,"74 whereas Peirce's system allows for interaction with the dynamism
74 Ibid., 13.
44
Within his classification of the term sign, Peirce analyzed three specific
types of signs: icons, indexes and symbols, each complete with its own specific
communicative properties. An icon "is a sign which refers to the object that it
denotes merely by virtue of characters of its own, and which it possesses, just
the same, whether any such object actually exists or not."75 An image of a
unicorn denotes that creature despite its mythical existence because it looks like
what a unicorn is thought to look like. The icon has a physical resemblance to the
each other the nature of the icon. Pierce's evaluation of this specific type of sign
is crucial for developing a methodology to examine the visual world. For Pierce,
the icon is the most concrete form of the sign. "The only way of directly
communicating an idea must depend for its establishment upon the use of an
icon. Hence, every assertion must contain an icon or set of icons, or else must
contain signs whose meaning is only explicable by icons."76 Drawn from the
An index "is a sign which refers to the object that it denotes by virtue of
being really affected by that object."77 The index is dependent upon the object for
lightning bolt as indexes since they rely on a connection between two segments
of an experience. The rap is a sign that someone is at the door, while the
lightning bolt is indicative of a storm. The difficulty with this type of classification
is that there exists a whole range of interpretations dependent upon the natural or
75 Peirce, 8.
76 Ibid., 10.
77 Ibid., 8.
45
artificial nature of the sign. As Langer explains, a wet street can be taken for a
natural index that it has rained, or it may be an artificial sign, indicating that a
sprinkler system was set off.78 According to Peirce, the index is dependent upon
The most complex of all of Peirce's sign categories is the symbol. For
Peirce, "a symbol is a sign which refers to the object that it denotes by virtue of a
law, usually an association of general ideas, which operates to cause the symbol
arbitrarily connected signifier and signified fall. According to Peirce, "All words,
system of symbols that are defined by the culturally specific meaning attached to
Whereas the sign at the level of the icon has a concrete relation to the object, the
classifications of the term sign, symbols are denoted by their abstract quality in
78 Langer, 59-60.
79 Peirce, 8.
80 Ibid., 16.
81 Cassirer, 32.
46
the representation of ideas, while icons embody concrete objects. In this respect
all of Saussure's signs are Peircean symbols, as they are conditioned not by a
concrete resemblance, but by a social situation that links an external signifier with
an internal signified.
iconic in the sense that they physically represent what they signify, these same
images can also be raised to the level of the symbol. Visual symbols are icons
that have been coupled with a specific meaning independent of their physical
as a whole with a specific abstract idea. As Howard Gardner points out in relation
to Langer's work, "pictorial symbols do not yield meaning through the sum of their
parts, for there are no reliably discriminate parts. They present themselves and
message."82
Examine the image of the cross, the symbol for Christianity. As an icon the
symbolic nature of the image stands for the teachings, stories, and events that
built up over time through the connection of the icon to a specific set of ideas.
The curious thing about this process is that, as Gardner stated, the symbol yields
meaning through connotation and emotional content. When I see the image of a
teachings that comprise the Christian faith to comprehend what the cross is
intended to signify. As Yi-Fu Tuan describes in his Space and Place, "The
82 Gardner, 51.
47
symbol is direct and does not require linguistic mediation. An object becomes a
symbol when its own nature is so clear and so profoundly exposed that while
occurs over the temporal structure of a sentence. Symbolic images, while sharing
the capacity for discrete meaning similar to words, have the potential to be
true that words function as symbols because they are discrete units of
83 Tuan, 114.
84 Paivio, 434.
85 Goodman, 226.
48
using a traditionally linguistic based analysis like semiotics to discuss the process
of visual perception. Quite simply verbal language and visual images are two
separate signifying systems, each complete with its own logical structure. What
has become apparent throughout the course of my research is that the structure
projections of reality that adorn the walls of his imaginary cave might be, the
philosopher's ascent from the phenomenological world to the realm of the mind is
of human thought moving from shadow into light, he poses the question: "Then,
my dear Glaucon, what study could draw the soul from the world of becoming to
the world of being?"86 Ultimately Plato finds salvation in the study of arithmetic,
to "reason" conditioned by the distinction between black and white, true and
false. Evaluating the composition of the human mind and the scope of sense-
perception Plato wrote, "You see then my friend, that really this seems to be the
study we need, since it clearly compels the soul to use pure reason in order to
With the assumption that "the truth" is located in the conceptually driven
system of "pure reason," Plato is wary of information derived from the perception
Rouse (New York: A Mentor Book from New American Library, 1956), 320.
87 Ibid., 325.
49
of the physical world. Is the "truth" of a painting, photograph or sculpture to be
found in the logical structure of arithmetic or verbal language? Can the same
rules that govern words and numbers be extended to contain the multitudinous
Lacan's semiotic analysis of the mind. Lacan believed that "the unconscious is
experiences that may be related only to social needs are inscribed in it,
something organizes this field, inscribes its initial lines of force."89 While the
previous discussion of schema and the process of memory indicate that there is
pervades most semiotic analysis, yet what escapes the boundaries of this word
oriented dominion is that language is but one way of structuring the phenomena
In the conclusion to his study of Mental Imagery in the Child, Jean Piaget
asserts that "there are two fundamental reasons why the collective sign system,
or language, does not fulfill the requirements of this semiotic function, and why it
as Aristotle did, that the use of imagery is an integral component to the process
of thought, Piaget locates the first reason in the fact that language is a social
concretize words within the mind of the individual. His second reason resides in
field compromises everything perceived in the ongoing present, but also and
recalled through memory. Pointing out that it is not the superiority of language
that enables this process, but the interaction of language and images, he
concludes by stating that "It is clear, therefore, that if one wishes to evoke in
90 Jean Piaget and Barbel Inhelder, Mental Imagery in the Child: A Study
of the Development of Imaginal Representation, (New York: Basic Books Inc.,
Publishers, 1971), 380.
91 Ibid.
92 Ibid., 381.
51
semiotic system, focused on the minimal units of communication, the same
cannot be said for the Peircean analysis, directed toward the minimal
language. Though "Peirce considered semiotic and logic, in the broad sense, to
nature of mental operations but upon the logicality of nature - that is, upon a
with a form of logic that was tied to linguistic categories, to prejudices, and
thinking with the dynamic organization of natural phenomena. His interest in the
logical quality of the reality external to the human mind (that is the perceptual
world as opposed to the conceptual world) exposes his semiotic system to the
changeable, set of rules, the field of vision composes itself by its own internal
visually oriented world of dreams. "We often think that something is presented to
which we feel was not in the dream itself."95 Implemented by the unconscious in
the form of dreams, images are more adept at expressing emotional content,
while words, located within the domain of the conscious mind, excel at rational
must point out that this division between emotion and rationality is not as
uncomplicated as this statement suggests. Language and vision are distinct
systems complete with their own strengths and weaknesses. This is not to state
that they are entirely independent from each other. As the previous discussion of
concepts and percepts, memory, and schema indicated, they are systems
founded upon different principles that must work interactively to facilitate
perception and cognition. What may appear to be an inflexible binary is in
actuality a process in which all elements are active simultaneously.
53
to the unconscious because the material from which they are
produced is retained in the subliminal state in precisely this
fashion.97
It is this observation that captures what Akhter Ashen, the current editor of
dreams. The two patterns do not uncompromisingly agree with each other since
they are based on completely different logical orders: the stable order of
language imposed from without, and the dynamic, relational order of images
contained within the arrangement of the dream. As Ashen points out, "against the
simplistic linear Aristotelian logic, the general thrust of modern logic is diversified
and dynamic and cognizant of the fact that meaning, whether in waking cognition
methodological devices."99
Sigmund Freud was conscious of the logical dichotomy between the waking and
sleeping state. He believed that "falling asleep at once involves the loss of one of
our mental activities, namely our power of giving intentional guidance to the
100 Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, (New York: Avon Books,
1965), 87.
54
spatially parallel logic of visual experience. As Freud observed, "Dreams are
disconnected, they accept the most violent contradictions without the least
great weight with us in the daytime."101 Freud's entire system of dream analysis
composition of the dream and its formalized discussion and interpretation by the
Theory,"
but a single picture, albeit a complex one; and the information it contains
101 Ibid.
102 Benveniste, Problems, 74.
55
implicitly may be discovered in the representation without involving derivation in
the sense of logical inference."103 Discussing a similar idea in his Freudian based
semiotic analysis of film theory, The Imaginary Signifier, Christian Metz points
out:
It is true that the image can organize itself - and that it usually does
so, in the cinema as elsewhere, caught as it is in the constraints of
communication and the pressures of culture - in figures as 'bound',
as secondary as those of language ( and which classical
semiology, based on linguistics, is in a good position to grasp). But
it is also true, as Lyotard has rightly insisted, that the image resists
being swallowed up whole in these logical assemblages."104
language and images, neither should be assumed to be dominant over the other.
remember that the visual icon is not completely swallowed up by the logical
the image and a specific cultural meaning, but as an icon it is conditioned by the
present a cross complete with four wheels and dashboard, a dream may use a
103 Mark Rollins, Mental Imagery, (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1989), 20.
104 Christian Metz, The Imaginary Signifier, (Bloomington: The Indiana
presented within specific cultural frames that reads it as a symbol for the
Christian faith, regardless of what visual elements condition the icon, its symbolic
nature will bleed through. The icon and the symbol, the structure of the visual and
simultaneously.
It is the tension between these two structures that André Breton was
Breton and his fellow Surrealists were striving for was freedom from the
A burst of laughter
of sapphire in the island of Ceylon
On an isolated farm
from day to day
the pleasant
misnomer.
106 André Breton, "What is Surrealism," What is Surrealism ed. Franklin
Both the spatial composition of this Surrealist photograph and the arrangement of
words in this Surrealist poem proceed through the juxtaposition and interaction of
images free from the constraints of formal logical principles. Like dream logic
they follow their own intrinsic logical structure not dominated by categories
imposed by an external frame of meaning. In one respect it can be said that both
are composed of discrete units of signification, of words, icons, and symbols that
are caught within the structure of language. However, it is not the individual
components, the word "faded," or the image of the chair, in synchronic isolation
that are of concern, but their diachronic interaction with the other elements of the
Barthes' semiotic analysis stands out from the logocentrism of other semioticians
by virtue of his discussion of visual material and his obsession with both filmic
imperative than writing, they impose meaning at one stroke, without analyzing or
diluting it."108 His focus on the interaction of language and images caused him to
augment this statement by writing that " this is no longer a constitutive difference.
Pictures become a kind of writing as soon as they are meaningful."109 That is, as
110.
109 Ibid.
58
act of linguistic interpretation. Yet Barthes could sense that behind these ocular
and never actually grasped by words alone. His strength as a semiotician is his
his discussion of the work of Sergei Eisenstein. As the result of the interaction of
visual elements a supplemental meaning is created that can be talked about and
around, but never fully contained by language. What Barthes alternately refers to
explained that this meaning is "a signifier without a signified, hence the difficulty
in naming it."110 Despite the fact that Barthes could dissect each Eisenstein still
into discrete visual signs, complete with signifier and signified, "the funny
headdress, the old woman, the squinting eyes, the fish,"111 he discovered that
something was present in the combination of these particular images that created
something extra-linguistic, indicated by, but never actually captured within the
110 Roland Barthes, Image Music Text, (New York: The Noonday Press,
1977), 61.
111 Ibid., 57.
language.
lengths to discuss the denotative and connotative properties of the visual sign. He
finds that the denoted message of the Panzani advertisement that he dissects is
that which is supported by and complements the text.113 In this photo ad, there is
a one to one correlation between the signifying properties of the image and the
written word.
condensed
components as "Italian" at
the denotative level that they are able to fuse Figure 10: Panzani Advertisement.
"Italianicity."
It is this same process that Umberto Eco focuses on when discussing the
structural elements, Eco places denotation at the functional level stating that "the
ideas, both Barthes and Eco illuminate the first and second orders of signification
signifier is empty, the sign is full."118 Using the example of a black pebble he
elaborates on the manipulability of the visual object by pointing out the possibility
of making the pebble signify several different things. In Barthes' discussion the
pebble is not a completed sign, but "a mere signifier."119 It is only through the
119 Ibid.
61
process of linking this visual signifier with a specific signified, as in allowing it to
examining the role that this now completed sign could play in the construction of
a second order signifying system, or as he put it, "systems which build on already
Signifier Signified
Sign
Signifier Signified
Sign
This is this same type of semiotic convergence that he captures in his discussion
of the Eisenstein stills. Incorporating the concepts of montage, backward
masking, and the third meaning, the diagram presents a dynamic structure in
Denotative Denotative
Signifier Signified
Denotative Sign Connotative
Connotative Signifier Signified
Connotative Sign
Though appearing to deal only with the sequential movement from one level to
the next, both diagrams emphasize the role that memory plays in the process of
of signifier and signified combined with other completed signs to create new
the fusion of elements within the relational field of vision may appear to transpire
third meaning can only exist after the visual information has been processed at
the level of denotation. Images are grasped and processed by the functional
qualities of language, stored in memory and then assessed as they relate to each
is dependent upon the spatially parallel system of visual memory combined with
the operationally parallel linguistic order. While this interaction between language
information, the end result moves beyond the confines of descriptive denotation.
As can be seen in Barthes' analysis of the individual elements that comprise the
still photo from Eisenstein's film, it is the convergence of distinct visual signs at
the denotative level that allows for the subsequent connotative structure to exist.
theatrical presentation.
A great deal of the work performed in the field of theatre semiotics has
in front of a live audience, the relationship between the actor and the audience
has been the cornerstone of this discussion. From this viewpoint a semiotics
based on the functional qualities of verbal language has been adopted to analyze
the agency of the actor through the text. Though realizing that the theatre is a
approach of the Prague school by stating that "all other components of the
theatrical structure are more or less predetermined by the sound and semantic
qualities of the text."122 This appeal to language as the principal element is not,
general. What this attention to the function of the text through the actor does is to
read solely within the confines of the text, that is, as they are conditioned by
verbal language.
initiate analysis by focusing on the intrinsic logic of the piece as structured by the
visual world of the performance and then move back toward the signifying
studies devoted to the semiotics of the theatre123 reveals little attention to the
121 Jirí Veltrusky, "The Prague School Theory of Theatre," Poetics Today,
(Vol. 2:3, 1981), 228.
122 Ibid., 227-8.
references cited above begin the discussion with the actor and the written script.
While Patrice Pavis has done some wonderful work in terms of analyzing the
mise en scène, Andre Helbo touches on the semiology of the image through
Barthes' work, and Elaine Aston and George Savona include a chapter on
"reading the image," the controlling semiotic base is drawn from the realm of
chart, these studies focus on only five of the thirteen sign systems that Kowzan
illustrated in "The Sign in the Theatre."124 His logocentric approach leaves the
elements of make-up, hair, costume, accessory, decor, lighting, music and sound
word.
separate logical structures, the two work, as they do in memory and perception,
jointly to facilitate communication. Language supports the visual and the visual
supports language. In dealing with the "conventional theatre," that which grounds
Esslin, The Field of Drama, (London/New York: Methuen, 1987), Erika Fischer-
Lichte, The Semiotics of Theatre, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992),
Andre Helbo, Theory of Performing Arts, (Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John
Benjamins Publishing Co., 1987), Patrice Pavis, Languages of the Stage, (New
York: The Performing Arts Journal, 1982), Herta Schmid and Aloysius van
Kesteren, eds., Semiotics of Drama and Theatre, (Amsterdam/Philadelphia: J.
Benjamins Publishing Company, 1984).
124 Tadeusz Kowzan, "The Sign in the Theatre," Diogenes, (#61, 1968),
52-80.
65
text, a semiotic system devoted to the function of spoken or written language is
wholly appropriate. The problem that arises is that this same system is
analyze a performance created by someone like Robert Wilson, who does not
begin with a text but claims, "I work out of intuition. Somehow it seems right...The
work mostly has some architectural reasons. This one's here because that one's
there,"125 with the same set of language based tools used to approach Shaw or
Shakespeare?
only after a spatial, visual framework has been established. If one grounds the
analysis of this theatre in the word, the dynamic process of visual expression is
theatre that is profoundly visual is to echo John Cage's feeling that "talking about
music is like dancing about architecture." You can express some of the content,
but by and large you will miss the point. Even a quick glimpse at the "scripts" by
Images, reveals that such works rely more on description than dialogue.
Ultimately it is this factor that distinguishes the theatre of images from more
painting, sculpture, dance, and music, than it does to the verbal arts, any
expression.
adequate for analyzing elements that are presented on stage as signs of reality,
that is, as mimetic components used to reflect the life of the spectator. It is this
type of theatrical activity that Peter Handke illuminated in his interview with Arthur
idea behind his stage work, Handke stated that he was attempting to "make
people aware of the world of the theatre - not the outside world."127 He sought to
the static categories of verbal language. Handke strove to push the theatre to its
their own theatrical world. As signifiers, Handke's props, characters and dialogue
are not mimetic in the sense that they signify something outside the boundaries
is predicated on the action of reflecting the world that exists outside the
boundaries of theatrical space. Embodied in the old adage, "a willful suspension
of disbelief," the mimetic theatre depends upon the spectator accepting the
theatre seats we allow our imaginations to expand, only half believing that we are
watching these actions as they transpire for the first time. All of the elements on
Handke," The Drama Review. (Vol. 15, #1. Fall 1970), 56-61.
127 Ibid., 57.
67
stage used to create this type of spectacle function as concrete iconic signs of
themselves, but more importantly they exist as mimetic signs of reality. They are
Peircean indexes pointing to elements contained in the world outside the doors of
perception in which all elements are conditioned by their spatial contiguity, is not
completely determined by its mimetic qualities. It does not mirror the reality
beyond the doors of the theatre, but, through the temporal interaction of all of its
differentiation between the original object and its replication. Examining the
debate between Platonic and Aristotelian philosophical positions, we can see that
determined concepts and sense derived percepts. This argument about the
be traced back to Plato's Republic. For Plato all earthly activity involved an act of
imitation that was subservient to what he described as the realm of ideals. In this
activity of daily life was drawn, a process that placed all human action one step
away from his ultimate reality. Beyond this, the artistic activity of imitation, be it
through poetry, sculpture, painting or drama, was viewed as twice removed from
Plato's great fear was that if the viewer trusted in his or her own vision of
the world as opposed to a more logical approach, they would ultimately be tricked
plane of ideal forms that remain truer than the physical reality we are surrounded
with on earth. For Plato, the artist and poet are inferior to the craftsman since
their work is not simply a physical manifestation of these ideal forms, but an
inadequate, since it moved the viewer even farther away from the true reality that
existed in his ethereal sphere. Focused on the importance of this essential reality
percepts as they relate to the ever shifting plane of visual perception. Though
and nourishes and strengthens the feelings and impairs the reason,"129 Plato
It was precisely this function of art that caused Aristotle to reclaim the
process of mimesis for the benefit of human education. Aristotle observed that
necessity imitate one of three things - things as they were or are, things as they
are said or thought, or things as they ought to be."131 For Aristotle the conception
of mimesis, as the imitation of reality in one form or another, was not only the
basis of poetry, but an innate quality of human nature. Just as children learn to
distinguish between right and wrong, moral and immoral by imitating the acts
Yet, beyond the differences between student and teacher with respect to
the idea of mimesis, the two were philosophically at odds in categorizing visual
imitation as essentially deceptive. Plato held the conviction that the viewer should
rely upon reason and intellect in dealing with any and all sense-perceptions,
whereas Aristotle believed that "unless one perceived things one would not learn
truth. Plato's tiered system culminating in his plane of ideals deferred interaction
with the physical world in favor of a reliance on a conceptual one. Concepts are
ideals and abstractions, and do not necessarily interact with what can be
touched, tasted, smelled and seen. One philosopher extolled the virtues of
perception.
Aristotle's analysis of the drama placed plot and character over spectacle,
for a theatre dominated by the spoken word, it fails when addressing an alternate
method of production. The same can be said for a system designed to analyze
serve to indicate signs from the external world of the spectator. Neither system is
adequate for addressing an artistic creation that relies on the contextual logic of
visual perception to signify within the confines of the work of art. Polish
theatre director and visual artist Stanislaw Witkiewicz captured this contextual
formation in his discussion of a new approach to the theatre that he termed "Pure
Form." Building on the fact that "theatre is a composite art, and does not have its
own intrinsic, homogeneous elements like the pure arts: painting and music," he
states:
Stanislaw Ignacy Witkiewicz, The Madman and the Nun and Other
133
Not entangled in the assumption that the theatre was responsible for miming the
patterns of movement and logic contained in everyday life, Witkiewicz based his
theory of Pure Form on the belief that all elements of life should be considered
merely raw material for an artistic creation. He was attempting to avoid the
slavish imitation of "reality" in order to create something that went beyond the
organized around its own internal logic, like that of dreams and other visual
dream's use of symbolic material drawn from everyday life, "The concept of Pure
Form is a boundary concept and no work of Art can be created without real life
elements. Some sorts of beings will always act and speak on stage, parts of the
in the visible world, and the reason is the impossibility of dispensing with
dynamic and directional tensions."134 While it is necessary for the theory of Pure
Form to react to and use components from reality, Witkiewicz insists that "The
and their complexes."135 Within his theatrical frame Witkiewicz advocated that the
whole of life, words and actions, objects and images, should function like
It is this process of artistic creation that takes into account the complex
simultaneously conditioned by its use in the exterior world of reality as well as re-
shaped within his dramatic structure, Witkiewicz was calling for more than just a
of perception, to change them, to alter the rules of how things are interpreted. By
focusing on a different set of laws, a different logic, the relational aspect of the
visual world, the combinatory possibilities offered by the dream state, the use of
discrete objects and images as if they were elementary units, Witkiewicz's theory
word and image, she states that "This visual plane of expression is markedly
dissimilarity between the two she begins her process at ground zero, attempting
to clear a space for a tabula rasa of visual semiotic inquiry. "It remains a fact that
the determination of the basic elements of visual language has been, until now,
visual language, she is ultimately waylaid by the same misdirection of focus that
system to its individual units both Saussure and Saint-Martin freeze the flow of
system. The focus should not be on what fundamental units constitute a semiotic
enterprise, but on the interrelationships of those units, and how they function
What Saint-Martin's study does address, however, is the fact that the
relationship it has with surrounding elements. The varieties of color, shape, line,
and texture are infinite. Though constituted by a long history, the visual arts have
no "dictionary" in which to look up the "meaning" of the color red, or the definition
appears not to function semiotically at all, yet this appearance belies the truth.
Susanne Langer points out that music and visual expression should not be
or visual elements.138 But she also observes that, "Visual forms - lines, colors,
as words. But laws that govern this sort of articulation are altogether different
from the laws that govern language. The most radical difference is that visual
forms are not discursive."139 Though Langer deals with visual perception as if it
were an instantaneous event and not a temporal process, she does, however,
within the field of vision, that are then addressed as discursive units.
problem by discussing the role that various colors play in painting, design and
Or, to reverse the focus, the infinite variety of colors are not matched by the finite
system of verbal labels. By citing the fact that it is within the frame of the
of language. The artist is able to create his or her own semiotics by virtue of the
fact that the units of composition are not governed by the same discrete
signification that the units of language are. Conveying meaning through the
a temporal framework. In short, this study must focus not on signs as they exist
units from their spatial context. "Taken out of the image, the parts of the line will
be seen as small material components: dashes, curves, dots which, like the
value as distinct signs once they enter into certain combinations, and their
dot that can be viewed as a nail head, a button, or the pupil of an eye, depending
141 Meyer Schapiro, "On Some Problems in the Semiotics of the Visual
Arts: Field and Vehicle in Image-Signs," Semiotics: An Introductory Anthology,
ed. Robert Innis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 222.
77
This process of a self-contained semiotics, or a dynamic semiotics based
structure of film.
becomes apparent that a semiotics of this type must reject the search for discrete
The difference between the pictorial and the linguistic sign consists
in that the material of language has the differential values
irrespective of any specific utterance because it is integrated in the
linguistic system, while the material of the picture, due to its
naturalness, acquires them only when it is used in a picture.144
while it is possible to vary the meaning of these signs depending upon the
sentence into which they are placed, this meaning is contained within a catalogue
in which it is possible for verbal language to operate. Visual units, on the other
hand, even those that exist as symbols complete with a specificity of expression,
are always dependent upon their spatial or visual context for meaning. As
Arnheim states, "A figure perceived in comparison with another may look different
from the way it would appear by itself."145 It is this fact that was at the center of
image essentially already made and able to be placed into a variety of spatial and
consternation of "serious" art critics, when Duchamp signed a urinal with the
144 Jirí Veltrusky, "Some Aspects of the Pictorial Sign," Semiotics of Art.
eds., Ladislav Matejka and Irwin R. Titunik (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT
Press, 1976), 260.
145 Arnheim, Visual Thinking, 68.
79
Lisa, a somewhat fixed symbol or image, and drew a mustache and goatee on da
Vinci's smiling lady along with the letters L.H.O.O.Q. at the bottom of the picture.
The result significantly altered the fixed image. Basically Duchamp was taking
quite well when he wrote that "Technical reproduction can put a copy of the
original into situations that would be out or reach for the original."146 Visual
elements, be they objects or images, can be moved from context to context, and
by virtue of the elements they are surrounded with, they are transformed. The
curious aspect of this is that due to their iconic nature they do not lose their
original meaning altogether. Just as the image of the cross carries with it a
specific composition, the Mona Lisa is still the Mona Lisa even with mustache
connotation.
fixed images or icons. While it may not be possible for me to look up the meaning
cow or a well known person. These images stand as signs by virtue of the fact
that they are completed by a mental concept. The photo or drawing of a cow in
signification at the level of the icon can be drawn to the level of the symbol. If I
stovepipe hat and beard, it has the iconic function of visually resembling the man,
as well as the symbolic function of conveying a great deal more information. The
image of Lincoln has become a symbol of the civil war, his assassination, the
struggle for equal rights, etc . . . The photograph, composed of individual units of
highlight and shadow, shape and line, coheres to form a discrete visual sign
language.
that signify within the boundaries of composition. Yet, even a discrete sign like
the photo of a cow or Lincoln or an object like Duchamp's urinal can take on a
completely different meaning by virtue of the visual context into which it is placed.
isolation. There will always be a visual context, a space in which images are
contained.
What this string of citations and examples illuminates is the fact that the
has a history of discussion and application. What each of the preceding theorists
brings to bear upon the world of vision is the process captured in Saussure's
and percepts as static and dynamic systems. These studies indicate that there is
a process of thought and perception that transpires outside the realm of linguistic
which the combination of denoted signs results in a connotation that can only be
talked around, but never quite caught within the structure of language. It is
and begin to formulate a coherent system. Peirce's work on the sign becomes a
crucial turning point in this argument. "For Peirce a sign has meaning not as it
denotes a thing or a concept in any referential reality outside the system, but as it
refers to other signs within the sequential context of the message."147 The
interaction of the visual sign with the linguistic one, balanced against both
Every system devised to analyze the visual plane must address the
structure of the work, can be deduced only from a series of equilibria established
between the elements."148 Building on the linguistic notion of the phoneme, she
identifies the "coloreme" as the basic unit of visual language.149 Saint-Martin finds
that the coloreme, like the phoneme, is the smallest, irreducible element. Line,
shape, and texture are all distinguished through color, "In effect, visual perception
unit, ultimately her definition privileges context over content, movement and
interaction over stasis and separation. The coloreme, as the basic visual unit,
is not a completely isolated substance, but one that can only exist in and through
the visual world. We can distinguish highlight and shadow, warm tones and cool
and a Dali. Yet, since the properties of color are not innately contained in these
objects, radiating from within, but composed by the reflection of light off of the
discussing the properties of light. As Arnheim points out, "No object can show its
local color without being illuminated by some light source, which has a color of its
own."151 It is the interaction of light and reflected color that play over surfaces and
crevices that enables us to apprehend the visual world. Color relies on light to
reflect it, and light relies on a surface to animate it. They are mutually dependent
upon each other, similar to the description of units in composition. Drawing this
notion of an elemental unit into the realm of sculpture and architecture, Dora
Vallier in her essay "Minimal Units in Architecture," believes that the two spatially
produced arts are grounded in the opposition of solid and hollow.152 What is
striking about this definition is how well it resonates with the notion of the
coloreme. Both solid and hollow, though spatial categories, are constituted
visually through the interaction of light and shadow upon the surface of the
object. As with the description of the coloreme, neither category can exist without
provides bits of raw data that are synthesized and interpreted by the dynamic
system of memory and perception. This process of visual observation that relies
examination of the properties of color in light through the process of refraction are
apparent to anyone that has ever seen a rainbow. Yet Newton's color theory is
based primarily on physical, not psychological principles. Rather than explore the
phenomenon of color in the laboratory and not in the vast world outside his
doors. Through isolation and fragmentation Newton dissected a beam of light and
concluded that "when any kind of ray has been well separated from those other
endeavors to change it."153 Newton's theory of light and color has certainly been
calculate the specific "vibration" of various colors irrespective of how the mind
for the darkroom, Goethe explored light and color in a more natural environment.
colors is by far more psychological than is thought, but here the difficulty is even
greater than in other cases to differentiate between the objective and the
153Isaac Newton, "New Theory about Light and Colors," Sources of Color
Science, ed., David L. MacAdam (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press,
1970), 13.
85
subjective."154 Focusing on the interactive nature of color through light he wrote,
activity on a specific object, and in turn made visible by this activity upon other
objects found in the same space. Light and darkness engage each other in
exploration of light and dark and the spectrum of perceivable colors isolated by
Newton, the contrast of the two theories offers a metaphorical similarity to the
correlation between concepts and percepts. One system classifies and isolates,
while the other explores interaction and simultaneity. Although Newton was
unable to scientifically alter the coloration of his refracted beams of light, color
theorist Josef Albers has described the fact that "we almost never see a single
conditions."156
complicated by both the quirks of optics and certain cultural uses of color. Color
is embedded in the tradition of symbolism that began when the first human
identified him or herself with a specific color by way of a flag or bit of clothing. It is
154 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Goethe's Color Theory, (New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1971), 38.
155 Ibid., 20.
156 Josef Albers, Interaction of Color, (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1963), 5.
86
the direct sensuous perceptual impact of color upon the spectator."157 On one
level this attempt to free color from predetermined meanings seems impossible
since they are conditioned by a specific cultural system that constructs a schema
colors in certain ways. On the other hand, since these are culturally determined
modes of reception they can be changed. What can't be altered, however, is how
It is a fact that cool colors appear to recede whereas warm colors seem to
advance. Beyond this the complex structure of the eye provides complementary
colors in the form of an after-image. Stare at a red surface for a minute or so,
then focus on a white surface, the eye will produce a green tint to the white area.
communication? The problem with this comparison is that it defers to the oft
optic responses to visual stimuli are conditioned by the organism and are
unavoidable.
to name a color, is not the same as being able to copy it exactly. I can perhaps
say 'There I see a reddish place' and yet I can't mix a color that I recognize as
due to its finite nature, is not capable of capturing the whole of the visual
has written, "It is out of participation in the general system of symbolic forms we
call cultural that participation in the particular we call art, which is in fact but a
sector of it. A theory of art is thus at the same time a theory of culture, not an
based on its own logical structure (like Witkiewicz's theatre of pure form), the raw
material to construct that form is drawn from the cultural system in which the
artist is working. Put Duchamp's sculpture in any men's room and watch its
This foregrounds the problem of cultural memory. There are certain images of
people, photographs, paintings and films circulating in our society that carry a
specific semiotic weight. Duchamp's Mona Lisa is a perfect example. While the
addition of the goatee and mustache alter the contextual frame in which this
image is read, the image of the Mona Lisa, complete with its reference to
Leonardo da Vinci, is still visible. If, for example, I show you a particularly well
your reaction is shaped by more than what the image may denote on the surface,
cultural level. It would be impossible to assume that this image would signify the
same thing if used within a different cultural framework. This argument can be
extended to the visual frame that conditions the spectator's reception of the
image. If, following Duchamp, I re-contextualize this photo of Mike, Carol, and
their clan by adorning their smiling faces with goatees and mustaches, your
between what he calls an organic work of art, in which the parts are integrated
into a unified whole, and non-organic art, where the parts have a much larger
autonomy. "They are less important as elements of a totality than as relatively
unity by the advent of Cubism. "The organic work of art is constructed according
to the syntagmatic pattern; individual parts and the whole form a dialectical unity.
art. The parts 'emancipate' themselves from a superordinate whole; they are no
of art lack necessity and can be replaced. Yet the fact remains that with a visual
work of art if I change a color or substitute one object for another, the overall
the same visual plane to form the image as a whole. It is not the units themselves
that take precedence, but the patterns that are created by their combination.
Analyzing the process used to create the non-organic works of art, Bürger
states:
He is dealing with the complex interaction between the (external) world of reality
and the (internal) logic of a work of art. Like Duchamp's Readymades, there is a
sense that these predigested signs somehow contain "ghosts" of reality past.
They carry their original signification with them, even into the new frame. This
plane is based on the circulation of objects, images, colors, and shapes that
signify according to the context into which they are placed. This is the logic of the
unified into an artistic whole, show their structural seams. It is possible to detect
meaning, but shifts and changes through the process of its use, it represents a
stable dynamic system. Caught within the parameters of a specific cultural order
the individual signs that makeup a language must have established meanings to
be useful as communicative tools. This temporarily fixed state should not imply
that language does not move and change, but the flexibility of its units remain
signification (individual signs, symbols and icons), it also includes elements that
It is this assessment of the whole that makes the problem of meaning with
respect to a work of art more complex than the mere identification of individual
concepts and percepts within a specific cultural system. As Bürger writes, "The
Strauss states that, "It seems to me that the only answer we can give is that 'to
mean' means the ability of any kind of data to be translated into a different
of the culturally determined linguistic system, then any visual perception must be
cannot be considered a static property innately hidden within the recesses of the
visual world. As Ulric Neisser has discussed, meaning " is added only later, by
process. Meaning is not something contained within the work of art, but actively
negotiated between the object and the viewer. This can be said of both an
viewer's gaze, and a temporal work like a theatre or dance performance. The
artist can shape the elements used to create the art work to lead the receiver in a
particular direction, but ultimately it is what the viewer receives from the work
combined with his or her own individual memory that determines the overall
164 Claude Levi-Strauss, Myth and Meaning, (New York: Schocken Books,
1979), 12.
165 Neisser, 72.
92
present are constantly mediated."166 Understanding, then, "is not merely a
This intersection of the work of art and the receiver is captured by Roland
Barthes in his essay "From Work to Text." Barthes draws a distinction between
the object of art, in this case a literary one, and the product of viewer interaction
space of books (in a library for example), the Text is a methodological field."168
Barthes posits it as a kind of musical score that "asks of the reader a practical
collaboration."169 While the work itself is a complete entity, the text asks the
viewer for collaboration to complete its meaning. "The Text is that social space
which leaves no language safe, outside, nor any subject of the enunciation in
though perhaps borrowing from the vocabulary of linguistics, also embodies the
visual, is more than the sum of its individual parts. The signifying capabilities of
verbal language are contingent upon an interaction with vision, and vision on its
dynamic, and the analysis of a work of art can never be closed on a single
within the frame of the art work, which in turn are conditioned by a specific
theatre, and, keeping this diachronic system in mind, the following chapters will
Wilson are not unique because their work is primarily visual, but because through
their artistic expressions they have made the complex operation of vision more
continued to evolve for over fifty years. In that time he has remained dedicated to
the art of theatre with an unparalleled vigor and curiosity. Building on skills as a
the theatre a level of craftsmanship and ingenuity that is rivaled by few in this
acknowledged as one of the world's leading stage designers, little other than
survey material has been published on his work in English. Best known for his
to the overall construction of the stage space that provides a grounding point for
text or to the actor's performance. His work as a designer is dependent upon the
because the visual choices tend to be more obvious, the same analysis can be
extended to the work of the director, the actor, and ultimately the playwright. It is
a way of "working backward" from traditional methods; initiating the analysis with
predetermined text. This inquiry is geared toward creating a form of analysis that
The question of design itself remains an elusive and complex one. Each
artist will approach a production differently, with unique skills and a varying
emphasis, yet one thing remains constant: they all work within a vocabulary
structured by color, form, shape, line, texture and rhythm. As was addressed in
Since this structure engages the activity of memory by proceeding from image to
image, elements are placed in contact with those that have preceded them as
well as those that will follow. Using the process of design as the underlying
through a discussion of its spatial and temporal structure. It is again not merely a
question of the individual parts as opposed to the whole, but what effect is
that "each of these elements must be flexible and adaptable enough to act in
unison with any of the others, to be their counterpoint or contrast, not only to
project a two or more voiced parallel with the other elements but to be capable of
fusing with any of the others to form a new quality."3 This description of the
creation of a new quality captures the semiotic basis of visual theatre with
reliance on the fusion of elements into something new, his juxtaposed chair, his
units, indicating the need for a synchronic analysis, the reality of the situation is
that the signifying qualities of visual expression can only be dealt with
the continually shifting tension created between elements defines the shape and
career in this ideal. "I don't want a static picture, but something that evolves, that
has movement, not necessarily physical movement, of course, but a setting that
by lighting, during the course of the action."4 Like William James' distinction
between concepts and percepts, and static and dynamic systems, Svoboda's
within the theatrical frame that underscores Svoboda's discussion of the shifting
Svoboda expects his settings to capture, but evolves from the interaction of the
art form that draws on many different artistic areas, Svoboda does not view the
work of the director and the actor as independent from the contrapuntal accord of
physical collaboration from the beginning of the rehearsal process to the end;
that is, there must be time for the setting and costumes to be constructed, and for
4Ibid., 27.
5 Josef Svoboda, The Secret of Theatrical Space, ed. and trans. Jarka
drawn together that the interactive nature of the theatre is truly evident. Despite
this divisionary aspect, Svoboda believes that "the theatre can never be anything
The training of designers for the professional theatre in the United States
is generally divided into a number of distinct disciplines. The student will chose to
focus on one of the major design areas (set, light, costume or sound) and work
toward a certain proficiency within this particular segment of the craft. While there
may be some cross- over in training (a lighting designer may take costume or set
classes for example) by and large the student is encouraged to perfect his or her
skills in only one area. The nature of Svoboda's training, however, as an architect
labor into separate camps, he deals with the structure of the performance
through the convergence of light, movement, and concrete elements. It is for this
stage designer.
atmosphere that conditions the entire look and feel of the production. As Jarka
Burian points out in his preface to the recent English translation of Svoboda's
merely a visual artist interested in the theatre, but one who has mastered the
6 Ibid., 42.
91
sculpture, graphic art, or above all architecture, for the scenographer's primary
description indicates, Svoboda's concern with the composition of the stage space
and change as the interaction of the director and actors complete the organic
It is through this emphasis on the interaction of the actor and the stage
space that Svoboda's work echoes that of the Swiss scene designer, director,
and stage theorist Adolphe Appia. While Svoboda does not list Appia among his
nearly every corner of Western theatre practice. The main focus of Appia's
and begin construction of the setting with the three-dimensionality of the human
form as the guiding factor. In his rebellion against the artifice of painted scenery
and one-dimensional space controlled by the spoken word, Appia was attempting
7 Ibid., 7.
8 Burian, The Scenography of JS, 30.
92
to overcome a tradition of stage practice in which the living, breathing actor was
subjected to a lifeless, flat, painted background. Appia felt that "our stage
directors have long sacrificed the living bodily appearance of the actor to the
the human body has not been able to develop its means of expression
normally."9 He saw the danger of limiting the expressiveness of the human form
governing maxim the phrase "man is the measure of all things."10 Appia
understood that stage design must not function merely as a backdrop to the
action, but as a three-dimensional component within which the shape, form and
Like Appia's devotion to the human form as the controlling spatial element,
functions only through its interaction with the movement and action of the actors
and the text. Opposing the concept of a static background, Svoboda's design
work is founded upon a principle of movement "which works with kinetic images
distributed in space and in the flow of time."11 This distribution creates what he
maximally responsive to the ebb and flow, the psychic pulse of the dramatic
difference between theatre and other art forms. The static nature of painting,
the other hand, are conditioned almost entirely by their temporal structure. By
combines the complexities of these individual art forms to create something with
the implications of the relationship between space and the temporality of the
lighting and the movement of the actors. Examine this two sketches for a
combination with light and movement provides the kinetic experience of space
unfolding through time. These sketches illustrate Svoboda's process quite well.
There is no sense of separation between the setting, the lighting, and the
movement of the human form; between the spatial arrangement and the temporal
the other for existence. Corresponding to the example of Saint Martin's search for
the minimal unit of vision outlined in the first chapter, in which the coloreme is
the small platform to the right side of the stage offered a perfect example of
triangular wedge. Beyond its simple structural form, the manner in which the
By placing a table and stool on the platform it is able to signify a dining area. A
bed and small end table allow it to represent a place to sleep. The addition of
contextualizes the square platform. These gestures are purely mimetic, however,
as the area becomes the stage representative for living spaces culled from daily
chamber.
Yet, in another scene, the platform moves from a purely mimetic function
entirely different type of space, one not exclusively physical. It is the psycho-
96
plastic space of Saint Joan, in which the platform and the drops of blood
combine with the flowers and the lone flag in the distance to evoke a somber
denotation inherent in the simple square structure conjoins with other simple
an interpretation of this visual structure of the stage space as filtered through the
its own distinct visual language to communicate with its audience. Describing
what he considers to be essential to this process, Svoboda states that "All of this
is expressed by form ... formally . . . Quite simply, my motto is that each art must
be expressed by its own means, its own form."13 Taking into account the spatial
and temporal differences between independent art forms, Svoboda remarks that
"The ideal is a scenography that will not borrow expressive means from other
disciplines of visual art but will evolve its own creative alphabet."14 Svoboda's
scenographer's craft should not be taken to mean that the visual plane is
vocabulary.
to change and evolve with each new technological discovery. From etched clay
tablets to papyrus to the advent of the printing press written language has gone
various technological advancements have altered its printed form very little.
media environments, the typewriter and the computer have merely picked up
where the scribe left off. While a similar comment can be made about the
before a spectator has changed very little since the theatre's inception), the same
Discussing the role that these new developments play in relation to the past,
Svoboda commented:
future discoveries is a useful starting point, the comparison with the structure of
language extends only so far. Theatre is a visual art form that is continually
defining and re-defining elements dependent upon their spatial context. Recall
the chair remains stable, but the spectator's interpretation of that stable image is
affected by the visual context into which it is placed. This is the distinction
between the system of verbal language and the system of visual perception.
While the first chapter expressed the inability of the human mind to think and
communicate without the interaction of language and vision, it also explored the
tool, verbal language must be founded upon components that carry with them
discrete meanings, whereas the visual plane creates shifting patterns of meaning
composition for a production of Gorki's The Last Ones by stating that "It's all
structured like music, and a law is present. Break it and a new one is set up. This
Kinetically moving through time like a piece of music, the visual aspect of the
theatre is founded upon the ability to set up perceivable relationships and then
alter them in the wake of a new context. This was demonstrated by the example
of Svoboda's design for Saint Joan where the basic spatial structure remained
fairly stable, but the emotional resonance of each scene changed according to
movement, and the arrangement of objects within the overall spatial composition
nevertheless built upon methods of production that preceded him. Like the long
Europe and America in the early part of this century. During the mid 1940's as an
learned from him."17 Focusing attention on the subject of space, Troster explains
that "The foundation of stage action is space. The stage itself is a hollow cube
the future of theatre practice, Troster captured the complex path that his student
would take when he wrote that "Film reveals the details of a tear-drop. The
theatre discovers the same - insofar as it is possible in terms of its technical and
1938: A Survey-Part 2," Theatre Design and Technology, (Fall, 1975), 27.
100
evolution of the theatre space will be influenced by new technical innovations in
While Svoboda cites both his architectural training and Troster's influence
as important to his conception of space, he admits that the person who made the
greatest impression on him with regards to the theatre was the Czech stage
director E.F. Burian.20 As a director Burian carried with him the traditions of
Russian and Central European staging techniques. A one time pupil of the
eclectic German producer and director Max Reinhardt, his deepest influence
Burian (no relation), E.F. Burian's attention to the stage not merely as a place to
between 1930 and 1950.22 As Svoboda put it, "By watching his rehearsals and
Burian's chief designer was Miroslav Kouril, with whom Svoboda would
and Kouril collaborated to create a mixture of live action and projections which
with projections to provide specific locations and backgrounds for his theatrical
19 Ibid., 29.
20 Charles Spencer, "Designing for the Stage," Opera, (August, 1967),
631.
21 Ibid.
22 Burian, The Scenography of JS, 6.
23 Ibid.
information but to create visual metaphors that permeated the narrative world of
the play.25 Their focus was on psychological and not physical stage
very technically limited atmosphere, Kouril and Burian's attention to light and
projections laid the ground work for the further development of multi-media
theatre.27
visual elements that also places him in direct relation to Lee Simonson, Robert
Edmond Jones, and other proponents of the New Stagecraft. Originally used in a
1912 article by the critic Walter Prichard Eaton to describe the work of Craig and
Max Reinhardt, the term "New Stagecraft" would eventually embody the
movement toward the unification of all stage elements into a complete dramatic
whole that was taking place in both Central Europe and America theatres. As
This unity of effect created a model for play production that undoubtedly
from the perspective of an architect with the understanding that the foundation of
fusion of color, light, set, costume, actor and text, that has always been at the
space. This attention to minimal visual units echoes the work of Max Reinhardt
28Lee Simonson, The Art of Scenic Design, (New York: Harper and
Brothers Publishers, 1950), 19.
29 Kenneth Macgowan and Robert Edmond Jones, Continental Stagecraft,
Although both Reinhardt and Jessner continued to work with a number of scenic
designers, their innovative strength as directors was their ability to pull all of the
elements together into a coherent, dramatic whole.30 Emerging from the ideal
that the director must be in control of every element, these simplified stage
images became organic machines composed of the interaction of the set, the
Building on the practical ideas of these two directors, combined with the
theoretical work of Appia and Craig, the designers of the New Stagecraft worked
to capture the "soul" of the play through visual means. Elements were reduced to
a suggestive atmosphere that would surround and support the images the
designer found in the written script. Robert Edmond Jones described the process
of design as creating "a shell of light and color so arranged as to express the
which the action of the play could evolve. There is a dynamism inherent in Jones'
description of the interaction of stage space and the dramatic space conceived of
stage as a spatial entity, the dynamic nature of his process is evident in the
Composed of dynamic elements, like Saint Joan's platform and drops of blood,
An end result for which they were, more often than not, given full credit.
30
Although designers like Simonson and Jones were concerned with synthesis and
suggestion, their shells of light and color ultimately deferred to the intensity of the
designer is his ability to produce space that does not just support the language
of the text, but equals the expressivity of the text. This design process can be
divided into two specific compositional forms; the architectural, with its focus on
physical objects in space, and the imagistic, centering on his use of multi-media
technology. While the two terms are useful linguistic categories to establish
discreet groupings to address the scope of Svoboda's career, they are not
mutually exclusive.
craftsperson did not fully understand the properties of the wood he or she were
working with, or how to use the tools to manipulate that wood, the product would
collection of tools at his disposal, is as imbued with the familiar materials of paint
computer and the slide projector. There is no true division between his use of
doors, ramps, platforms, and projected images; they are all elements in his
does to technology.
Keeping this in mind, I would first like to examine the architectural quality
of some of his more well known stage settings. Created from an arrangement of
doors, platforms, windows, ramps and stairs, these designs do not exist as static
spatial arrangements, but provide the actors and the director with a machine for
Prague National Theatre design for Romeo and Juliet , the stage is composed of
elements of the production's visual language, they are like artistic units assuming
signification only as they are utilized by the composition as a whole. They are
Combined with the movement of the actors and the lighting, these isolated
elements were able to shift horizontally and vertically along the depth and width
of the stage. By using a series of small motors, pulleys, belts, jacks, and springs,
emotional content of the play. Elements were not only re-contextualized by their
interaction with the actors, but by their change in physical location. While it can
context, the perception of these physical objects continually shifts as they are
used and re-used throughout the performance. Taking full advantage of the
manipulable quality of visual perception, Svoboda points out that "it wasn't only a
transformable. For example, the fountain wasn't merely a meeting place for the
youth of Verona; it was also transformed into the lovers' wedding night bed as
well as their tomb."32 The key to the dynamism of Svoboda's design work is in his
ultimately conditioned by the specific context into which they are placed.
large wooden cubes tracked to allow movement upstage and downstage, the
composition of the stage space was continually re-defined throughout the entire
performance. The cycle opened with the audience facing an impenetrable wall
completely filling the proscenium opening. As the action began, a portal opened
to emit a great shaft of light followed by the entrance of the actor portraying
Oedipus. This modular wall then fragmented into a series of ever changing
As a kinetic space this design relied upon the interaction of the movement
of the actors and the lighting to sculpt and define the environment. After
presenting the horror of the lives of Oedipus and his family, the production
culminated with the proscenium opening being once again walled up by the
moved and interacted with the dramatic and psychological activity of the
cycle of death complete, Svoboda employed a brilliant visual metaphor for the
108
monumentality of this tragedy by leaving the audience staring at the same blank,
impenetrable wall that had greeted them upon their entrance to the theatre. This
gesture of creating a barrier to the stage space with the wooden blocks was at
extent than Romeo and Juliet , the spatio-temporal structure of the play was
captured by a single suspended metal platform. One side was crumpled, torn, and
visual metaphor
hovering metal platform was more than just a mere presentation of a spatial
Alternately revealing its corroded and polished sides, this kinetic platform
Like the acting technique that Brecht promoted in which both the actor and
character are to be simultaneously visible, Svoboda's setting did not fade into the
background, but continually made its material presence known. "Like a soaring
bird or a cloud, it sometimes tilts toward the audience and lets us read into its
contours what our own imagination projects. And when the soldiers rattle across
language that Svoboda has developed over the years. Ultimately it is the
in front of which the action is played, the other a kinetic space within which the
action evolves.
while offering good examples of kinetic scenery, were limited by their material
been, there was a limit to how far and at what speed it could be tilted, raised, and
lowered. Svoboda's desire to create kinetic images to interact with the dramatic
action of the text and the movement of the performers suggests that the flexibility
34 Ibid., 161.
110
changing instantaneously at the push of a button, and of accommodating an
Svoboda's imagination was no longer tied to the constraints of the material world,
but could unfold through the intangible medium of light. As fluid as music or
water, projections are capable of supporting the action by ebbing and flowing
Svoboda did not withdraw from the theatre in favor of film, but worked to
the 1958 World's Fair in Brussels, Svoboda collaborated with director Alfred
Radok on an exhibition that was to be the hit of the fair. They devised a form of
presentation called "Laterna Magika," which reflected Svoboda's desire for the
of projected images and synchronized acting and staging."35 The Laterna Magika
performance and strike a balance between the live actors and the prerecorded
"The play of the actors cannot exist without the film, and vice-versa - they
become one thing. One is not the background for the other; instead, you have a
simultaneity, a synthesis and fusion of actors and projection. Moreover, the same
actors appear on screen and stage, and interact with each other. The film has a
dramatic function."36
were working in the Theatergraph tradition of Burian and Kouril. The combination
of live actors and multi-media did not merely present physical locations, but was
free to express the psychological atmosphere of the piece. Though the Laterna
Czechoslovak life, the overwhelming interest in this production was not centered
on content but on technique. Quite simply, the interaction of the various media
woman stepped through a filmed doorway and was miraculously transformed into
a live actor on the stage. At another point the same live actor was accompanied
by a projected band composed of five filmed images of the same man, each
the new art form that New Stagecraft designer Robert Edmond Jones had called
for in 1929 when he wrote that "[With] the simultaneous use of the living actor
and the talking picture in the theatre there lies a wholly new theatrical art, an art
While Jones believed that the integration of live action and film would
Svoboda used the integration of this new technology as a way of expanding his
scenographic alphabet.
considered a
pivotal moment in the evolution of Svoboda's career, the concept of the
film images, has continued to remain the driving force behind his scenographic
creations.
surfaces and slides. What is significant in both of these examples is that light is
projected onto the stage, but projected onto something tangible.38 Whether these
tangible elements are a projection surface, a set piece, or an actor, light must
interact with a physical component that defines the space of the stage. As a
techniques and new ideas, yet each of these new acquisitions is filtered through
Though concerned with the interaction of light and space from the
beginning of his career, it was with the culmination of live action and projections
in 1958 with the Laterna Magika that Svoboda made his most influential mark on
than the parts, this technique offers a level of visual manipulability that enables
the designer and director the freedom to shift both visual and temporal contexts
in the blink of an eye. This dynamic process is imbued with the qualities of visual
perspectives. As Czech theatre critic Jan Grossman wrote, the scenic forms of
the Laterna Magika were capable of "seeing reality from several aspects, of
perceiving a situation or a person in the usual relations of time and space, and of
Souvenir Program issued by the Laterna Magika. Prague: Czech Republic. 1983.
114
While dominated by the tapestry of projected images, Laterna Magika
surfaces, a synthesis of light and space. For the original 1958 production
defined the performance space. As the stage and film action shifted focus, so too
did the geometry of the space. The 1991 production of The Play About the Magic
The 1977 production of The Wonderful Circus framed the stage with movable
white drapery.
This type of kinetic, surrounding element was also used for the 1987
surface as fabion. "Builders use the term to describe a rounded connection piece
between the wall and the ceiling. For me it is a sheet of paper with nothing written
115
on it. A4 format, lightly bent into a curve with a folded corner. This is the tabula
rasa on which the story will be written using the stage techniques."40
At its best the Laterna Magika technique embodies the ideal of dynamic
collaboration between live and filmed images. The Wonderful Circus ,41 even
technology. With little narrative structure, the piece involves the relationship of a
compounded by various circus tricks and an amorphous "love interest"42 that sets
up a rivalry between the ringmaster and the clowns. The interaction between the
point the live actors pull a rope that raises filmed curtains, at another point the
two clowns attempt to put out a filmed fire through mimed urination. Perhaps the
best example of the use of this technique is the scene in which the two clowns
and the woman climb into a basket and appear to be floating above the earth.
The combination of their live actions with the projected images is as disorienting
as it is beautiful. Much like the confusion that occurs between a ventriloquist and
his or her dummy, while we may consciously understand that it is merely an act,
we are drawn into the stage illusion. In a sense we believe that they are indeed in
the basket of a balloon, and time and space become mutable properties as the
blending of live action and film allow for a complete shift in location, perspective,
and perception.
which the performers merely perform. The best example of this division between
Albertova, 65.
40
construction of the stage space was visually engaging, there were only a few
instances where the live action and filmed action interacted as well as in The
Wonderful Circus .
actors, there was a complete separation between actor and film, between
foreground and background. Perhaps this is due to the brevity of the actors'
performer's body by covering it with make-up and costume. This is not to say that
the "body" of the actor completely disappears within the fabric and grease-paint,
117
but they allow the human figure to be masked in order to provide a point of
projected images.
By examining this rupture of synthesis between live and filmed action, the
becomes more apparent. The two media exist in very different spatial and
temporal contexts, as is obvious by recalling any film in which the "live" action in
projector and expecting that an integration between live and filmed action will
magically transpire. The two exist in very different spatial and temporal realms.
by light projected images. The flexibility of the film to change perspective and
location with the push of a button cannot be replicated by the materiality of the
actor. The film, though unfolding through time, repeats its actions with the
arranged for maximum dramatic interest. The live actor, on the other hand,
recreates the images anew each time. As rehearsed as the actions may be, the
actor stumbles, sweats, speeds up, and slows down, responds to the audience,
and adjusts his or her performance to individual rhythms that the film is not able
to compensate for. All of this works toward revealing the seams of the
addressed by the 1965 Boston Opera production of the Marxist composer Luigi
remains a landmark in Svoboda's career for two very distinct reasons. First, it
was his American design debut, and second, Svoboda believes this piece to be
"the biggest, most complicated and best production I have ever done. It has not
been surpassed since."43 One of the crucial adjustments to the 1958 technique
project a TV image onto the series of screens that comprised the spatial
the theatre and as far as three miles away, of delaying the actions by preserving
the image on tape to force the actor to confront his/her former self, of reversing or
producing negative images of what was being presented live, and finally, of
projecting of the audience into the theatrical space.45 Svoboda explained that he
had used "TV in this second. TV from the city. TV of the actual protesting of the
45 Ibid., 103-4.
46 Interview.
47 Ibid.
119
Although the use of closed-circuit television and video was a major
element of the production, Svoboda also employed static images and slogans
projected onto the series of moving surfaces. Recalling his access to the New
York Times' archive of filmed and still images, Svoboda stated that "the
experience was miraculous. It was great to get all of this material. It was a
had begun with Nono in 1961. The two had originally collaborated on Intolleranza
's Venice premiere, but unfortunately, the projections designed by Svoboda were
never seen since the producer of the festival was intimidated by the political force
used for the original production, it was the Boston version that provided evidence
the stage action, images, and the composition of the stage space.
with Nono's theme of intolerance, the dramatic thrust of the opera illuminates the
bodies stacked in graves."50 These images were juxtaposed with televised shots
48 Ibid.
49 Janet Monteith Gilbert, Dialectic Music: An Analysis of Luigi Nono's
1965), 66.
120
of the audience projected into the theatrical space. Through the combination of
music, live action and projected images, the spectator is implicated in the horrors
of twentieth-century life.
a scenographic atmosphere that best supports the dramatic nature of the script.
move beyond the psychological implications of the narrative. He works with visual
metaphors that rely on the dynamic interaction of all dramatic elements. Like the
architectural design for Oedipus-Antigone or Mother Courage, the projection of
the audience onto the dramatic space of Nono's opera worked to shift the
perspective of the spectator. Projecting the images of those sitting in the theatre
different ways but perceptually seen only one way at a time, Svoboda's
is morally wrong, and at the same time do nothing to change it. By forcing the
audience to see their own images within the context of these horrors Svoboda
made it difficult, if not impossible, to ignore them. Nono's opera may have pointed
the finger of morality at the spectators, but Svoboda's design visually wrenched
them from their seats and implicated them in the continuation of these atrocities.
In conjunction with his use of slides, film, and closed circuit television,
collaboration between the design and the performer. Besides the series of screen
number of additional approaches to opera and drama that allow the stage space
to interact with the projections. Sir Laurence Olivier's 1967 production of The
Three Sisters presented what Jarka Burian believes to have been his most
successful use of stretched cords.51 This technique of framing the stage with a
series of taut cords enabled Svoboda, through the use of projections and lighting
but an evocation of its emotional content, the shifting visual impact of the cords
a suspended hope through the lives of these three sisters as clearly as if we were
reading the lines of hardship etched onto a weather-beaten face. Like the
suspended from an oak tree on a far sea shore.53 Both the chain and the cords
disclose a layered dramatic form in which images of the past and future
continually haunt the present. While never physically changing location, the cords
were always visible, propelling the dramatic action by offering a kinetic surface on
which the interplay of light and shadow could move. Although they were the
dominant visual element, the cords were supplemented by isolated and floating
The advantage of this technique is that not only do the cords provide a delicately
and Isolde experimented with yet another pattern of stretched cords. As Burian
described it,
The production verified for Svoboda the efficacy of the strung cord
system as a new form of cyclorama in depth, one that has no
folds, can be walked through, can virtually disappear depending
on the lighting, and takes projections to create a feeling of three
dimensional colored light.54
became a kinetic spatial composition. Figure 29: Ground plan for Tristan and Isolde.
projection surfaces strategically slit to allow the performers to pass through them.
The two offer the same type of manipulability as the cords, but provide a more
solid background. One of the most dynamic uses of this technique was in his
isolated elements and elaborate visual images; instead the stage space was
Svoboda has always been careful to point out that he does not merely
use dynamic elements simply for flashy effects; rather they must support the
inner life of the play. He believes "It all depends on how you use technology: an
electric current can kill a man or cure him. It's the same in a theatre production:
Understanding one's tools is the basic credo of any craft, and Svoboda is a firm
often commented that he has devised and experimented with some remarkable
elements within the confines of his laboratory space, but must wait for the right
opportunity to implement them on stage. Knowing better than to allow his tools to
dictate his art, he has stated that "I get these stage designing dreams, ideas, but
55 Ibid., 102.
56 Burian, The Scenography of JS, 23.
57 Ibid.
125
if I haven't got the right drama program or technical conditions, I keep it for later. I
am intelligent enough not to use it in folly. I wait until their time comes."58
remarkable talent for creating dynamic space was evident in the first appearance
of the court members. Alone on the bare stage surrounded by the void of black
drapery, the melancholy Dane sat silently awaiting his mother and new king. With
a flourish, the white-clad King, Queen and court members burst through the back
curtain from the slits that Svoboda had provided. The effect was stunning. By
invading the stark somber atmosphere of Hamlet's depression with the blinding
white costumes of the court the striking contrast in both their physical and
and white created by the confrontation of the immobile Dane with the suddenly
revealed jubilant court, make it clear that no other contrast would have had as
much impact.
dark, on and off, alive and dead, good and evil. It was as if Svoboda had thrown
a switch to turn night into day, a wonderful example of a complete synthesis of all
theatrical elements into one crisp image. As the court members simultaneously
entered the stage through the slit curtain, the dynamism of Svoboda's work
combined with light, costumes and the movement of the performers to shift the
psychological mood and visual context of the stage space in an instant. It was a
With the final image of the play Svoboda again revealed himself to be a
58 Albertova, 55.
126
tearing down the curtain that had provided him with such a remarkable first
entrance. Behind the void was a seemingly unending staircase flooded with an
intense white light. The entire stage was transformed. What once seemed a
confining and encompassing space now stretched up infinitely. In the final image
of the play the inert body of Hamlet was carried up these stairs and enveloped in
the blinding white light. By framing the majority of the play's dramatic action
within a simple void, Svoboda took advantage of a single element, the black
Faced with the confining void for nearly the entire production, the
both the dramatic space that represented Elsinore, and the performance space
enclosed within the theater's fixed structure. My assumptions about this dark and
confining world, based on the visual information provided by the setting, were
radically altered in the wake of this revelation. In a Genet-like turn of events, the
emptiness of the dramatic space was magnified and the hollowness of Elsinore's
rule amplified as that which had been hidden was now unmasked. Again
equivalent, the confining black area was countered by a blinding white expanse.
The constrictive nature of Claudius' reign was enveloped by the purging light of
suddenly bursts into focus, Svoboda's design for Hamlet provided a shifting
perceptions.
In his 1991 design for the Czech National Theatre production of Rusalka,
Svoboda used a series of hanging strips, made from projection screen material,
to create yet another remarkable kinetic environment. Like the Laterna Magika
127
technique, the key to this design was the interaction between the live action and
filmed images. The strips of projection material hung like icicles above the stage,
and moved up and down depending upon the spatial arrangement of the scene.
Svoboda also added the dimension of projection screens surrounding the entire
perimeter of the stage. The effect was similar to some of his earlier work with the
Laterna Magika technique, but both the scale and depth of the space seemed
projected images.
With a plot similar to Disney's Little Mermaid , Rusalka relates the story of
a water nymph who falls in love with a prince, and seeking human form enlists
the aid of an evil old witch. One of the most memorable scenes, with regard to
the combination of live and filmed action, was when the old witch conjured up a
spell to change herself into a lovely young princess. The dramatic action was
128
visually expressed by the combination of a lighting effect and a projected image.
The old witch moved in and out of the lowered strips of projection material as red
kinetic scenery, projections, and a live performer. The strips swayed and danced
human form was neither swallowed up nor separated from its background. It was
Simply by changing the color of the light and the projected images, the stage
the stage. By altering one or two elements the entire picture takes on a new
signification. Though the hanging strips and screens around the perimeter stayed
in the same position (that is, the spatial arrangement remained static), the
atmosphere.
fun-house mirror, Svoboda has used reflective surfaces to compound his stage
projections and blur the distinction between what is on stage and what is off. His
design for the 1961 production of The Magic Flute had slightly distorted mirrored
129
surfaces that framed the performance space as walls, ceiling and floor. The
mirrors extended the space of the stage to include that which is generally hidden
from the view of the audience. As Svoboda describes it, "The mirrors were used
to reflect period objects off stage in the wings - flats, props and so on. Also a
ballet off stage, which normally might disturb or get in the way of stage
business."59
partially transparent mirrors divided the performance space into upstage and
downstage areas. The combination of elements visible through the mirror and
reflected in the mirror's surface created a tremendous depth and overall dream-
like feeling for the production. Though determined in part by the physical
properties of both the stage objects and the mirror, by combining projections,
reflections, and elements revealed behind the transparent surface, this design
took full advantage of the manipulable qualities of visual perception. Blurring the
distinction between the downstage and upstage areas, Svoboda "could place a
table and chair behind the mirror, plus another chair in front of the mirror and
align them in such a way as the front chair seemed part of the rear arrangement,
Perhaps his most successful use of reflective surfaces was for the Capek
brothers' The Insect Comedy. Two huge honeycombed mirrors were erected over
the performance space that reflected the staged action as well as the changing
floor surface. The mirrors provided an alternative viewpoint for the audience,
element of both the background and the foreground. The mirror, while reflecting
the physical presence of the actor, also permits that presence to be manipulated
Merleau-Ponty observes,
released from its earthly domain, it gains the freedom to become part of the
spectacle. Like the cords and slats, the mirrors work to dissolve the separation
between the performer and the kinetic space. What the mirrors are capable of
doing is transforming the actor into a formal element of the design. No longer is
the actor present merely as a conduit for the text, but the human body is
As visual units rely on their context for signification, the mirror compounds the
possibility of these formal combinations. Separated from the physical body, the
mirror shadow is invested in the spectacle in a way that the live actor cannot be.
No longer tied to its materiality, the reflected human form is free to float within the
overall visual pattern created by the design. Providing the audience an alternative
viewpoint, the mirrors, like the strips and the cords, are animated by the
movement of the lights, the projections and the performers. The entire visual
What is important to point out is that light continues to be the crucial element in
all of his designs. As Svoboda has stated, "Light has remained an inexhaustible
white light, or colored light, this intangible substance unifies and contextualizes
all of his spatial arrangements. Light is not added into his designs as they move
crevasses and bridging the gap between the performer and other physical
light within a production and that of music. He believed that light could move
through the entire performance underscoring the action and creating the
form with the surrounding performance space. As New Stagecraft designer Lee
Simonson wrote, "The light that is important in the theatre, Appia declares, is the
light that casts shadows. It alone defines and reveals. The unifying power of light
creates the desired fusion that can make stage floor, scenery, and actor one."63
Simonson realized that "the full value of any set, its form, color, its every accent
and the mood it establishes and sustains, depends on the balance of light on
it."64
As visual elements within the performance space, the actor and the
surrounding objects may comment on each other by virtue of their contiguity, but
the union of their physical orders relies on specific attention to the human body
Lee Simonson, The Stage is Set, (New York: Theatre Arts Books,
63
1963), 358.
64 Lee Simonson in Walter Prichard Eaton's The Theatre Guild: The First
perceive and relate to the visual world. Yet, as Goethe discovered, this
the actor, the language of the text, the sequence of images, and the interplay of
light and shadow that condition the overall perception of the dramatic action. All
of this is filtered through the memory and the personal and cultural schema of
past and future images as well as the psychological state of the receiver.
space that defines and reveals the action of the performance. Distinguished by
spatial composition is defined and conditioned by the presence of light. Color and
shadow are an integral component to all of his creations, often having more than
just an atmospheric function. Light can guide the audience throughout the
production as well as edify the dramatic action. It is through his use of light that
he is able to isolate and fragment specific physical elements, defining and re-
about his design for the 1965 Brussels production of Hamlet , he cautioned, "You
have only seen an exhibition model, which is misleading. In the theatre the
audience never saw the whole machine, only the parts presented to it, lit in
isolation."65 As evidenced in both Rusalka and Saint Joan, the physical space
remained fairly stable, with some slight modifications, but it was the movement of
light that propelled the dramatic action and transformed the stage from moment
65 Spencer, 634.
134
to moment. By changing color, angle, intensity and projections Svoboda is able to
continually alter the visual field, and re-contextualize all that is within it.
setting with a strong light from behind, Svoboda actually carves the human form
into the space. This technique not only helps to establish the distinction between
the foreground and the background, but, moreover, allows the actor to exist
within the theatrical space as a mobile, structural entity. The focus is on nullifying
the differences between the organic human figure and the artificial stage setting.
By illuminating the actor from behind, highlights and shadow surround the figure
and allow it to be viewed not as a form in the space, but a form of the space.
This was Oskar Schlemmer's goal at the Bauhaus; to achieve a kind of "ambulant
architecture" in which the performer does not just speak and move in a hollow
shell, but assumes an active role in defining the space. Though incorporating
dances than the narratively driven structure of conventional theatre. His was a
Pitting the human organism against abstract space, each with its own laws of
by its combination with light, color, shape and movement. In this respect, he was
creating a theatre that was dependent upon the juxtaposition of natural and
Schlemmer's theatre cannot be discussed in the same way as one might discuss
the dramatic tension in Sophocles' trilogy. Schlemmer did not rely upon narrative
to place elements into conflict, but physically placed conflicting elements side by
side to create tension through their visual contiguity. Reading Schlemmer's work
natural order of the human form to the abstract stage he was working to combine
elementary units into signifying entities dependent upon the logic of the visual
architecture," and Svoboda follows the Appian notion of focusing on more natural
theatre that relied on human movement to animate the kinetic stage. Svoboda's
reliance on light to animate the human figure within his artificial spatial
component of the stage space. While he shares with naturalism a use of the
66Oskar Schlemmer, "Man and Art Figure," The Theatre of the Bauhaus,
ed., Walter Gropius, (Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press,
1961), 22-3.
136
physical presence of the actor to propel the dramatic action, his attention to the
architectural quality of that action via the manipulation of the human form draws
his work away from a purely mimetic representation of the world that lies beyond
the artificial stage space Svoboda worked with lighting and optics specialist
which the body of the actor was silhouetted against the background and used to
define the appearance of the performance area. The difficulty in dealing with the
actor as a structural element of the performance space is that the function of the
actor is generally thought to be simply the conduit for the text. While the human
a specific way the designer can foreground the shape, line, and movement of the
actor; that is, utilize the human shape as a formal element of the design in the
Similar to the technique of dance lighting in which the majority of the light hits the
contralighting works to sculpt the body via its interaction with highlight and
shadow. This approach illustrates the difference between the actor being
considered the only major force of a production, and the realization that the actor
It is through this interaction of light and shadow that Appia's concern with
the convergence of various media within the theatrical frame manifested itself.
Angered by the conventions of painted scenery he wrote that "a plastic object
demands lights and shadows that are real and positive. Placed before a painted
137
ray of light or a painted shadow-projection, the plastic body stubbornly remains in
its own atmosphere, its own light and shadow."67 This is the problem that
Svoboda faced in creating the Laterna Magika technique. Drawn from different
media, the human figure and the projection stubbornly remain in their own
minimizing the difference between live action and projections. By illuminating the
more than makes up for in unification. Both the projected images and the human
body stubbornly retain their own spatial atmosphere, but by flattening out the
actor and projecting the images onto a series of movable surfaces the two media
transformed into a tangible entity. By flooding the stage with a specially designed
facilitated by the interaction of light and the electrostatic vapor. A similar effect
can be achieved by flooding the stage with the mist from a block of dry ice or any
number of smoke or fog effects. The difference between these approaches and
67Adolphe Appia, The Work of Living Art and Man is the Measure of All
Things, (Florida: University of Miami Press, 1962), 9.
68 Burian, The Scenography of JS, 65.
138
Svoboda's technique rests on the problem of dissipation. Most fog or smoke
effects tend to dissipate very quickly due to the air currents present in the theatre.
The smoke is simply pushed off of the stage. The ingeniousness behind
charged so that they refuse to settle in one place but continue to repel each
other. Some of the most frequently reprinted photographs of Svoboda's work are
from productions that have utilized this technique to great dramatic effect.
light, vapor and stretched cords to create an ethereal column of light. As Burian
points out
their signifying capabilities. Quite simply, light permeates and surrounds every
visual element in our field of perception, but needs a physical context in order to
with material elements for its existence. Like Josef Albers' description of "colors
on the dynamic structure of visual perception. What Svoboda achieved with his
aerosol spray was to establish light as a material substance wherever the light
Looking closely at his design for the Metropolitan Opera's 1974 production
of Verdi's Sicilian Vespers , we can see that Svoboda again used the
atmosphere.
1963), 5.
140
Though stripped down in comparison to some of his other work, the design for
experience that captured the dynamic action of the opera. Svoboda's technique
of illuminating mist does not provide a mere backdrop to the dramatic action, but
a tangible space with which the human figure can interact. The projections of light
on mist create a three-dimensional quality to both the light and the air. The
performer moves through the mist as he or she would move through the cords or
between the kinetic space and the dynamic actor. It is this fusion of all of the
elements on stage (light, air, mist, spatial composition and performer), that
dreams of Witkiewicz examined in the first chapter. The reality external to the
stage should not be slavishly imitated, but used as raw material for inspiration.
The artistic product presented within the confines of the performance space
emerges with its own rules of order and its own logic of composition. This is an
addressed this process of visual fusion in his own work when he wrote that
"visual images of the stage and of external reality were to be placed in new
relationships and create new dramatic elements and a new theatrical reality. The
idea reached its full realization in 1958 with Laterna Magika at Brussels."72 As
and filmed action that makes the Laterna Magika process effective. The formal
barriers that exist between these elements break down through the use of
specific lighting techniques, and unification is achieved via visual and physical
interaction. Pure form is established when all of the elements work together for a
specific dramatic effect. Remove or alter one component and the internal
danger in seeing my work in photographs. All the elements tie in with each other
and depend on the principle of kineticism; a photo can't capture this, even when
of movement is lost by the static nature of the photo, there is another aspect to
this process that I have found to be quite intriguing. After living for about a
decade with the multitude of published still photographs of his work, I was
recently able to witness a few of his designs in performance. I must admit that the
what is gained by the freezing of the image is the flattening out of all of the
Minotaurus, The Play About The Magic Flute, and The Wonderful Circus are at
times infinitely more interesting than the live performances. The photograph
almost completely eliminates the tension between the foregrounded actor and the
shell into which he or she is placed. True, the temporal aspect is gone, but so is
the depth of space that creates the tension between these two media. A pure
form is created by this static representation of the live event as all of the
elements fuse into a two-dimensional image. While the visual fusion is complete,
what must be remembered is that as striking as the photo may be, what makes
73 Ibid., 121.
143
As the kinetic context is frozen by the photograph the images no longer
exist in the same spatial plane. The relationship between elements changes and
system and cannot be analyzed as if it were able to be frozen and dissected like
a script or a novel. The signs presented within a shifting visual context by a live
unfold through the temporal process of the theatre. Though this study has used
staged action. Ultimately, scenography is not about how striking the images are,
nor how complex their technological basis is, but the effect that the expression
composed of images, text, performer and motion has on the entire, dynamic
stage picture.
that "I hate symbolism; I have no desire to make my set mean anything. I aim at
atmosphere,"74 his use of simple visual elements fragmented and isolated take
perception. Examine this sketch for his Laterna Magika production of The Tales
of Hoffmann .
The construction of this image relies upon the combination of elements within a
specific context. The surrounding water may provide atmosphere, but it also
carries with it a certain symbolic significance. The combination of the poles and
the water have such a Venetian connotation that my reading of these images is
symbolism that I as a viewer derive are created by the interaction of color, light,
and water did not connote Venice to the viewer, then the reading would be
entirely different.
to take into account all possible interpretations of a given work, but his choice of
images reflects his attention to the cultural framework into which a given
public [various European cities to which the production was scheduled to tour]
which is not so used to making associations in the theatre as our public [the
and secrecies."75 Each public, it was assumed, was conditioned to see things in a
different way and would bring a different cultural perspective to both the art of
While not invested in symbolism, Svoboda has stated that one of the most
contemporary, equally familiar signs derived from stage, music, and film."76 Quite
simply, the success of such pieces as The Wonderful Circus has relied upon
visual relationships between the live and filmed segments that is built up over the
but to perception itself. The Wonderful Circus has been able to continue running
for almost twenty years, with the original filmed segments intact, because it takes
advantage of easily identifiable signs. The icons of the costume and the makeup
are enough to allow the blending of the projected elements and the live
performance to remain remarkably similar over time despite the changes in the
cast. As audience members we identify the clown on film as the clown on stage
because they are both wearing the same costume and makeup.
75 Albertova, 65
76 Svoboda, The Secret of Theatrical Space, 120.
146
the Laterna Magika technique, Svoboda captured this operation brilliantly in a
The essence of film's artificial reality was also found to lie in the
perception of simple signs and in the viewers' need to become
accustomed to their patterning and significance and to learn how
to look more deeply. The very style of the film seemingly
enveloped the characters of the film with its own, further
significance.
After all, our affective memory, which draws from realities of daily
life as well as from various non-objective or imagined realities, is
capable of expanding their meaning to form patterns of affective
association, which in a special way deepen and enrich those
realities with added significance.77
This description relies on the fact that elements on stage are conditioned
both by their external reality, or context outside the theatre, as well as their
relationship with other stage elements. All of this is filtered through the dynamic
system of memory. Laws are invariably being set up and destroyed as the
signification of certain visual signs shifts according to their context in the flow of
77 Ibid., 115.
147
signs within a production like the combination of Svoboda's mist and intangible
light. Both may be present, but it is only during their selective interaction that it is
Finally, the goal of this discussion of design has been to point out the
impossibility of segmenting the visual language of the theatre into its constituent
elements (As Kowzan and others in his wake have attempted to do). One cannot
discuss the performer without also addressing the costumes, the setting and the
lighting. Nor is it possible to single out one visual element and not deal with the
visual context into which it is placed. Theatre is a dynamic process that cannot
that the "contrapuntal accord" created by the convergence of all visual elements
analysis of Svoboda's design work that I will use to examine the work of Meredith
artist and film maker, her work, like any visual phenomenon, is always more than
the sum of its individual parts. Building on these distinct disciplines she has
overtly political than either Svoboda or Wilson, since beneath the surface of her
stage and film work lies a fascination with uncovering, exploring and re-
the stories, myths, and images that pervade and define our culture.1
Monk does not allow these stories and images from the past to remain
confined to antiquity, but uses them to tell the audience something about
themselves in the present. Embracing such themes as the Civil War, plague,
World War II, Joan of Arc, and the process of American immigration, she
on them. Not relying on dialogue or linear narrative to tell or retell these stories,
spectator directly to the event. This allows historical figures and objects to be
interpretive act on the part of the creator, but by mining the past she is able to
future readings.
This shift from the work of scenographer Josef Svoboda to the multimedia
artist Meredith Monk is not as abrupt as it may initially seem. As artists they
optically constructed rhythmic pulse of the theatrical space connects their work
as visual artists. Although she negotiates various artistic media, Monk's theatrical
language is firmly grounded in her presentation of the visible. She uses gesture,
from the vast spectrum of images, colors, shapes, and patterns that dominate
visual expression, both Svoboda and Monk are artists that have helped forge a
expression that works toward a complete fusion of all visual elements. Monk, on
elements. As she points out, "It's a matter of the overall composition, how these
things counterpoint and how they resonate so that each element makes the other
144
elements resonate and yet remains itself."2 With Monk, there is no sense of
elements sacrificing their individual integrity for the whole; rather it is her use of
a character is shaped not by how they complement each other but how they
recondition each other. This process is similar the dadaist notion of simultaneity
discrete layers of sound presented in three different languages (four if you count
the non-sense sounds), the resulting structure of performance was not focused
on the acquisition of each layer independent of the others, but the cacophony of
visual field transpires like the simultaneity of the dada poem. As elements are
combined through spatial contiguity they retain their own form as well as
becoming part of the whole. In this respect, both Monk and Svoboda create
dramatic atmosphere. They rely on a theatre of "pure form" in which the reality
external to the stage does not necessarily have a direct mimetic connection. The
themes and events that Monk uses as starting points for her work merely provide
raw material for her creative process. By using images, sounds, movements, and
objects in the same manner that Svoboda uses cords, color, light, shape, and
stage images.
Monk's career as a theatre artist spans almost three decades, and in that
time she has relied on a variety of metaphors to describe her artistic process.
One of her most frequently quoted images has been the act of making soup.
"You get the ingredients together for the soup. You have to let it sit for a while for
all the ingredients to blend. Then you've got to let it boil until it boils down to what
it ultimately becomes. It becomes what it's going to be."3 On other occasions she
has described her combination of movement, music, and visual images as "a
mosaic which will hopefully form as full a perceptual, emotional, spiritual, kinetic
entity as possible."4 Ultimately, her goal is to allow each particle in her theatrical
tapestry to maintain its own integrity, yet combine with other particles in a specific
way to lead the spectator toward a new experience. Through the combination of
discrete elements her stage and film works offer "a possibility of opening people's
preceding cultures, she does mine historical narratives (the stories that we tell
about our past) for recognizable images and combines them with contemporary
images to provide an alternate viewpoint. She anticipates that the spectator will
approach her work with certain ideas conditioned by cultural or personal memory,
3Randy Turoff, "Making Soup: An Interview with Meredith Monk," The San
Francisco Bay Times, (February 1990).
4 Robb Baker, "New Worlds For Old: The Visionary Art of Meredith Monk,"
concepts of the past with percepts of the present. She takes on familiar historical
events like World War II, and addresses them not so much as historical fact, but
different angles. Her mosaics vary from Wilson's theatrical collages since she
performance is that Monk asks us to examine why and how we know what we
know, while Wilson assumes we know what we know and is more concerned with
how the images fit together in the visual landscape of the stage.
alternate perspective. Discussing this piece in 1979, Monk felt that Quarry "was
an attempt to take a mythic look at World War II. That myth with which we have
grown up and not really experienced. Trying to see it another way. Not a
documentary, but more dealing with unconscious images."6 In Quarry her focus
is not on the presentation of historical events, but the way in which these events
societies. This is the distinction between simply using images of the past to tell a
audience to explore how these images have been used to tell those stories. As
one critic points out, "Monk's strength, her special concern and genius, has
our present."7
Fascinated by the stories that have circulated in the past, as well as those
still active in the present, Roland Barthes analyzes the cultural and historical
begins with the conviction that myths are a process of communication, something
that conveys a message. For a (post)structuralist critic like Barthes, the myths of
a given society exist as complex signs systems contained within the larger
signification, Barthes believes that the first step of analysis is the understanding
disguise its own composition and appear as a natural occurrence. Barthes points
out that "the very principle of myth [is that] it transforms history into nature."8 This
language and the perceptual world. We learn to see things in a specific way and
can control that perception by conceptually altering the applied schema. This
129.
148
myth is to empty reality: it is, literally, a ceaseless flowing out, a
hemorrhage, or perhaps an evaporation, in short a perceptible
absence.9
creation. The reality of an historic event, what may or may not have actually
transpired at some past time, is not important to the creation of the myth. What is
important is that the stories that surround and interpret the historical event are
accepted as genuine. The "naturalized" myths that circulate around such historic
events as World War II leave little room for alternative voices or alternative
naturalized myths are like acquired schema that generally go unquestioned. They
simply become a part of what distinguishes one culture from another. The
undoubtedly different from that which circulates in American, English, and Italian
cultures. Myths simultaneously condition and are conditioned by the cultures that
best weapon against myth is perhaps to mythify it in its turn, and to produce an
By placing tales of the past in her (artificial) theatrical frame Monk attacks
observed through different eyes. Animating her personal vision of a bygone age,
9Ibid., 142-3.
10 This is not to say that these readings are permanently fixed, never to
era."12 This production began with a small child, played by Monk, crying out, "I
don't feel well. I don't feel well. I don't feel well. It's my eyes. It's my eyes. It's my
eyes. It's my hand. It's my hand. It's my hand. It's my skin. It's my skin. It's my
skin." Using the perceptions of the child as a (re)framing device, the audience
unquestioned, state but through the eyes of a sick child. While Monk does not
is successively slain by the one that follows, a woman who constantly sweeps
the stage floor as if the dirt and dust are never properly expelled, a group of
people from no particular time period carry clouds and then model airplanes on
sticks.
Deborah Jowitt, Time and the Dancing Image, (New York: William
12
Unfolding from the perspective of the child, the physical space was
center stage next to a small table with a radio on it and was surrounded by four
other settings, each with its own spatial and temporal atmosphere. Isolated by
parts of the world. One area was composed of an overstuffed chair and end
table, another of a rug, floor lamp and rocking chair, the third, a dinning table and
According to Monk, "I tried to get as many layers of content as I could into this.
You could say, I thought of the four corners of this piece as the four corners of
the world. It was as if you were looking through a window in London, a window in
to encompass various time frames and perspectives, all contained within the
same spatial frame of the stage. In this respect, the multiple locations of Quarry
work to create for the spectator "the process of dreaming and waking and
people gathering their belongings and fleeing, or removing and hiding their
valuables counter the depictions of the dictators and the airplanes. We can
identify these images from the myths that surround this conflict. Yet in Monk's
visionary world they are not emptied of history but resound with personal tragedy,
as animated by her perception of the past as they are by the theatrical present.
performance space created for Quarry, Monk takes full advantage of the
manipulability of the visual world to place familiar elements into new contexts,
thereby altering established viewpoints. As dance critic Sally Banes points out:
objects and images are able to physically flow from one environment to the next.
These successive contexts are structured to force the spectator to reassess his
or her understanding of these visible forms. Like the organization of myth, visual
reaction. Perceptual frames are applied and information is filtered out according
continued to battle the accepted constructions of the world. She believes "we are
finding new hybrid forms or discovering the place where things resonate with
15 Sally Banes, "The Art of Meredith Monk," Performing Arts Journal, (Vol.
3, # 1. Spring/Summer, 1978), 8.
16 Meredith Monk, Mosaic, (January 9, 1980), 145.
17 Ibid., 135.
153
film, movement, or sound, that Monk counteracts the spectator's passive
acceptance of how he or she "normally" views specific objects and ideas. Just as
colors placed next to each other will psychologically affect how each is perceived,
independent units, each complete unto itself, but tempered by the visual
contiguity of other independent units. This is the process that Peter Bürger
does not demand that these signs give up their autonomy, but is contingent upon
Monk's work as a fusion of elements into a single image, dance critic Deborah
Jowitt writes:
evident in the 1966 solo work 16mm Earrings . A combination of movement, film,
voice-over, and music, the piece evolved through a series of layered images that
space to create his Laterna Magika images, the layers built up in 16mm Earrings
were derived from the interaction of various media. At one point in the
which was created between the mediums and Figure 37: 16mm Earrings.
what they did together. It was never a barrage of information . . . It was a very
precise and meticulous collage concept where one medium echoed the other
one and made the other one have more resonance. It was a meshed inter-
weaving."19 The strength of Monk's work does not rely on a seamless fusion of all
elements into what Bürger would describe as an organic whole; rather, she
discovered "the way these elements work against each other creates a
luminosity, a radiance."20
non-organic work of visual art. Both rely on a combination of color, line, shape,
rhythm, and texture, but the organic work demands that these elements give up
their individual integrity to compose the unified whole, while the non-organic form
depends on the interaction of the distinct qualities of these elements. The tension
between these two forms has been dealt with in Benveniste's description of
artistic units which assume signification only as they are utilized within the
something like the color red depend on how it is used, where it is placed, and
what surrounds it within the body of the composition. As examined in the first
signs do not concede their significance to the work as a whole, what is created by
their synthesis is always greater than the sum of the individual parts.
point out, "I'm not really a person who's very much into codifying and
growing and changing, and I think that once you can put it into a system you've
already killed something."21 This should not be confused with the idea of working
without pre-digested signs. As stated above, her method has grown out of a
that permeate all of her work, they are more dependent on her approach as an
artist than they are on any set formula or system. She does not simply "plug in"
music, movement and images to a fixed structure, like the creators of a sit-com or
a TV movie might do. While she may quote and re-frame certain pre-existing
configurations, like the myths that surround World War II, she has made it a point
structures. She allows each work to grow organically according to its own logic.
situations where people see and hear things in a new, fresh way. It is a way of
sharpening the senses by creating a world with its own laws. it takes an audience
some place else, while at the same time letting them be right here."22 Her work,
whether in theater or film, grows out of the logical structure created by each
visual construction to produce a world independent from, while at the same time,
closed on a solitary meaning, but allow the spectators to bring their own
imagination and experiences to bear upon the work of art. While she does offer
theatrical universe and our own. "I always want my work to have a clarity and a
logic - a luminosity from lucidity - but I also want the audience to have enough
room to be able to move around within the level of connotation and meaning. I
give them evocative nuggets that radiate."23 This luminosity is the result of her
easily understood, while the other requires the spectator to re-examine his or her
a well known room and discovering something that you didn't expect to find. The
her work without also foregrounding her musical compositions. For Monk music is
the dominant structuring tool. As she points out, "by 1970 it was clear to me that
music was developing into the center of my work. The nucleus of my work is the
voice and the music, everything else branches from there."24 Every image and
patterns. The rhythmically structured compositions weave their way through all of
her works like the medium of light does through Svoboda's. It is never, however,
"just" music; her "compositions" encompass the entire spatial, rhythmic, and
of the piece is the primary concern in terms of my work. I am working with time in
the same way I am working with space: stretching it, compressing it, twisting it,
manipulating it."25
With any artist, it is difficult to trace the intertwined paths of influence and
inspiration that have led to his or her work, but Monk has illuminated, on a
through very simple movement so that you actually see the relationship between
24 Jan Greenwald, "An Interview with Meredith Monk," The Ear, (Vol. 6, #
3. April/May, 1981).
25 Monk, Mosaic, 138-9.
time, space, and energy under the guiding force of rhythm. As described by the
stage theorist and designer Adolph Appia in a letter to Dalcroze from 1906, the
space, with all the salutary limitations which that must have for it."28
musical training, and only gradually, under Appia's influence, did he come to
factor in the history of visual theatre. Like Svoboda's work with space, it is
the rhythmical demands of her musical score, the final product is inevitably
Monk's affinity for Dalcroze and Appia's work becomes more apparent
factors in Monk's approach to performance has been her use of various "non-
theatrical" spaces for both her theatre and film work. Her loft in New York City,
the Guggenheim Museum, a parking lot, a quarry, Ellis Island, and a Medieval
town are but a few of them. As she points out, "I'm not interested in starting from
scratch and building a set, but the design element comes in very near the
beginning of each piece. I always choose the space early, and basically I feel that
opening allows Monk to juxtapose action from two separate places and times.
Southern and Northern family simultaneously. On the left of the stage Monk
presents a family from the South eating, sleeping, and dealing with the aftermath
of the war; on the right hand side of the stage a Northern family was seen going
through the same process. While seemingly immobile, the photograph above
offers an active juxtaposition between the representation of the North and South
through the medium of the family portrait. This spatial dialectic was compounded
30 Baker, "New Worlds For Old: The Visionary Art of Meredith Monk," 33.
160
by the coloration of the costume and lighting choices for each area. The Southern
sector was primarily warm, while the North was primarily cool. As can been seen
from the simple description above, Monk was not only having a dialogue with the
space, but allowing the space to have a dialogue with itself and with the staged
action.
She does not rely on pre-determined geometric spatial arrangements like Wilson
does, but rather structures the visual aspect of her work around the aural
patterns of repeated melodies that she composes either prior to, or during the
rehearsal process. Like her music, the movement of her pieces has a kind of
Expressing the convergence of memory and perception she declares, "I always
think of time in a circular way. That has to do with thinking that the now also
includes the past and the future. I try to make it so that the experience you have
is being aware as much as possible of being here at the moment. But the
moment 'now' must always include the past and the future in order for us to
appreciate it fully."31
and rhythm is so acute that even the presentation of her music in concert is
format, I am meticulous about the visual aspect - the costumes, the lights, how
the piano or organ is placed on the stage and how we move when we are singing
31 1993 interview.
32 Monk, Mosaic, 136.
161
always a visual experience. She rocks and keens, sways and stretches,
wrenching every ounce of expression out of her body and her voice. The body is
not assumed to be merely a physical presence, but becomes a conduit for the
expressiveness of the sound. "I don't think that the voice is separate from the
body. I mean, there wouldn't necessarily be gesture in every piece but there's
with shades of emotion - especially using the voice, where I am not using text, so
it can define these subtle shades of emotion that you can't verbalize."34 Illustrated
possible to infer that the body expresses as well as receives impulses apart from
My own first encounter with Meredith Monk was through her musical
simple melodies expressed by the human voice through sounds and not words,
arrangements have the precarious quality of seeming both old and new, familiar
and alien. Music critic Gregory Sandow describes her work as "scraps of melody
33 1993 interview.
34 Greenwald, "An Interview with Meredith Monk,"
162
that might be folk tunes of a culture she herself invented."35 The curious thing is
that if Monk has always been telling us about the past, present, and future of this
place of resonance that allows us to witness her creations as both different from
and remarkably similar to our own world. While this point of contact does not lie
and Barthes' examination of the "third meaning" in which the signifier does not
have a signified and the reading "remains suspended between the image and its
description, between definition and approximation."37 This does not place Monk's
echoing the patterns of sound contained in hymns, chants, and rituals. In this
signification that causes them to seem instantly familiar. Yet, beyond this, there is
also an alien quality to her work. The tunes seem familiar because they express
with Monk's work, Tolkien's reliance on song to convey the history of his
fabricated culture offers a unique parallel to Monk's musical creations.
37 Roland Barthes, Image Music Text, (New York: The Noonday Press,
1977), 61.
163
familiar emotions, and seem strange because they express these emotions in a
wholly unique way. Composed of low moans, piercing screeches, and melodious
vibrations these tunes demand to be addressed through the body as well as the
mind. Like any aural experience there is a certain amount of perception that
conscious subjection. As examined in the first chapter, there are various steps
through which perceptual information moves before it reaches short term, and
finally long term memory. My objective is not to imply that perceptual material is
not also dealt with in a conceptual (or cognitive) manner, but that the process of
perception and cognition are parallel , not identical, systems. Despite the
Barthes' description of the "grain" of the voice. As he defined it, "the 'grain' is the
materiality of the body speaking its mother tongue,"38 it is "the body in the voice
directness of the kinetic body present in the sound of Monk's voice is captured by
Barthes' description:
38 Ibid., 182.
39 Ibid., 188.
164
the words, their form (the litany), the melisma, and even the style of
execution: something which is directly the cantor's body, brought to
your ears in one and the same moment from deep down in the
cavities, the muscles, the membranes, the cartilages, and from
deep down in the Slavic language, as though a single skin lined the
inner flesh of the performer and the music he sings.40
as well as a cognitive, level. His narration of the "grain" of the voice illustrates the
dynamic process that is created by the interaction of the spectator and the
performer. Monk shares this interest with Barthes by dealing with material that
arose from his inability to linguistically capture what he saw or felt. His description
of the third meaning in relation to the visual experience of looking at stills from
Eisenstein's films combines with his discussion of the grain of the voice to take
the reader to a precarious ledge, beyond which there exists no words. Barthes
can analyze the individual signs that compose this process (the melisma, the
muscles, the membranes, the funny headdress, the old woman, the squinting
eyes, the fish), but ultimately he resorts to pointing at that which he cannot quite
his reaction to the performance of the Russian bass. This analysis is centered on
present, the visual and aural signs are present, easily named, catalogued and
40 Ibid., 181-2.
165
discussed, but their combination yields, in Benveniste's words, an essence that is
both infra- and supralinguistic, complex images that are composed of compound
signs that cannot be separated into individual units. Like Monk's vocal kinetic
energy expressed by the body, Barthes is dealing with something outside the
sound.
This kinetic grain is the same elusive element that the French theorist,
poet, and performer Antionin Artaud spent his entire life pursuing. Determined to
love and duty,"41 he sought to replace the theatre's reliance on verbal language
with a visual and aural equivalent. Like Monk he advocated a theatre that utilized
all of the concrete expressive means at its disposal. Placing his confidence in the
lighting and scenery he worked to create a theatre "intended for the senses and
independent of speech," that would "treat the spectators like the snakecharmer's
affected emotionally by the reception of the visual and aural material transferred
language.
spectator with a series of sensations, bodily shocks directed at the senses and
not the conscious mind, a conceptual stance that takes into account the
work. Framed within the idea of emotional and spiritual communication, her 1991
Antonin Artaud, The Theatre and its Double, (New York: Grove Press,
41
1958), 41.
42 Ibid., 37 and 81.
166
opera Atlas offers a wonderful look at this non-verbal process. Co-commissioned
by the Houston Grand Opera, the Walker Arts Center in Minneapolis, and the
noted, "We don't know this language, yet we understand its meaning. We can't
quite grasp the music, yet we feel its echoes in our bones."43
the physical world, Atlas takes the spectator on a journey to the far reaches of
consciousness, a physical and spiritual quest that embodies the structure of myth
that Joseph Campbell describes in The Hero With A Thousand Faces.44 Part I of
Music Theatre Festival, (The Annenberg Center, Philadelphia PA. June 5-8,
1991). "The sense of mystery, the gratitude for being alive, the sense of
167
Atlas , "Personal Climate," moves from the confines of the fifteen-year-old
domestic space of the living room and Alexandria's bedroom, this Part unfolds
through sections entitled "Home life 1," Home Life 2," and "Travel Dream Song."
We witness Alexandria struggling with her decision to leave her home and
parents and explore the vast wonders of the world. After interviewing and
"Forest Questions," and "Desert Tango" are all complete with their own physical
and vocal style. These connections allow Alexandria and her crew to experience
presented at the beginning of the act, Part II culminates with a section entitled
devastation by ascending a ladder that is lowered from the flies to signal the end
of Part II.
As the characters ascend the ladder they leave behind the violence and banality
of the everyday world. The narrative of travel that has controlled the first two
transcendent energy that unites all of us, coordinates our cities, coordinates our
lives - that's all been lost. The work of the artist is to interpret the contemporary
world as experienced in terms of relevance to our inner life. - Joseph Campbell,
An Open Life."
45 Who are judged to be useful to the group by the harmonious
of sound that emanate from continually shifting patterns of male and female
representation of the physical world as parts one and two are; rather the images
issue from the nirvana-like plane that Alexandria has achieved. By escaping the
confines of the material world she is now able to explore a spiritual one.
Worlds Revealed," and "Earth Seen From Above," Part III demonstrates Monk's
desire to elucidate that ethereal energy which is not generally addressed in the
consciousness of our daily lives. In fact, the entire opera is geared toward
in her program notes, Monk writes: "The Explorers are initiated and taught by
guides who lead them finally into a realm of pure energy. There, they become
Independent of the quest plot that dominated the first two sections, Part III
performer's bodies under the ever changing pulse of Monk's repetitive melodies.
There is no narrative to follow, no story to keep track of; instead the spectator is
free to visually absorb the patterns of movement created by the bodies of the
forms."47 Abandoning the narrative logic of the first two sections for a logic
predicated on the spatial and rhythmic construction of the piece, Atlas moves
metaphor for Monk's artistic process. Like Alexandria's journey from the domestic
environment of the first part to the visual fluidity of the opera's final section, Monk
continually asks her audience to move beyond the surface of the everyday to
not from fully developed characters, in the sense of traditional theatrical forms,
but from images. Recognizable archetypal figures like the mother, the father, a
dictator, a madwoman all become elements in her visual palette. As Monk points
out, "I am working with archetypes to elicit in the audience memories and feelings
that are usually covered up by daily life."48 Like the patterns of her music there is
a strange familiarity about these characters, we know them from dreams and
myths, from folk tales and fables. As Bonnie Marranca writes, "Monk has
she deals with myth, archetypes and consciousness as subject matter . . . Her
becoming allegory."49
The allegorical nature of Monk's work is conditioned by the fact that while
physical appearance, they are not as well defined as fully developed characters.
They are images, essences, or ideas of characters, but not the characters
themselves. By using these figures Monk provides a familiar visual frame drawn
from everyday life and allows the audience to fill in the specifics. In order to
complete with his pipe and newspaper, the "Donna Reed" mother with her apron
and long print dress, the madwoman's distant and erratic stare as displayed by
Through movement, gesture and voice Chong did not become a specific dictator,
point in the performance he delivered a speech that quoted the tirades of Hitler
character was almost too defined. "That's already much more specific than we
quality . . . I'm interested in working with the timeless."51 The strength of Monk's
of material that can be simultaneously seen as both old and new, familiar and
about our past as well as our present. She is as astute at manipulating the
images that comprise our cultural mythology as she is at inventing folk songs of a
fictional culture. Both rely on familiar elements pulled from many sources and
Someone who's putting together images and perceptions to make a musical kind
of form."52 It is through these orchestrations that the allegorical nature of her work
through the surface details; rather there is a depth of meaning produced by the
maintain their own individual integrity, that is, their own physical and archetypal
reality, the components of her theatrical tapestry work to resonate with (and
1984), 124.
53 Although the term "resonate" connotes an aural example, I have not
been able to find a suitable alternative to describe this visual phenomenon. While
"juxtaposition" is an adequate term, it does not indicate the level of confrontation
that some of these contrasting images engage in. It is the visual equivalent of
striking two sequential keys on the piano. The sound produced includes a certain
172
defined as "a dictator," Monk applied visual symbols to every actor to denote sex,
race, and age. Holding up each item in succession a narrator55 described the
symbols: black and white armbands denoted race, a yellow collar for male, blue
gloves for woman, and red shoes for child. The actors donned these items
irrespective of their race, sex or age. This visual system embraced the power of
armbands and gloves are not "natural signs," carried by the actors through their
skin color or physical sex, but artificial signs created to signify within parameters
of the performance space. The visual representation on the stage created a kind
of Brechtian separation of actor and character. The "natural" image of the actor's
actual sex or race ghosted through the symbol, allowing both to exist
simultaneously.
One of the most striking moments in the production was a scene in which
level of tension as one tone fights the other for dominance. (See the Rilke quote
that is included in the introduction).
54 Monk, Mosaic, 139.
55 Ostensibly a doctor of some kind due to the fact that he was dressed in
a hospital gown.
173
white male adult, but now simply adorned with a black armband. The dissection
stage. Certainly the image of a slave auction emanated from the combination of
visual signs, but due to the former labeling of the actor as white male adult, he
combination of race,
Combining familiar images and archetypal figures with artificial signs Monk
is able to provide the spectator with an evocative depth that signifies well beyond
the information embodied in the individual signs. As Sally Banes points out,
"Because Monk's symbols and stylizations are self-imposed, rather than the
visionary edge to the folk tale quality - it almost seems to be a metaphor about
making metaphors."56 While she does provide a visual structure, Monk's goal has
always been to allow the spectator the freedom to put the fragments of the
the stage as an arena to be filled both temporally and spatially. Combining music
with archetypal figures and physical objects she relies on the manipulability of the
visual world to structure her pieces. Like Duchamp, she finds "readymade" items,
and re-contextualizes them within the frame of her performance space. Although
these objects are visible entities, there is a tangible presence to them different
from the visible form of the image. They can be touched, held, looked at, and
physically moved from one spatial context to another. Though these objects are
drawn from the everyday world outside the boundaries of the stage, they "have a
special significance in Monk's world. They are the icons of human rituals, the
artifacts that link the past with the present. Objects cross international boundaries
and connect primitive societies with industrial ones."57 Explaining her use of
objects in the multi-performance spaced 1971 "Epic Opera" Vessel, Monk states:
These objects did not remain stable signifiers, but shifted and changed
visual expression as the scale and context of the piece moved from performance
space to performance space. "I was also working a lot with scale and with the
way objects transform. So in the first section of Vessel , the king throws down
real coins and then in the second section you could see that the miser had great
big wooden coins. Things shrink and expanded throughout the piece."59 Again
there is a sense of shifting perceptions, of altering the way in which the spectator
she shares with other artists who were experimenting with new forms of
performance in the early 1960's. After graduating from Sarah Lawrence College
in 1964 she moved to New York City to join the exploding experimental art scene.
was able to learn by working with or observing such visual artists as Claes
Oldenberg, Dick Higgins and Yvonne Rainer. "I was able to use myself not only in
terms of movement but I could talk, sing, build objects, play instruments. In other
And also the idea that I could give myself permission to utilize anything as
material."60 While Monk was able to mature as an artist within this active
60 Ibid., 2.
176
environment, she is careful to point out the difference between her approach to
performance and the work of such Happening artists as Oldenberg and Higgins.
In some ways the one thing that was weak about some of that work
was the time element. It was always very strong as far as the
images were concerned: materials, textures, visual textures. But
some of the artists definitely were not developing time based art.
They were evolving from plastic art. So it was difficult for them to
understand that time needed to be sculpted. So I took some of that
information and tried to integrate it into my work, which was more
structured in the sense of time, as I was from a performing
background.61
Monk's sense of time and rhythm that had developed from her eurhythmic
and musical training allowed her to create pieces that built on the plastic art
61 Ibid.
177
loft as functioning like the movement of
rhythmical visual patterns. Though the entire cast was visually united by the fact
that they were each wearing red boots, four individuals stood out from the crowd
by virtue of the fact that their entire bodies were painted red.
The second installment, presented three weeks later and across town from
part one, had only six performers, all painted red, and was situated within the
pork chop, a rocking horse, a slowly dismantled log cabin, books, and a quart of
milk.
Finally, it was in the third section, presented "one month to the day after
part one,"63 in the confines of Monk's loft, that the movement of the zoom lens
was complete. No live performers were present, but interviews of the red people
from part two were played on video tape. This entire section consisted of an
exhibition of objects and costumes from the first two parts of the performance;
the red boots, the logs, books, the pork chop, the rocking horse, etc. Monk
focused the spectator's attention onto the role that specific objects had played
within various spatial contexts. With each successive move, as performers were
Ibid., 3.
62
signification. With each successive section the objects embodied and expressed
both the present and the past, not merely coded within their current frame of
reference, but within the frame of what had previously transpired. Upon reaching
the final installment in Monk's loft, with the absence of live performers the objects
were left to interact with each other and the memory of how they were used in the
Moving through both space and time, these objects offer a comment on
was transformed from a museum to a theatre, and the loft from a performance
as the embodiment of both the Guggenheim and the Minor Latham, and finally as
transporting them from one context to the next, Monk was also sculpting the
temporal nature of the performance. Resonating with past actions and visual
contexts while simultaneously present before the spectator, the objects in Juice
subject of memory, not only within her performance spaces, but from a historical
circulate from one context to the next, signifying both within their original and
subsequent frameworks. Utilizing familiar objects and images drawn from popular
culture she is able to place into question not only how we culturally remember the
past, but what is lost in the process of that remembrance. Michel Foucault once
179
wrote that "history is that which transforms documents into monuments,"64 and I
believe this to be central to how we remember as well as how Monk uses images
two separate conclusions. The first is that documents appear as those tangible
remnants of the past that depict a certain reality, signify that something has
indeed occurred. The second is that through the process of examining and
containing these documents they are condensed into monuments, lauded images
specific historic information, like the Holocaust Museum's purpose to remind the
present not to repeat the horrors of the past, and providing traces of the past to
examination of a well known public structure like the Vietnam Memorial reveals a
the names of those whose lives were lost in this conflict is conditioned by the
surrounding reflective surface of the polished black marble gash that cuts its way
across the Washington landscape. Was this monument erected to honor the
dead, or to work toward erasing the shame that we as a culture feel for the
Building on Foucault's distinction between the record and its use, we can
examine the seemingly fixed perspective provided by the document, the listing of
bear upon this recorded information. This process of turning documents into
monuments does not merely allow for the signification of a singular past event,
but functions as an ocular surface (like the reflective exterior of the Vietnam wall,
Books, 1972), 7.
180
or the temporally and spatially circulated objects in Juice ) onto which ideas and
objects can embody memory, can carry with them specific information. It is
through this process of ideas projected onto material elements that Monk was
able to use the symbols of race, sex and age in Specimen Days . A convention
agreement allowed these images to represent certain data. The arm bands,
gloves and shoes by themselves do not embody what Monk has them signify, but
projected. As Joseph Campbell points out, "Symbols are only the vehicles of
communication; they must not be mistaken for the final term, the tenor, of the
reference. No matter how attractive or impressive they may seem, they remain
nature of the Liberty Bell, for example, though having historic significance due to
its age, is in physical reality little more than a cracked slab of metal. It is only
through a collective act of projection that this monument is able to signify what it
does.
figures, she combines these elements with specific tangible objects in order to re-
reading of an event and its accepted cultural interpretation. While each of us may
approach an occurrence like World War II or the Civil War with our own
collective lens.
collectively acknowledged "accepted" writing of these events that the most tragic
heroes of their age."66 That is, prominent leaders or villains like General Grant or
We are generally offered a collective perspective that often silences lesser known
voices, many of which are ultimately lost in the Foucauldian shuffle from
document to monument.
specific well known historical characters, but on more intimate, personal images,
generally structured around the archetypal family unit. Although she uses media
generated, or collectively defined images (the apron clad mother, the pipe
smoking father, and the inquisitive child), she works to avoid the representation
concerned with the moments in our lives when the family makes contact through
being drawn together in the same physical location. At dinner, reading the paper,
listening to the radio, these domestic arenas provide a stable base from which
Monk can create her theatrical mosaics. By framing her pieces in such a way
provides a place where the audience member can "hook into" the images, a
home life and childhood are an essential thematics in her theatrical narrative . . .
[so much so that] the institutional branch of her artistic company she named 'The
House."68
chairs combined with archetypal figures, Monk is able to direct the spectator on a
journey to see historic events from a more individual perspective. There is always
a sense of "seeing" things in a different light; not that cast by the burning
buildings of Kristallnacht, but viewed from the glow of the familial hearth. "By
metamorphoses take place not in the surface of an object (or movement) itself,
but as its function or spatial context or timing changes - in much the same way
release new meanings."69 Monk relies on the strength of the visual plane and its
wrenched quotidian movements and objects from the context of the everyday
new frameworks, forming within the theatre a separate world with its own logic."70
up the "naturalized" constructions of history, she does not focus on it for nostalgic
purposes. Monk believes that "everything you do [as an artist] has always
Through her art, history is exhumed to affect future readings, and the distinct
layers of the past are disrupted as she excavates stories and images to present
71 Baker, "New Worlds For Old: The Visionary Art of Meredith Monk," 34.
184
examination of what has past, and the way in which we are constructing the
confluence of past and present. The film begins with the screen filled with a
close-up of a modern red brick wall. Hands move into the scene and proceed to
chisel the stone. Explosives are set into the fresh holes, followed by a verbal
The image slowly fades from color to black and white, as people begin to move
into view. They chop wood, shake out clothes, dump water, sweep. As the
Like all of Monk's works, these ancient images are perceived through the
circulates amongst the inhabitants asking questions like: "Can you tell me a
joke?" The "narrative" of the film centers on a young girl who is plagued by
185
visions, images of cars and planes, eyeglasses and suitcases which neither she
nor her grandfather can adequately explain. There is a sense of images from our
world invading the past. Yet, as the images cycle from past to present and
present to past Monk allows the past to "speak" for itself. As one critic observes:
The camera pans slowly past a long row of plates and spoons
bathed in light, each casting a deep shadow to the right. At first it
seems like an artfully photographed catalogue of artifacts from a
past culture. Then hands come into the frame, showing how the
utensils are used to serve, eat, etc. Soon we hear the sounds of a
family meal, and at the end, the camera pulls back beyond the
world-of-the-table to reveal the people who are eating, talking,
busily engaged in family life. It is a visual equivalent to the
archeological process, extrapolating backward from the artifacts to
the life that created them, with the limits of the film's frame
representing the archeologist's slowly enlarging vision.72
Recent Ruins . This piece was, as she states, built around the "notion of
reading of past civilizations through their objects and images, but, in Monk's
words, depicts "The irony and folly of archeology and the fascination about
digging up other cultures and thinking that you may know something about
them."74 Her artistic process is devoted to re-examining the past in order to reveal
how our present reading of it has been constructed. Addressing this act of
Finkelstein, 61.
72
never seen one of her completely astonishing works without feeling that every act
gestures.75
The structure of the piece allows for objects and images of the past to
the stage there is a small platform on which two people sit at a table and attempt
character.
Beginning with simple pots and jugs, the typical objects unearthed by most
archaeological digs, the drawings grow to depict vacuum cleaner parts, broken
pliers, a hammer, and an electric iron. Using the projection screen to juxtapose
evaluation of these historical objects within her immediate theatrical context, but
While these images carry with them the fragmented cargo of their
original frame of reference, offer a dim reminder of how they may or may not
have been used in the past. Their presence on stage silently questions how we
can expect an electric iron to instruct future generations about our civilization,
our ancestors. Cut off from their initial code these objects function as random
peoples her theatrical space with add another dimension to her examination of
the historical process. She juxtaposes two Victorian explorers with two
archeologists, and a doctor and nurse clad in white lab coats complete with clip
expected each successive generation excavates that which a previous one has
left behind, but Monk allows this strict chronology to be overrun as past and
something from the present and vice versa. This "unearthing" activity is
contemporary phrases like "E=MC2." The chalk is able to connote not only
physical evidence, but philosophical residue, ideas left over from previous
188
cultures (in this case our own). Underscoring the archeological folly of these
discoveries, all of the time frames are united by a single image in which there
This process of juxtaposing images of the present with those of the past
was also a major element of her 1984 collaboration with Ping Chong, The Games
. As Monk assesses their combined efforts she notes that "Our collaborations
have a different quality than either his work or my own. They are a little less
music than what I usually do and less static imagery than what he usually
does."76 Despite the differences, the hallmarks of Monk's individual style are still
which people from our future attempt to maintain an image of their past (which is
our present). The framing device for this piece is not archeology, but "memory
the past.
like "What does IBM stand for?" "Was religion an organized pastime or a form of
a glove, a razor, a comb, a pair of pliers, channel locks, a clothes pin, a fork, a
What do they mean, these strange objects from our past? Tying these images
and objects into the whole of Monk's work, it is interesting to note that these are
domestic objects, things that one might find in a "utility" drawer in any home.
Through The Games we are permitted to see how a future culture might read
elements from its past, our present. This process asks the question: "How much
can one know about a culture from its objects?" "What do these documents of the
past offer in the way of describing or illuminating how a people lived?" There is a
memory implied, a collective act of writing the past on its tangible remnants.
190
Memory Part Two: The Photographic Image:
the photograph. Accessible to both cultural and personal spheres, the frozen
from document to monument. This is, of course, not just a collective action, but a
mother that captures the essence of who he believed she was. He analyzes the
process of looking for one single image that will allow him to "find" his mother.
Photography, for Barthes, was a special art. As a form of documenting the past
can never deny that the thing has been there. There is a superimposition here: of
reality and of the past."77 It is the photograph that captures the real, that exists as
a document with a direct correlation between the original event and the image.
As Barthes points out, "It is as if the photograph always carries its referent with
historical frame. The frozen image is free to transcend its original context, set
as linked as the two limbs of the photograph are it also functions to separate that
image both physically and chronologically from the initial event. Wary of the
Benjamin summed this process up quite well when he wrote that "technical
reproduction can put a copy of the original into situations which would be out of
reach for the original."79 Like Monk's circulation of material objects, the
monumentalized at will.
photograph exists as documentation, not just of events and objects, but individual
subjects. This process of representation does more than just capture the image
which transforms subject into object."80 Physically the photograph can be cut up,
drawn on, catalogued, altered, in short, used as a document for the construction
of a particular reading of history. Seeing the real in Barthes' case was not merely
a process of finding just any photograph that documented his mother's existence,
but a distinct one onto which he could graft all of his feelings and memories of
who she had been, thus working to monumentalize her silent frozen image.
the tension between the subject and object status of the fixed document. By
endowing the frozen image of his mother with all of his memories, Barthes
simply representing that which has passed and not see it as an active process of
as we read photographs in the present, we are also writing upon them. The
difficulty with this historic process is that as the silent image is resurrected, as the
plunging both the document and its reading into a Derridean cycle of infinitely
differed (and deferred) signification. While the image itself may be a fixed record
movement, and film she compels the spectator to examine familiar material from
include those voices that, due to the narrow focus of traditional historical
construction, have been silenced. This is a process, that along with Foucault,
Monk shares with both feminist historians and those ascribing to the basic tenets
of "new historicism."
Though Monk does not deny that she is concerned with feminist issues,
she ultimately defines herself as a humanist.81 While the subject of her pieces
subject matter that places her work into a feminist frame. By fighting the
"revisionist history" that echoes feminist critic and filmmaker Trinh T. Minh-ha's
evaluation of the act of writing. "Neither entirely personal nor purely historical, a
assertion that, "history now organizes the document, divides it up, distributes it,
relations."83 Her objective is to cut through the layers of established reading and
return the viewer to the initial event. She explores history through voices
visions history by acknowledging the myth of heroic women in ancient times: the
woman warrior leading the community and the goddess defending herself from
human transgressions."84 It is through this process that Monk questions not only
which was not considered relevant, but the manner in which we read and write
sciences, hard and soft. It scrutinizes the barbaric acts that sometimes
underwrite high cultural purposes and asks that we not blink away our complicity.
margins to re-interpret the center, new historicism guru Stephen Greenblatt re-
of the New Found Land of Virginia . Concluding his essay "Invisible Bullets,"
stating that, "Like Harriot in the New World, the Henry plays confirm the
Machiavellian hypothesis that princely power originates in force and fraud even
common with new historicism, Monk's creative function does more than simply
place dissimilar elements next to each other. Her productions exhume past
disarm their mute monumentality. In this way she provides a means for the
documenting the past, but also used photographs and photography widely in her
theatre pieces and films. In Quarry, a man, who is later revealed to be working
for Ping Chong's dictator character comes on stage and takes photographs with
a flash camera that instantly kills the captured individual. The process of
integral part of her Civil War piece Specimen Days . One of the recurrent themes
of the piece is the isolation of a stray moment in time by the photographer's plate.
A character repeatedly carries a large antique box camera, complete with a tripod
and black cape, into the performance space. At one specific moment, as the
camera is set up and the photo is taken, all of those on stage fall dead. There is a
sense of questioning the freezing, capturing, and killing off of that which was
of documenting the past is her film Ellis Island . Originally produced as a part of
Recent Ruins , Monk expanded the film in 1981 to be an independent work in its
own right. Filmed at the ruins of Ellis Island prior to the recent renovation, she
with the late twentieth century decay; once again creating an atmosphere in
atmospheric look at a place and a time."87 As the images from the past mingle
with the ruins of the present, each visually comments upon the other creating an
atmosphere in which the immigrants seem to exist as ghostly forms haunting the
abandoned island.
87 Arthur Unger, "On TV: Meredith Monk," The Christian Science Monitor,
(Friday, January 28, 1983).
196
Monk makes periodic jumps between black and white and color. The early
twentieth-century characters dwell in the black and white ruins while the color
through the decayed site. The film begins with a color time lapse sunrise and
sunset over the island, and moves to what appear to be black and white
through both the costume and physical arrangements of the subjects, complete
Marranca noted of the film's inclusion in the stage presentation, "This section of
88Note the use of the archeologist's staff for scale, as well as the ironic
evaluation of these living beings with a device generally reserved for inanimate
objects.
197
Recent Ruins represents the modern obsession with codifying and documenting
the individual subjects, but with each successive image, some tiny bit of
representations of the past come alive as one person blinks, another slightly
shifts his or her weight, and a woman brushes a piece of lint from her husband's
jacket. With each break, the object returns to subject status, reminding us that
the representations of the past are merely frozen images of people that had once
existed. Like Barthes' personal investment in the photograph of his mother, Monk
documentation, these immigrants, these subjects drawn from our past, are
and prodded by doctors and immigration officials these human beings are
Barthes' mental writing on the image of his mother, Monk presents the faces of
men and women as they are written on by the visible hands of otherwise unseen
officials. Letters, numbers, the circling of select body parts, and words such as
"Serb," dissect and catalogue the human form. The living, breathing subjects are
history. Yet, as the customs officials scrutinize and label these individuals, they
blink and shift their weight, restoring the silenced object to subject status.
individual as Monk utilizes the dynamic technology of the film to combat the static
technology of the photograph. In this respect she is using the medium of the film
question of 'framing' reality in its course. However, it can also be the place where
the referential function of film image/sound is not simply negated, but reflected
identification with the phenomenal world."90 The process of writing upon and
the film destroys the static nature of the photograph to permit the objectified
history through images from the past function within our present context, and at
what cost? By extracting objects and images from their original frame of
reference and re-contextualizing them within her performance space, Monk, like
Foucault, has been able to draw attention to the organization of history not as an
excavations, Monk shares with feminism and new historicism the desire to
reading of the historical past. Yet, beyond this, the critical nature of her work
construction.
90Trinh T. Minh-ha, When the Moon Waxes Red, (New York: Routledge,
1991), 43.
199
As shown in the example of Ellis Island , her manipulation of imagery and
technology works to break the plane of the static image in an attempt to reveal
the personal history behind the construction. As an artist, Monk examines how
history has silenced voices of the past by turning subject into object. Like
Barthes, Monk works to de-mythify naturalized myths and forces the spectator to
search for the elusive essence of the living within the frozen images of the past,
an apparition that lies beyond the reach of verbal language alone. Finally it is
through this process of visual re-contextualization that she is able to question the
museum of historic images and myths, reshape them, and subvert the
The career of theatre director, designer, and visionary Robert Wilson has
director both at home and abroad. By structuring his productions around visual
images rather than a written text, he significantly downplays the narrative aspect
concerned with form and structure than it is with plot or linear narrative.
dynamic space through the manipulation of familiar media images resonates with
the analyses provided by the previous two chapters. By working as the designer
of the stage space as well as the director of the staged action, he combines the
strengths of Svoboda and Monk. It seems appropriate that this study culminate in
an investigation of his work, because Wilson was an integral part of its inception.
visual analysis, but beyond this it is Wilson's desire to explore alternate modes of
perception that offers a unique perspective on the art of the theatre. As the
dynamism of visual theatre, and the chapter on Monk analyzed her novel, visual
Witkiewicz's theatre of pure form, and Artaud's sensorial theatre. Like Artaud,
Wilson has always worked toward a theatre that supplants the narrative content
of the plot with the structural context of visual expression. Yet, unlike Artaud,
something that Artaud only dreamed of. Wilson's compositions remain the
who has ever written about him, so much so that his upbringing in Waco, Texas,
his former speech impediment, architectural study, and work with handicapped
individuals extends out like some biographical mantra. This study is not focused
and evaluating his complete oeuvre.2 It is, however, geared toward analyzing
how, through various techniques, Wilson's approach to the theatre has taught
Like Monk, Wilson is not concerned with presenting works that are closed
presented, and come away from the experience having reassembled the
meaning with his theatrical works, Wilson encourages the spectator to focus on
the organization of the stage space and not the content of that organization. "Go
like you would to a museum, like you would look at a painting. Appreciate the
color of the apple, the line of the dress, the glow of the light ... You don't have to
think about the story, because there isn't any. You don't have to listen to the
words, because the words don't mean anything. You just enjoy the scenery, the
architectural arrangements in time and space, the music, the feelings they all
Umberto Eco to compare Wilson's work to his own exploration of the interpretive
process chronicled in The Open Work.4 For Eco, a work of art is "a complete and
closed form in its uniqueness as a balanced organic whole, while at the same
more traditional theatrical models the text and the image, Eco's form and product,
are woven together in a seamless process in which one supports the other,
pointing the spectator toward a specific interpretation. Wilson, on the other hand,
structures his works so that the two do not necessarily match up. Like Monk, he
[that] which has no meaning at all before the interpretation of the spectator."6
allowing for the convergence of the two not in the theatrical frame, but within the
mind of the spectator. "If I merely illustrate the text, as happens frequently in
theatre, with gestures or with decor or with the costumes, then ultimately they're
superfluous decoration and it's better to just stay home and read the text. You
must try to create a sense of 'I see this and I here that,' and what happens is that
in the mixing in the head something else happens."7 This process is very similar
which "art begins the moment the creaking of a boot on the sound-track occurs
associations."8
separate visual or aural images in film, Eisenstein captured the dynamic principle
spin our own play is one of the enduring pleasures of Wilson's spectacles."9 As a
work of art that uses icons, images, objects and the gesture and movement of the
human form to structure the stage space, Wilson's pieces comprise "an open and
6 Patrice Pavis, Languages of the Stage ,(New York: The Performing Arts
Journal, 1982), 152.
7 Alisha Solomon, "Theatre of No Ideas: A Conversation with Robert
Wilson and Heiner Müller," The Village Voice ,( July 29, 1986), 39.
8 Quoted in Roland Barthes, Image Music Text, (New York: The Noonday
for his own reconstructions."10 Because they stress individual elements over
narrative structure it is clear, that, as one early critic pointed out, Wilson's
acquired from one of his acknowledged influences, the avant-guarde artist and
elements laid the groundwork for many of the artists that were to grow and
flourish in New York in the late sixties and early seventies. Pushing the
planned or unplanned, as part of the entire artistic process. One of his most
Tudor, sat at the piano for four minutes and thirty-three seconds, silently moving
his arms three times."12 Cage's point was that everything the audience was
outside the realm of artistic expression. His focus, like Wilson's, was on the
experience and not the comprehension of it. As Cage has stated, "I think that the
division is between understanding and experiencing, and many people think that
choreographer Merce Cunningham that has had one of the most profound
collaborations, the two would independently "compose" their own music and
dance patterns, and then put the two pieces together. The result would be a
connections between the discrete elements. Since the work was not closed on a
commented upon each other by virtue of their contiguity in space and time, the
spectator was free to appreciate both music and dance separately as well as
their convergence within the plane of the performance. Ultimately, from this
experience.
This process created its own flexible logical structure through the dynamic
movement, was defined in relation to the temporal frame of the performance. Like
the individual elements of color, line, and shape in a painting, they signified by
virtue of what aurally, visually, and contextually surrounded them at any given
point. As dance critic and early Wilson collaborator Kenneth King points out,
mode or register can create its own contexts and, further, how those contexts can
flexibly shift the focus, perspective(s), and dimensionalities within the internal
artistic methodology.
Like the physical presence of Polish theatre director Tadeusz Kantor throughout
all of his works, Wilson's "hands" can always be seen shaping and manipulating
images from many different sources and filtering them through his structural
John Conklin pointed out, however, that "The stereotype is that he's a dictator
working with puppets. It isn't true. He shapes it but leaves an enormous amount
for others to do."15 Wilson thrives on the continual influx of fresh ideas, new
material from various sources. As he has discussed, "The best thing is to try to
contradict yourself, to find collaborators as different as, say, Tom Waits and
Heiner Müller. Listening to other people helps you find new ideas, new
have taken the framework of the chance collaborations of Cunningham and Cage
construction of space, then Wilson's flow of images reflects his investment in the
stage as an architectural plane composed of both space and time. Like Svoboda,
manipulating the movement of images and sounds as they continually define and
re-define the spatial structure of the stage. While architecture can be seen as a
metaphor for his work, the fact remains that his attention to physical forms over
narrative content indicates that his architectural sense is the guiding force for all
of his productions.
cohere to form a single structural entity. As Jan Mukarovsky writes in his essay
architecture organizes this space as a whole, we mean that none of the parts of
architecture has functional independence but that each of them is evaluated only
according to how it forms the space into which it is incorporated and which it
the isolated pieces together fulfilling his role as the architect of the performance
space while working from an imaginary blueprint that he may or may not be
conscious of. Though there is always a molding and shaping process, Wilson
maintains: "I work out of intuition. Somehow it seems right...The work mostly has
some architectural reasons. This one's here because that one's there."18
spaces in which she continually changes the relationship of the spectator to the
as he manipulates the space that extends both horizontally across the front of the
arch and vertically back to the depth of the stage. Though these stage images
are open for interpretation, they are all carefully structured according to Wilson's
configuration rather than its linguistic counterpart, Wilson's theatre reflects what
unity which 'maintains, but only just maintains, a control over the clashing
elements which compose it. Chaos is very near; its nearness, but its avoidance,
gives . . . force."19 As Wilson is fond of stating, "I can never explain the way
something is done. it just seems right. Things aren't necessarily arbitrary, but I
can't say exactly why they seem to be so. I think it probably would have a logic of
a pre-existing text, but by the logic of spatial construction. His is a theatre of true
dynamic quality. Elements take on meaning not as they are dissected and
As one critic assesses, "structure is thus inborn, that is emerges while the work is
1978), 23.
203
performed as the spectator spontaneously apprehends the relations obtaining
images, but resides in intuitively grasped similarities among images derived from
a common motif."21
geared toward and determined by the organization of the narrative, and in this
however, there is always the guiding form before the specifics. Rather than
array of black and white sketches that provide a storyboard of the spatial action
as it moves from moment to moment. These are not specifically detailed images,
arrangements.
privileges horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines into which the actor, objects, and
with designers to help him realize these compositions on the stage. According to
that "Bob himself does not know technically how to accomplish things."22
Continuing to closely collaborate with set, light and costume designers for
technical reasons, he is still very much in control of the final image, and, in the
traditional sense, more than just a director. As one time Wilson performer Stefan
Frequent set collaborator Tom Kamm explains more precisely that "There
are three basic things that Bob does. There's the back wall, the floor and the
elements within that. It's a very classical use of stage space. Very horizontal,
integrated, lack of decoration. Wing and drop, very little departure from that."24
There is the utmost control over how this geometric space is arranged and
divided. For his production of A Letter for Queen Victoria Wilson describes how
The stage was divided into diagonal sections. When the curtain
went up, Sheryl Sutton was standing tall upstage left and Cindy
production of Einstein on the Beach he stated, "you find them everywhere: from
the train's cowcatcher to the triangular light coming down in the courtroom
spaceship scene."26
33.
206
Wilson's productions rely more on the interaction of forms in space than a more
influenced by a photograph that Wilson had seen of former Nazi Rudolph Hess
raking leaves in his prison yard, the rake handle became a cane, a glowing rod, a
baton, a sword. In his monumental epic production of the CIVIL warS ,27 the
repetition of the triangular shape was seen as icebergs, tents, a shark fin, a
sailboat, and the mosquito netting placed over cots. As can be seen with the
formationally differ very little from those used in the CIVIL warS. Due to his
arrangement that surrounds them. While the triangular forms may remain the
same, or in the case of the rake handle may even be the same object, their
His stage images are an exercise in spatial control and visual modification,
and he often conceives of the stage space the way a painter might, as a portrait,
a still life, or a landscape. At one point the entire stage image may be confined to
a small platform at the edge of the stage, as he often does creating what he has
termed "knee plays." These articulated joints connect one section of the work to
up views are often juxtaposed with larger, full stage landscape images,
illustrating the fact that Wilson's theatre is one of size and zones. Through his
audience's sense of perspective, a process that can be seen here in this photo
toward the front of the proscenium arch, the size of the little person should
indicate a faraway position, while on the horizon a normal sized person stands,
reversing the landscape perspective. Placed in between the two is the "largest
woman in the world." This image provides both a landscape with a skewed
In another section of the CIVIL warS there is a shift in size of one of the
stage figures. In the opening of the Rome section the image of a huge Abraham
Lincoln is presented, towering over the stage. Later on, towards the end of the
as if in the beginning of the piece the spectator were right on top of Lincoln,
seeing him as a massive entity, but by the end of the piece, the perspective is
perspectival shift is also evident in one of Wilson's earliest pieces, his 1969
production of The King of Spain . Ignored by all on stage, four large cat legs
silently walk through a musty Victorian drawing room, thus creating a tension of
size and perspective. Juxtaposed with the "normal" sized actors the cat's legs
seem huge, and against the huge furry legs the actors are dwarfed. In one instant
the landscape image of the drawing room is transformed into a close-up of a cat,
Hugging the plane of the proscenium, the cat legs were literally presented
in a separate physical and temporal domain from the rest of the action. In an
attempt to replicate the spatial structure of his drawings, Wilson has very often
divided his playing space into separate zones. As can be seen in this ground
plan for his 1970 production of Deafman Glance , the stage was divided into
discrete units, each with its own sense of time and spatial reality.
210
The spectator is left to view the action through these zones, blending the
information that each provides. While all of the zones may have been conceived
tapestry. Each of the images presented in these separate zones are contiguous
example from the CIVIL warS, while there may be a distinct foreground, mid-
ground and background, the composite image does not necessarily replicate the
noted that "As a result, we were continually discovering that we were in the
'wrong place' - or, more accurately, that there was no right place, or that there
were always other places."28 Though we can't "see" everything all at once, we
are still aware of the physical presence as elements invariably contextually affect
each other. While in no way does this layering of the stage images function in a
mimetic sense (that is, Wilson is not attempting to re-create on stage a specific
scene or dramatic moment taken from reality), it does replicate the process of
28Leo Bersani, A Future For Astyanax , (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co.,
1969), 284.
211
a visual and temporal convergence of images that are not necessarily connected
by any other reason than that they happen to be transpiring at the same place
and time. This process of spatio-temporal layering reflects the dadaist notion of
the senses into a contiguous whole. This spatial and temporal contiguity does not
whole assembled through the convergence of bits of visual and aural data.
ability to present images as if one were watching a single picture slowly coming
into focus. As Wilson pointed out in a recent lecture, The Life and Times of
Sigmund Freud was staged around the image of Freud experiencing the grief at
we might in the traditional theatre, but rather we witness the depth of images as
they are layered over time. There is always a sense of depth to Wilson's work,
not just spatial depth but temporal depth, as if the whole of someone's life and
memory could be viewed in a single, stratified glance. Elements from one section
of the individual's life are juxtaposed with another without reliance on chronology.
Like the structure of the human mind in which a memory from many years ago
can be invoked by a recent occurrence. The two time frames collide as the past
Wilson's layered theatre images are not simply wiped away and replaced
in a linear sense, but converge to generate the overall visual structure as the
for quite some time before the surrounding elements converge upon it, and
provide a more defined context. Wilson described Act 1 of Freud , "The Beach,"
as the early years of Freud's life. Within this image there was a chair that was
the way down. Act 3, placed in a cave, culminated in the death of the grandson,
as an actor representing Freud walked onto the stage to sit in the chair which had
now reached its final position on the floor next to a table. The image of grief was
now in focus, the chair and other surrounding images had finally reached their
concluding destination.
This type of temporal layering in which the past, present and future are
point a scrim was lowered in front of the stage action and projected on it was the
image of a woman with her left hand positioned as if to suggest that she was
supporting something delicate. Behind the scrim, two actors that had taken their
positions quite some time before the scrim was lowered, appeared to be sitting in
her hand. Having frozen in these poses prior to the lowering of the scrim, the
visual objective behind their positioning only became apparent after the
projection completed the image. With this process of slow focus the location of a
person or set piece may be attained minutes, or, in some instances, hours before
it becomes evident what the structural purpose is behind this position. Wilson's
213
guiding spatial arrangement, the pre-defined geometrical form, governs the
made based on the information that is attained, and one alters these
more in focus. With Wilson's theatre we see the stratified stage images, each
placed in its own zone and conditioned by a distinctive sense of space and time.
Yet these fragments cohere into a visual and temporal whole as they are
point, and it slowly becomes evident what the geometrically determined logical
structure is that controls their placement, the separate zones dissolve into a
However, this single image does not appear as unified as one might
point of convergence, Wilson distributes the focal point over the breadth and
depth of the stage to create an image that has the impact of viewing something
smaller scenes and images. To extend this idea into the dramatic realm, unlike
more traditional forms of drama that centralize the plot to focus on one or two
the margins of his space. Nothing is central, and yet everything is; there is no
detail has the same essential purpose as the most grandiose gesture. The stage
having some points of convergence, differs from the work of an artist like Monk in
the respect that the former is spatial while the latter is more overtly political. Monk
Images:
characteristic work, he shuns the organization of a verbal text and relies solely on
the juxtaposition of objects and images to carry the production from beginning to
end. Not concerned with the linear progression of a narrative moving from
Cage and Cunningham, Wilson cites Raymond Andrews, a deaf child whom he
adopted in the early 1970s, and Christopher Knowles, born with severe "brain
art. What Wilson saw in these two was not an aberration or handicap, but an
impediments, Wilson discovered that both saw the world in unique ways. As he
Carpenter Fine Arts Center. (New York: The Byrd Hoffman Foundation).
215
Gardner describes in his Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.
structuring intelligence and that the human mind contains a number of alternative
"each intelligence has its own ordering mechanisms, and the way that an
intelligence performs its ordering reflects its own principles and its own preferred
media."30
referring to the way the mind is able to compensate for what is lost through
authors; and yet severely aphasic patients have retained their abilities to be
other forms of intellect."31 What Gardner has explored is the founding premise of
this entire study; the fact that language is but one of the ways to structure our
perceptions of the world. Wilson illuminates this through his reliance on certain
progression. It is in this respect that his work must be experienced and not
understood.
directly in the mind of the perceiver. But, as Stefan Brecht is careful to point out,
openness to Wilson's works. They are not closed on a single evocation, but, like
Monk's compositions, rely on the spectator to experience them on his or her own
terms.
Wilson's theatre has progressed from his early "silent operas," in which
the stage action unfolded with little or no sound, through a "transitional" phase in
which he began to incorporate more written texts, to his more recent interaction
with certain classical works.34 While he has moved through silence to the
communicative signs, but merely as elements of the entire stage collage. This is
interpretation of his works, as "any use of language poses a problem for theatre
work built primarily upon images, simply because language represents a more
Jan Mukarovsky, "The Essence of the Visual Arts" Semiotics of Art, eds.
32
Wagner's Parsifal , and his 1990 interpretation of Shakespeare's King Lear are
but a few.
35 Michael Vanden Heuvel, Performing Drama/Dramatizing Performance:
Alternative Theatre and the Dramatic Text, (Ann Arbor: The University of
Michigan Press, 1991), 166.
217
Indeed, so difficult is this gesture of incorporating language into his previously
silent works that Stefan Brecht feels that "Wilson's attempt to incorporate speech
independently of its syntactic and semantic essence into his theatre of visions
destroyed it."36
While Wilson's attention to the physical structure of the stage space is still
evident in the productions that incorporated words, this transition from silence to
language denotes a specific shift in his theatrical process. His collaboration with
terms of geometry."37 For Knowles, Wilson explains, "Words are like molecules
which are always changing their configurations, breaking apart and recombining .
. . Everything he does makes sense but not in the way we're accustomed to. It
has a logic of its own . . . Chris constructs as he speaks. It's as though he sees
the words before him in space. He uses language as much for its geometric
The two met after Wilson had listened to a tape of Knowles' sound poetry.
He discovered that the young poet's "autistic" sense of language relied on words
more for their spatial and sonorous effect than as vehicles for communication. As
research has found that "whenever words are used meaningfully, they tend to
concrete objects are labeled than they do when labels are used to refer to
36 Brecht, 267.
37 Alenikoff, 19.
objects, existing within specific spatial contexts. Like physical objects, words
abstraction, no sense of removing the words from the context in which they were
been spoken by another person. While autistic individuals may be very gifted in
childhood autism may be " a severe impairment in the normal human ability to
the concepts in symbolic form, and to draw on them for relevant associations
when thinking of the past, relating to the present and planning for the future."40
Perhaps, like Borges' remarkably perceptive character Funes, the scope of the
language.
down sentences into objectified elements and restructuring them as spatial sound
poems suspended in the air in front of him. His works, like Wilson's, have a
geometric structural logic to them, as this example of one of his typed poems
indicates.
Playwright Heiner Müller, "Bob treats a text like a piece of furniture. He doesn't try
emotion. It's just a thing. That's what I like about his way because a text can
stand for itself. It doesn't need support, it doesn't need help."42 This treatment of
verbal language as a series of tangible structural units parallels his exhibition of
visual material in discrete zones and layers. Each image is complete unto itself,
communication, his work with text has been characterized by the removal of
elements from their original context and, through repetition and juxtaposition, a
reduction of language to a series of unconnected words and phrases. As shown
here in this exchange from A Letter For Queen Victoria, a piece co-written with
within the body of the moving stage production, is evident. Not assigned to any
The individual communicative signs themselves are recognizable, but their use is
not. Indeed whole phrases are taken from their original context and through
juxtaposition with other words and phrases become re-coded within the frame of
the performance. "Details at ten," while retaining its external reference to the
these signs are "used merely for their sound and music value; language is
both in referential meaning and its gesture (intonation, rhythm, pitch, 'grain'),
speech contains the potential for presence and its investment in meaning and
power."45 As Vanden Heuvel points out, the use of language, or in Wilson's case
words, is not an isolated system of signs but directly influenced by the natural
vocal qualities of the actor. Addressing this complex process of vocal "coloration"
dissociating the sound from the human form. By separating that which we
43Robert Wilson, A Letter For Queen Victoria , The Theatre of Images, ed.
Bonnie Marranca (New York: The Performing Arts Journal, 1977), 87.
44 Marranca, The Theatre of Images, 41.
from the actor. Commenting upon this action Wilson stated that "I am attracted to
the mask. With the Greek mask we have an image and we have a sound...That's
one reason I use microphones, to create a distance between the sound and the
been experimenting with since the 1970's, he separates the form of the human
voice from its function as a communicative entity, thus working toward the use of
fuse the disparate elements of the human voice and the movement of the actor,
but purposely segments them, allowing them to exist autonomously within his
constructed environment. This replicates the division of the stage space into
discrete zones. Long time collaborator Sheryl Sutton observes that "He's always
been interested in layers and that's how he builds his stage in a way - the images
are one layer, the sound another layer, the language another."47 Not closed on a
single interpretation, he is invested in the belief that "You have to be able to say
the text in a way that one can think about many sorts of things. If you say it in
such a way that you have to pay attention to every word you'll go crazy because
one thought doesn't follow another thought logically. One thought can set off
many thoughts."48 This is language used, not for its signifying properties as a
people, most notably sound designer Hans Peter Kuhn. Since their first
collaboration, the 1978 production of Death Destruction and Detroit , Kuhn's work
collaborated on the 1986 Alcestis and the 1991 When We Dead Awaken ). On
DD&D Wilson made two requests of Kuhn, "The principal performers should all
wear body mikes and their voices should seem to come from somewhere other
than their mouths."49 Kuhn felt that "Just separating the voice from the performer
is not very interesting. It's like having a TV with the speakers on the side, after
awhile you hear the sound coming from the images anyway... So I said why don't
space."50 The end result was to disperse the actors' voices over ten separate
speakers located throughout the theatre. The words themselves, separated from
the action of the body, hovered over the action and combined with other sounds,
music, words and phrases to form a complex sound collage. This allowed the
aural element of the production, the text, to be fractured into artistic signs rather
temporally and spatially distanced from the body of the actor the words resist
commentary on the action but, as Wilson observed, "like the weather, something
51 Robb Baker, "The Mystery is in the Surface: A day in the mind of Robert
coloration. As Helga Finter observed, "the voice has no grain: amplified by the
object."52 Unlike Meredith Monk's complete investment in the body of the actor as
a conduit for the emanating sounds, Wilson nullifies this Barthesian grain in the
wake of his electronic sound collages. Mixing the physical presence of the actor
Watching Wilson's spectacles live, one is never sure at what point the
actor stops and the tape machine begins. This play of absence and presence
his own voice in Wilson's The Golden Windows . As Warrilow points out, at times
even he wasn't sure of his own presence, unable to distinguish whether he was
1992), 157.
224
and collaging techniques provide a blurring of the presence/absence of the stage
Memorex?"
structure of visual perception. The organization of his pieces does not correspond
with his earlier works, Deafman Glance, influenced by the drawing of Raymond
Andrews,55 The Life and Times of Sigmund Freud, The Life and Times of Josef
Stalin, and his landmark operatic collaboration with Philip Glass, Einstein on the
Beach, even the biographical specifics and chronology of the lives of these
These works are not so much about the lives of these people, as they use
certain elements of their lives for raw material. There is no sense of telling a story
about Einstein or Stalin, but merely using elements of their lives as visual images
about Stalin, "You can describe those images one for one, you can describe 30
or 40 of them, if you have the time, perfectly clearly, because you can remember
them. But what you can't describe is the logical narrative connection. And the
psychological connection. But you don't have to describe that. That's not what
Wilson functions like a painter of the stage space, creating works with their
own inherent logic in which all of the individual elements (images, objects,
an artistic sign dependent on its visual contiguity with other elements to create
difference between the pictorial and the linguistic sign consists in that the
the picture, due to its naturalness, acquires them only when it is used in a
picture."57 This use of all visual elements as pictorial signs replicates the mental
involvement with Andrews and Knowles, but by the work of Columbia University
professor Daniel Stern. Stern's work is concerned with the field of kinesics, the
ways. As Stern points out, "what you can see with your eyes isn't everything."59
Stern's studies have included filming human interaction and then analyzing the
was particularly struck by Stern's slowed down films of mother and child in which
the momentary aggressive reaction of the parent to the crying child triggered a
59 Rickel Twersky, ed., "A Discussion with Daniel N. Stern," The Drama
and the baby is picking them up. I'd like to deal with some of these things in the
communication."60
well as images unfolding at an almost glacial pace. He has often pointed out that
what he dislikes about more traditional forms of theatre is that there is never
enough time to think during the production. Images move by at such speed that
the spectator is left struggling to keep up with the story line. Interested more in
form and structure than content he has stated, "I love the abstract, fluttering
visual patterns of ballet, and I think that is basically what I've done in theatre:
architectural landscapes that are structured."61 His feeling is that most Western
theatrical actions proceed at a speeded up pace, and that his works, while
Wilson's real time has the quality of deliberately extended time due to the
simply, we are taught to witness drama at a particular speed, a rate that allows
for a complex story to be told in approximately two to three hours. When this rate
tempo of the world outside the boundaries of the theatre space. In fact the
leisurely pace at which some of his more mammoth works progressed, the four-
hour Deafman Glance, the twelve-hour Life and Times of Joseph Stalin, and the
60Tomkins, 45.
61 Quoted in Katherine Arens, "Robert Wilson: Is Postmodern Performance
time frame as the spectator's. There is no sense that the events on stage reflect
some artificial dramatic time, but move like the establishment of time in Peter
action that really happened once upon a time. Time plays no role here. We are
not acting out a plot. Therefore we are not playing time. Time is for real here, it
expires from one word to the next . . . The time here is your time . . . Here you
it still appears to move quite slowly. Through the combination of slow movement
and seemingly fragmented visual and aural imagery the spectator is allowed
room to mentally wander, to daydream, to sleep. I have always felt that Wilson's
process that transpires while watching his works in which the level of frustration
and boredom mount as I attempt to make sense out of the sweep of images. The
"know what it all means." By relaxing the conscious desire for meaning, there is a
sense of narrowing down perception so that even the tiniest detail, the smallest
Cage's 4'33" which demonstrated that sometimes when we are quiet we are
more aware of sound, Wilson comments on his own work that "sometimes when
62Peter Handke, Kaspar and Other Plays, (New York: Farrar, Straus and
Giroux, 1972), 15.
63 Wilson, 1992 lecture.
228
Often Wilson has discussed the division of human perception into two
"internal screen," open to the unconscious. In his theatre he believes that "for the
audience there's a chance for them to blink their eyes, to daydream, to let things
seemingly slow pace all encourage the spectators to succumb to the images
produced both on stage and in their heads. The ideal state in which to witness
which the ability to distinguish between what one is hearing and seeing in reality
to Svoboda's description of his artistic process, Wilson has remarked that, "Light
is the one essential element in all of my pieces . . . It's light that allows us to hear
and to see, it's light that is the basic element of existence, it's light that keeps the
64 Alenikoff, 17.
229
edges undefined - the edges of a theatre piece, the edges of the universe."65 As
he points out elsewhere, "Without light there is no space. Light is the essential
element in the theatre, because it lets us see and hear. It's what produces color
and emotion."66 Light helps define and control space, and has the curious
perception. Plainly stated, without light we cannot see. Yet, as explored in the
first chapter, the intangible qualities of light demand an interaction with material
physical object, be it the floor of the stage, an actor, or Svoboda's ionized mist,
with spatial elements that light becomes a visible property, shaping and
contextualizing space.
Wilson composes his stage images by manipulating both light and the
physical objects it encounters. Light is not incorporated into his work as it moves
from his imagination to the stage, but is always present, helping to sculpt and
define the architectural space. While he has often used light as a structural
element (the train and bus headlights cutting triangular patterns across the stage
in Einstein and the triangular shaft of light in A Letter for Queen Victoria ), he is
constructions.
about the lighting for his productions, spending at times weeks to cue a show
equipment, and labor made available through this state supported theatre that
The light used for this production was very precisely placed and had an
odd, "unnatural" quality to it. Even though Wilson's fragmented dialogue and
lighting made what seemed a domestic situation into something quite different.
The sense of "non-reality" that permeated this work was due to the unusual focus
of the lighting in which a hand or object stood out from the uniform grayness in a
stunning white light. This effect was replicated in his production of The Golden
Windows . At one point a handkerchief and gun held by one of the actors were
both brightly lit, glowing, drawing attention to themselves not solely as objects,
but in Wilson's sense, ghost-like characters. As Emmons points out about his
lighting technique, it is similar to his structure of the stage space. "He wants the
floor treated as a whole unit and separately painted with light. He wants the
shouldn't affect anything going on the stage. Then he wants the human figure
rectangles of light."68
specific elements brightly illuminated to help define the spatial structure. "The
color he wants to see is the color a painter might apply, that is, the color of the
painted them the color he wanted."69 He rarely uses lighting instruments with no
color in them, since that tends to produce a yellowish hue at the low intensities
he favors. Rather his instruments are generally colored with pale blues. This
choice of coloration allows the light to remain dim, yet cool, austere. This uniform
visual haze had descended onto the stage. In conjunction with this grayness his
pieces are punctuated by sudden blackouts. At certain times, as the lights are
restored, the scene may have completely changed. At other times the stage
picture has either not changed at all or changed very little, perhaps with more
This use of light also plays a part in the shifting of his stage images. Along
with sudden blackouts, certain works have contained abrupt shifts of the angle or
direction of the light. In the Rome section of the CIVIL warS, presented at the
American Repertory Theatre, the physical space shifted because the focus of the
light changed to reveal a great expanse above the action located on the stage
floor. A large triangular structure, perhaps the outside of a space ship covered
with rivets, was revealed. Previously invisible, it was illuminated, and then slowly
faded out again, leaving only the memory of its presence. Like the transposition
hidden, continued to permeate my perception of the entire piece. The space took
on a new atmosphere once I realized that there was a large hidden object
Wilson also used the angle and coloration of light to shift the audience's
perception of the setting for The Golden Windows . Lit primarily with his
minimalist gray pallet, only occasionally punctuated by the brightly lit glowing
objects, a momentary flash of red light on the background revealed the entire
setting in silhouette. The transformation was striking due to the change in color
and perspective. Like Svoboda's manipulation of projected images with the push
of a button, the cool gray and the monocular view of the stage solely from the
In both examples the same images were continually present, but a sudden
shift in the focus of the light caused the images to be re-contextualized and to
appear different to the audience. The images themselves were consistent; merely
the illumination changed the audience's perspective. By altering the angle and
color of the light, Wilson drew upon one of the chief components of the visual
world. Light conditions the way in which visible elements are received and
interpreted. Nearly any object will appear different when viewed in shadow as
opposed to bright daylight. The quality of light present will directly affect the
light as energy are affected by the concrete material it encounters, so too is the
perceptions is also extended to his use of light on the actors. Acknowledging the
the instruments are always placed low, and focused to sharply strike the body
and then disappear into the wings. So the light really etches the figure in
space."70 Because the light strikes the figure primarily from the side, rather than
the front or the back, the figures neither recede nor separate from the space, but
become a structural element of the space. Like Svoboda's use of back- lighting or
contra-lighting, Wilson etches the figure into the structure of the environment,
allowing the human form to be removed from its external field of reference; that
Further isolating specific forms, "There are also moments when [Wilson]
wants different parts of the performers etched out. Sometimes the hand is
brighter than the rest of the body."71 This fragmentation of the human figure is
text. The hand is isolated, removed from the system of the body, and while it
sign, independent from the rest of the figure. Through his manipulation of the
structure a performance space where the natural signs of the human form are
removed from the spectator's system of signification and redefined within the
frame of his structured environment. This process should not be considered the
construction of a space where all of the separate components, both natural and
into the realm of performance they retain their referents to the external world of
the spectator. If we expect that objects on stage refer to objects in reality, the
same is true for the human figure and for verbal language. The viewer can
comprehend these signs, for both their form and use are culled from a
statement does not fully apply to Wilson's work. Wilson does not attempt to
visual and aural elements, combined with the use of words for their sound and
"reality." He extracts signs from the external world of the spectator only to re-
code them within his synthetic environment. While we may recognize the sign,
Wilson does not feel compelled to use it in a recognizable way. By ignoring the
connection between the sign and the code, his use of these elements reflect
235
Emile Benveniste's idea of elementary units that assume signification only within
completely cut off from their external referents, but rather, are "resemiotized"
within the frame of the performance.72 Wilson employs identifiable signs like the
images of Sigmund Freud and Albert Einstein, and individual words and phrases,
structural element of the stage space, we recognize the form, but the function is
the area between the world of the performance and the world of the spectator.
and signs drawn from the coded system of the spectator, these elements reflect
what Patrice Pavis describes as signs that must be identified by the receiver
within the frame of the work, as well as within their larger social context.73 That is,
they must be addressed as signs within the world that exists outside the doors of
the theatre, as well as within the confines of Wilson's artificial stage space.
Wilson notes that "what is disturbing for most actors when they work with me is
that I usually start with an effect, and I don't know why. I say can you do this, can
you move your hand in sixteen seconds, and they say why? I don't know. I
effect is the result of the textual cause. It is interesting to realize that all theatrical
activity has at least some type of visible physical structure, generally achieved by
accident or some minimal planning, but rarely to the extent that Wilson controls it.
While his career has moved from the creation of original stage pieces to the
guiding geometric ideal and conditioned by the movement of the actors, that was
present in his approach to the more "conventional" text, When We Dead Awaken
material in the same manner. First he establishes the geometrical frame around
which the action is staged, followed by the incorporation of the text. As can be
seen in the examples of the repeating shapes that dominate his scenographic
alphabet, combined with his focus on form and context over content, all of his
work has a very similar architectural quality. This is not to say that the experience
surround the story of the aging artist, Wilson's staging only marginally intersected
with Ibsen's text. The actors spoke as if in a dream and moved as if their physical
is."76
certainly an interest that can be seen in the work of Svoboda, Appia and
Bauhaus stage director Oskar Schlemmer. In his essay "Man and Art Figure,"
Schlemmer agues that "the history of the theatre is the history of the
figure he converts the role of the actor from a mere physical, psychological
manifestation of the text into a structural entity, integrated within the spatial
actor's own material, voice, movement, body, and gesture,78 Wilson dismantles
the natural shape and function of the actor and reassembles the form within the
inhabiting the space, but structural elements constituting the space. Like his work
with the text in which the voice of the actor is separated from the human form and
closed on a mimetic recitation of external reality, Wilson believes that "the theatre
is, by definition, an artificial form, and the sooner we can accept this the better."79
(Spring, 1977),145.
77 Oskar Schlemmer, "Man and Art Figure," The Theatre of the Bauhaus,
framework, Veltrusky notes that while it is possible to manipulate the signs of the
set, costume and lighting, the theatre can retain what is necessary to create the
environment and discard superfluous information, "The actor's body enters into
the dramatic situation with all of its properties. A living human being can
understandably not take off some of them and keep on only those he needs for
artificial landscapes that not only exploit the signification properties of the
synthetic elements of the theatre but manipulate the natural qualities of the
human form as well. This is a replication of the process that was noted in his
everything that enters into his theatrical domain to service the overall spatial
composition.
Abraham Lincoln and largest woman in the world in the CIVIL warS. As another
example of the manipulation of the natural human form, in A Letter For Queen
Victoria, actress Cyndi Lubar's shape was drastically altered by a long white
Reader, ed. Paul Garvin (Georgetown: Georgetown University Press, 1964), 84-
5.
239
Through costume Wilson altered the size and shape of a primarily delineated
form. By the fusion the artificial shape and size of the costume with the organic
body of the actor, he is able to create a hybrid form that exists as an element of
his stage vocabulary. The distinction between the organic and constructed forms
are dissolved as Wilson dismantles the actor's body and then reassembles the
figure within the structure of the environment. The natural shape and properties
of the actor are altered as the form becomes, in Schlemmer's words, a kind of
Susan Letzler Cole writes in her Directors in Rehearsal that "in a paradoxical
way, [he] is the most actor centered of all of the directors I observed in that the
individual actor's presence is the only character his scripts ever legitimate."82
Wilson does not populate his pieces with psychologically motivated characters,
but images, forms, moving shapes. Often accused of using actors like puppets, it
is in this respect that Wilson has most often been compared to Appia's
revolutionizing the art of the theatre by calling for a synthesis and simplification of
81 Gropius, 26.
82 Letzler Cole, 159.
240
the process; Craig was developing a similar conception of theatre. Craig was a
dominated by one single voice, A guide that functioned like the captain of a
and designer, Craig's theatrical captain would encompass all of the various skills
that "it is impossible for a work of art ever to be produced where more than one
accuracy of detail, is useless upon the stage."84 Craig's desire, like Wilson's, was
to have the role of the actor subservient to the production as a unified whole. He
pronounced that, "Art arrives only by design. Therefore in order to make any work
of art it is clear we may only work in those materials with which we can calculate.
methods of staging, in which the actor is centered in his or her own circle of
attention only addressing the interaction with other elements as they become
83Edward Gordon Craig, On the Art of the Theatre, (New York: Theatre
Arts Books, 1956),99.
84 Ibid., 27.
85 Ibid., 55-6.
241
aware that through every sound that he produces, every single attitude, every
stage."86 Wilson's actors are not individual egos interacting with each other, but
all forms of theatre. Though generally subordinate to the narrative, each element
this process by paying strict attention to the placement of the objects, the lighting
of the space, and the form and movement of the actor, Wilson is successful in
Parsival, presented by the Houston Grande Opera, the actors "were obsessed
with their hands: they stretched them out, spasmodically jerked them in the air,
independently from the text. As he has stated, "I like mute work rehearsals. The
visual book should be able to stand on its own. Space is texture and structure -
something that can't be talked about."88 This process of physical action, however,
does not reinforce or explicate character or motivation. In fact Wilson has stated
1991),11.
242
that "how an actor fills in a gesture remains mysterious. You never know how a
line is drawn."89
Sheryl Sutton enacting the prologue to Deafman Glance he is very specific about
the angle of her eyes, her head, her arms. He describes her movements as they
"Cross to the chair in 37 seconds, raise your hand in 52, turn in 29," were typical
Dead Awaken .91 The movements are executed with mechanical precision, as the
focus is on the locomotion of forms in space and not the illustration of the text by
generally stages the physical frame of the piece only to add the text in at some
later point. This process has simply moved one step beyond the staging
techniques he had developed with his earlier silent operas. While staging Heiner
'Should I move my hand a few seconds slower Bob?' had completely replaced
Like his use of light and sound to affect the reception of the images,
89 Solomon, 39.
90 Wilson, 1992 lecture.
91 Knapp, 11.
92 Solomon, 39.
243
certain artificiality to the mechanistic progression of the actor in space. While
these movements are not considered "natural;" that is, one would not expect to
see them in the course of daily life, they are, however, locked into the system of
possible human gestures. Wilson does not force the body to perform movements
difference between movement within his constructed space and movement in the
world of the spectator. The gestures themselves exist as possible signs of the
human form but are re-coded within the frame of the performance space.
Functioning as artistic signs they signify both within the world of the spectator
and that of the stage, again creating a hybrid form composed of natural and
artificial elements. Like his control of language, the focus is shifted from a series
the frame of his artificial stage structure. Generally he builds stage images by
chronicle of the CIVIL warS, "reality is admitted to Wilson's theatre only if suitably
in such a way as to lose all direct relationship to historical reality."93 Wilson does
not deal with images in the mimetic sense, nor does he attempt to replicate that
93 Donker ,82.
244
which he views in daily life, but rather he works to form and shape that which is
with dramaturgs and now I think its almost essential to have one because I am
classical education, and anyway it's very helpful to have someone like that to talk
the archives of Wilson's producing organization Byrd Hoffman, and The Robert
Wilson Collection at Columbia University Library, the visual research for his
variations on a specific spatial or historic theme (the life of Albert Einstein, the
Civil War, classical Greek architecture . . .). Wilson does not confront reality as
Monk does, using photographs to point out how we write and re-write history;
rather he uses images as raw data to be shaped within his theatre of pure form.
rather a question of substituting signs of the real for the real itself."95
Abraham Lincoln, Queen Victoria, and Sigmund Freud are merely jumping off
points for the construction of his artificial worlds. Einstein on the Beach is no
the lives of these people, the bulk of the presentation places their image amid
objects and situations divorced from the reality of their lives. The form, the image
of Albert Einstein, directly corresponds to the image from the world of the
spectator, while its function is reconstituted within the frame of the performance.
This split between the form and the function is characteristic of Wilson's
treatment of all of his stage images. These images are, as Wilson points out, not
They are mythic figures, and the person in the street has some
knowledge of them before he or she enters the theatre or museum
space. We in the theatre do not have to tell a story because the
audience comes with a story already in mind . . . An artist recreates
history, not like a historian, but as a poet. The artist takes the
communal ideas and associations that surround the various gods of
his or her time and plays with them, inventing another story for
these mythic characters.96
Meredith Monk uses history, is that Wilson's theatre does not contain an explicit
using these images, these symbols, because they carry with them a pre-
digested story. He does not attempt to re-evaluate that story, as Monk does, but
builds upon it, allowing each spectator to inform the work through his or her own
signification; Lincoln's beard and top hat, Freud's goatee, Einstein's wiry gray hair
functional part of the spatial arrangement, carry their own narratives with them.
They contain a certain symbolic weight, as can be viewed by his use of the image
shown both through slides and a live actor dressed up to resemble Einstein
(complete with violin, wiry gray wig and mustache) is captured on stage as an
iconic representation of reality. The stage image is linked to the image of reality
by virtue of the fact that it resembles the real Albert Einstein. Beyond this, since
Einstein is considered to be the premier thinker of his age, his image takes on a
symbolic function. It embodies the ideas of time, space, and motion, symbolically
linked, through memory, to his work as a scientist. These images carry a certain
semiotic weight. Like the inclusion of Einstein or Freud, the image contains a
specific historical or cultural meaning. As these forms enter the stage they alter
the visual context that surrounds them. Wilson reinforces this aspect of Einstein's
symbolic value by filling his opera with images of clocks, trains, buses, and
they existed as elementary visual units, meant to take on signification as they are
constituted by the surrounding elements. While the image of Einstein never loses
either its iconic or symbolic value, its function as a first level denotative sign
allows it be read connotatively as a component of the visual semiotic field; that is,
advertising discourse (TV and radio), and a few original "monologues."97 Einstein
does not provide a safety net of meaning woven through language that is able to
dominate and control the visual imagery. Responding to the use of the image of
Glass recalls,
The opera does not present a replication of or story about Albert Einstein's
life and works, but rather uses the symbolic nature of the image to provide an
atmosphere within which the work can exist. The image of Albert Einstein is
merely the frame into which this dynamic painting is placed. As Craig Owens
pointed out, the images in Einstein on the Beach "coalesced to form a complex
portrait by association."99 The curious thing that Wilson does with this image is to
key into a specific photograph of Einstein in a white shirt, tennis sneakers, and
manipulates the image it signifies both within its original code and within the
artificial structure that he has created. He fragments and distributes the image
situations, Wilson allowed the image to move from denoted status, through
Though on one level it still maintained the iconic and symbolic function of
Einstein, the image responded to and was conditioned by the elements that
that of the spectator. By placing objects, images, words and the human form into
process that he likens to verbal communication, noting that "If I make a gesture
However, this is not a stable language but one that is continually in flux, changing
its very medium the moment the contextual association is altered. At one point in
the production of Einstein a large glowing rod was lowered vertically from the
flies. The movement of this illuminated element was closely followed by an abrupt
blackout, at which time the rod was removed. This action was repeated, again
movement of the glowing rod signified imminent darkness. The third time the rod
descended, however, the stage remained fully lit, thus severing the
environment where "the actant, the action, the time and the space have no pre-
encompass all of Wilson's work it may only be applied to signs within the frame of
the performance space. By using recognizable images, like Einstein, once the
reception of these signs is addressed they are seen to be coded both within the
world of the spectator and within Wilson's artificial structure. They exist
simultaneously as artistic signs or elementary units cut off from all external
101 Fuchs, "The PAJ Casebook: Robert Wilson's Alcestis ," 92.
102 Finter, 502.
250
action, which more or less wipes out the traces of its own labor but reflects all
process of visual perception. As Wilson is fond of saying, "If you take a baroque
candelabra and you put it on a baroque table, that's one thing. But if you take a
baroque candelabra and you place it on a rock, that's something else . . . This
total of concept and an image) in the first system becomes a mere signifier in the
presence of another undivided sign, like a rock, a new context is created from the
interaction of the two. In this system the complete signs act as signifiers to create
theatrical juxtaposition, Saussure's binary system does not offer the full value of
impossible to close the interpretation of this new signifying context onto one
Image of Opera," Documentary produced for PBS and aired as part of its Great
Performances series, 1985.
105 Roland Barthes, Mythologies, (New York: The Noonday Press, 1972),
114.
251
specific meaning. The spectator is always implicated in the process, indicating
particular meaning is generated by the interaction of the two signs, there is an act
of interpretation that coheres in the mind of the spectator. Wilson provides the
tend to be fairly sparse with a few formal elements used to define the space.
"Within the usually unbroken rectangle of the stage floor Wilson tends to place just
a few carefully chosen scenic elements, among them wood and metal furniture
Beach.
These synthetic objects, juxtaposed with the organic shape of the human
from the world of the spectator. At first glance the furnishings appear to be
the external world of the spectator, but as one notices their peculiarities, the
shape, the material they are constructed from, they are removed from this system
and placed into Wilson's artificial one. Examine the above photograph of the
specially designed pipe chair for Einstein on the Beach . It would be impossible
for an actor to approach a furnishing like this the way he or she would an
this chair I'm sitting in. It was designed by Bob, made by Bob. I'm sitting in one of
Bob's chairs for the first time, and this chair demands a special attitude. It is a
In order to exist within the world of the performance, one that is spatially
defined by these objects, the actor's natural movement and gesture, that is the
signs locked within the spectators' coded system, are altered to become part of
has even gone so far as to state that Wilson's furniture is the "Platonic idea of a
109 Arthur Holmberg, "A Conversation with Robert Wilson and Heiner
conceptual one, the fact remains that Wilson constructs these "Platonic" chairs
from tangible material, not philosophic ether. They can be touched, moved and
interacted with, but more importantly they can be seen. This physical quality
forces Larson's conceptual idea into the province of the percept. What is curious
about Wilson's created objects for his productions is that they are treated exactly
the same way as objects and images drawn from the external world of the
spectator. In this respect he is truly the painter and architect of this world, using
all of the elements at his disposal (actors, props, sets, costumes, light, words,
One of the interesting ways in which Wilson deals with certain inanimate
objects in his works is that he animates them, giving them a motive force and
"life" of their own. As can be seen in the example of the slowly descending chair
from The Life and Times of Sigmund Freud . Objects change positions and
implying some sort of external force. Again in Freud a chair inched its way
across the stage as a woman slowly began to sit at the point of its destination.
Once the chair had completed its movement, the woman had something to sit on.
objects become actors and the actors become objects. Like the non-Platonic
chair above, both rely on physical presence for this process to occur. In this
respect Wilson has devised a theatre of conscious artistry and technique. These
110 Kay Larson, "Robert Wilson," Art News, (March, 1978), 172.
254
collaborations of visual elements are not haphazard, but spatially derived, as he
is working toward a specific form and not a specific content. As evidenced by his
treatment of the human voice separate from the body, he breaks down unified
elements into their constituent parts only to re-assemble them within his
Brecht writes:
elements are not completely cut off from their external referents, nor are they
completely desemiotized, but straddle his stage reality and the audience's
external reality. In this way his pieces can not be fully embraced nor fully refuted.
He strands the spectator between signifier and signified, between reality and
fantasy, between form and function. In this respect, though his theatre reflects
the fact that while he is in constant control of the images presented on stage, he
interpretation. As Dallas Pratt, an actor in Freud believes, despite the fact that
"the play had very little to say about Freud," and the action was so "delightfully
lunatic . . . still, there was nothing haphazard about it; every moment, every line
was rehearsed over and over again, until, timed to the second, it satisfied our
solidified on stage. The key to his theatre of alternate perceptions is not that
Wilson's intent is not to provide a seamless, unified entity, where text and
image, voice and movement match up point for point, but rather separate layers
composed of recognizable signs, his works are not closed on a solitary meaning.
the reception of well known images, like Lincoln and Freud, but because he
the manner in which the actor speaks, moves and appears. Ultimately, it is
Wilson who encourages the spectator not to search for meaning, but to simply
experience the scope of images. With this visual form of theatre Wilson is able,
like Svoboda and Monk, to consciously apply artistic techniques to alter the way
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