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AW = P/P0
á1251ñ WEIGHING ON AN
ERH(%) = AW × 100
ANALYTICAL BALANCE
Method INTRODUCTION
The water activity is determined by placing the sample in Weighing is a frequent step in analytical procedures, and
a small airtight cup inside which the equilibrium between the balance is an essential piece of laboratory equipment.
the water in the solid and the headspace can be established. The general information described here applies directly to
The volume of the headspace must be small in relation to electronic balances used in analytical procedures. Although
the sample volume in order not to change the sorption state many portions of the chapter are applicable to all balances,
of the sample during the test. The equilibration as a thermo- some are applicable only to analytical balances. This chapter
dynamic process takes time but may be accelerated by should not be considered all-inclusive, and other sources of
forced circulation within the cell. The acquired water activity information (e.g., the US National Institute for Science and
value is only valid for the simultaneously determined tem- Technology and balance manufacturers) may be useful and
perature. This requires a precise temperature-measuring de- applicable when analysts perform a weighing operation or
vice as part of the equipment. Furthermore, the probe must implement a weighing procedure.1,2 The information given
be thermally insulated to guarantee a constant temperature in this chapter is applicable not only to balances used for
during the test. The sensor measuring the humidity of the materials that must be accurately weighed (see Balances
General Chapters
headspace air above the sample is a key component. Theo- á41ñ) but also to balances used in all analytical procedures.
retically, all types of hygrometers can be used, but for ana-
lytical purposes miniaturization and robustness are a pre- QUALIFICATION
condition. The AW measurement may be conducted using
the dew point/chilled mirror method.1 A polished, chilled Users should consult Analytical Instrument Qualification
mirror is used as a condensing surface. The cooling system is á1058ñ, standard operating procedures, and recommenda-
electronically linked to a photoelectric cell into which light is tions from manufacturers when they devise qualification
reflected from the condensing mirror. An air stream, in equi- plans.
librium with the test sample, is directed at the mirror which
cools until condensation occurs on the mirror. The tempera- Installation
ture at which this condensation begins is the dew point
from which the ERH is determined. Commercially available The balance's performance depends on the conditions of
instruments using the dew point/chilled mirror method or the facility where it is installed. Analysts should consult infor-
other technologies need to be evaluated for suitability, vali- mation provided by the manufacturer before they install a
dated, and calibrated when used to make water activity de- balance.
terminations. Support surface: The balance should be installed on a
These instruments are typically calibrated over an ade- solid, level, nonmagnetic surface that minimizes the trans-
quate range, for example, using some saturated salt solu- mission of vibration (e.g., a floor-mounted, granite weigh
tions at 25° such as those listed in Table 1. bench). If a metallic support surface is used, the surface
Table 1. Standard Saturated Salt Solutions should be grounded in order to prevent the buildup of static
Saturated Salt ERH electricity.
Solutions at 25° (%) AW Location: If possible, the balance should be located in a
Potassium sulfate (K2SO4) 97.3 0.973 room that is temperature and humidity controlled. The loca-
Barium chloride (BaCl2) 90.2 0.902
tion should have a clean, consistent electrical power supply.
The location should be free of drafts and should not be near
Sodium chloride (NaCl) 75.3 0.753
ovens, furnaces, air conditioner ducts, or cooling fans from
Magnesium nitrate (Mg(NO3)2) 52.9 0.529 equipment or computers. The balance should be positioned
Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) 32.8 0.328 away from outside windows so that direct sunlight does not
Lithium chloride (LiCl2) 11.2 0.112 strike the balance. The balance should not be installed near
sources of electromagnetic radiation such as radio-frequency
generators, electric motors, or hand-held communication
devices (including cordless telephones, cellular telephones,
and walkie-talkies). The balance should not be located near
1 National Physical Laboratory. Good practice guide No. 70, weighing in the
pharmaceutical industry. 2004. http://resource.npl.co.uk/docs/science_tech-
nology/mass_force_pressure/clubs_groups/instmc_weighing_panel/pharma-
weigh.pdf. Accessed 21 March 2012. [NOTE—Nomenclature in this chapter
tends to follow this document, except where it conflicts with USP terms.]
2 American Society for Testing and Materials. E898 Standard test method of
testing top-loading, direct-reading laboratory scales and balances. 2005.
1 AOAC International Official Method 978.18. http://www.astm.org/Standards/E898.htm. Accessed 21 March 2012.
used to weigh corrosive or hazardous materials. tests should be carried out with a single test weight in order
7. The balance is adjacent to equipment that produces a to minimize handling errors, but multiple test weights are
magnetic field (e.g., a magnetic stirrer). permitted.
8. Direct sunlight strikes the balance. The tests should be recorded in such a manner that the
In situations when the balance is located near equipment data can be used to easily track balance performance and to
or systems that induce vibration, drafts, electromagnetic ra- assist in laboratory investigations as needed. Meaningful ac-
diation, magnetic fields, or changes in temperature or hu- ceptance criteria can be set depending on the required
midity, the assessment should be conducted with those sys- weighing tolerance, i.e., the maximum allowed deviation
tems operating in order to duplicate a worst-case scenario. permitted by specifications, regulations, etc., of a quantity
to be weighed from its target value. Procedures should be in
Operational Qualification place to address test results that are outside acceptable
ranges and to provide assurance that balance cleanliness
An operational qualification should be performed either and environment have not affected the result. Also, a proce-
by the user or by a qualified third-party vendor after the dure should be in place for removing a balance from opera-
equipment has been installed. tion when observed results fall outside acceptable ranges.
As a minimum, the power should be turned on and the Sensitivity, linearity, and eccentricity all account for sys-
balance should be allowed to equilibrate according to the tematic deviations; i.e., they limit the accuracy of the bal-
manufacturer's instructions (1–24 h, depending on the type ance (based on the definition of accuracy in Validation of
of balance) before use. Depending on the balance, analysts Compendial Procedures á1225ñ and ICH Q2). In the Interna-
should include the following procedures in the operational tional Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM) and documents of the
qualification: International Organization for Standardization, this concept
1. Mechanical mobility of all moveable parts is referred to as trueness. Because deviations are largely in-
2. Control of stable indication dependent from each other, it is not likely that all deviations
3. Manually triggered or automatic adjustment by means occur simultaneously and have the same algebraic sign.
of built-in weights Therefore the arithmetic addition of all individual deviations
4. Operation of ancillary equipment to assess the balance accuracy would constitute a rather
5. Tare function conservative approach. A quadratic addition of the individu-
6. Initial calibration al deviations is a more realistic approach. By allocating 50%
Several types of electronic analytical balances use built-in of the weighing tolerance budget to the acceptance criteria
weights for manually triggered or automatic adjustment. of the individual properties, e.g., sensitivity, linearity, and
This adjustment usually is applied to reduce the drift of the eccentricity, analysts ensure adherence to the required
balance over time and to compensate for drifts caused by weighing tolerance. Therefore, the acceptance criteria for
variations in the ambient temperature. the individual properties that account for the systematic de-
Calibration normally is performed as part of the opera- viations are set to weighing tolerance divided by 2. These
tional qualification, but it also can be performed periodically properties—or a subset of them—also can be taken to fulfill
thereafter. Calibration should be performed at the location the accuracy requirement described in á41ñ. In this case the
where the balance is used in normal operation. acceptance criteria thus allow a maximum deviation of
0.05% for sensitivity, linearity, and eccentricity. Repeatabili-
ty preferably is tested with a test weight of a few percent of
the balance capacity. At the lower end of its measurement
range, the performance of laboratory balances is limited by
General Chapters
peated weighings of the same objects
under the same conditions, e.g., the
same measurement procedure, same op-
erator, same measuring system, same
operating conditions, and same location
over a short period of time. Repeatability 10 replicate weighings (using a test Requirement from á41ñ where applicable.
usually is expressed as the standard devi- weight that is a few percent of the nomi- For other uses, user specified require-
Repeatability ation of multiple weighings. nal capacity of the balance). ments will apply.
mmin = 2000 × s mass and small surface should be used (especially in cases
when specimens of low weight are being measured) or the
If not subject to the requirements of á41ñ, the minimum repeatability test should be performed with the receiver
weight value may vary depending on the required weighing placed on the weighing pan as a preload. Receivers should
tolerance and the specific use of the balance. be constructed from nonmagnetic materials in order to pre-
To facilitate handling, the test weight that is used for the vent magnetic interference with electronic balance compo-
repeatability test does not need to be at the minimum nents. Receivers should be used at ambient temperature in
weight value but can be larger because the standard devia- order to prevent the formation of air currents within the
tion of repeatability is only a weak function of the test weighing chamber.
weight value. Solid samples: Receivers for weighing solid materials
In order to satisfy the required weighing tolerance, when include weighing paper, weighing dishes, weighing funnels,
samples are weighed the amount of sample mass (i.e., the or enclosed vessels, including bottles, vials, and flasks. Hy-
net weight) must be equal to or larger than the minimum groscopic papers are not recommended for weighing be-
weight. The minimum weight applies to the sample weight, cause they may have a detrimental effect on the observed
not to the tare or gross weight. results.
Factors that can influence repeatability while the balance Weighing dishes typically are constructed from a polymer
is in use include: or from aluminum. Antistatic weighing dishes are available
1. The performance of the balance and thus the minimum for measuring materials that retain static electricity. Weigh-
weight can vary over time because of changing envi- ing funnels typically are constructed from glass or from a
ronmental conditions. polymer. The design of this type of receiver combines attrib-
2. Different operators may weigh differently on the bal-
General Chapters
Dispense weighing: Dispense weighing typically is along the flask and reduces the apparent weight of the con-
used for weighing emulsions or viscous liquids such as oint- tents by viscous friction.
ments. In these situations it is not practical to weigh the ma- Hygroscopic samples: Hygroscopic materials readily
terial into a typical receiver. Accordingly, the analyst should absorb moisture from the atmosphere and steadily gain
tare the balance; place the sample on the balance in a suita- weight if left exposed. Therefore, hygroscopic samples must
ble container (e.g., a bottle, tube, transfer pipet, or syringe) be either weighed promptly or placed in a vessel with a gas-
that has been wiped clean on the outside; record the weight tight enclosure. For a gas-tight vessel, analysts should tare
after the balance display stabilizes; transfer the desired the vessel and enclosure, add the desired amount of sample,
amount of sample to an appropriate receiving vessel, such and replace the enclosure. After the balance display stabil-
as a volumetric flask; and place the pipet or syringe back on- izes, the analyst can record the specimen weight.
to the balance. The difference in the two weighings is equal Aseptic or biohazardous samples: The weighing of
to the weight of the transferred specimen. sterile or biohazardous samples should take place within the
Gravimetric dosing: Gravimetric dosing typically is confines of a clean bench, biosafety cabinet, isolator, or sim-
used for sample and standard preparations or capsule filling. ilar containment device. Air flow within the hood potentially
For such weighing the analyst places the volumetric flask, vi- can cause balance instability, so after a balance has been in-
al, or capsule shell on the balance; tares the balance after stalled under a hood, analysts should perform a rigorous
the balance display stabilizes; adds the solid or liquid com- qualification study with suitable weight artifacts (see á41ñ) in
ponents into the receiver by means of dosing units; and re- order to determine the acceptability of the balance perform-
cords the respective weights. ance in this environment.
Weighing corrosive materials: Many chemicals, such
General Chapters
Problem Samples as salts, are corrosive, and materials of this nature should
not be spilled on the balance pan or inside the balance
Electrically charged samples and receivers: Dry, finely housing. Extra care is essential when materials of this nature
divided powders may be charged with static electricity that are weighed. Analysts should consider the use of sealed con-
can make the powder either attracted to or repelled by the tainers such as weighing bottles or syringes. In the event of
receiver or the balance, causing inaccurate weight measure- a spill, requalification of balance may be necessary, depend-
ments and specimen loss during transfer. A drift in the bal- ing on the nature of the spill.
ance readings should alert the operator to the possibility
that the material has a static charge. Commercially available Safety Considerations When Weighing
balances with a built-in antistatic device can be used to rem-
edy the problem. Such devices may use piezoelectric com- During a weighing, the analyst may be exposed to high
ponents or a very small amount of a radioactive element concentrations of a pure substance. The analyst must care-
(typically polonium) to generate a stream of ions that dissi- fully consider this possibility at all times and should be famil-
pate the static charge when passed over the powder being iar with the precautions described in the substance¢s Materi-
weighed. Antistatic weigh boats, antistatic guns, and anti- al Safety Data Sheet before weighing it. Hazardous materials
static screens also are commercially available. The static should be handled in an enclosure that has appropriate air
charge depends also on the relative humidity of the labora- filtration. Many toxic—and possibly allergenic—substances
tory, which in turn depends on atmospheric conditions. Un- present as liquids or finely divided particles. When weighing
der certain conditions, static charge is caused by the type of these substances, analysts should use a mask that covers the
clothing worn by the operator and this charge can cause nose and mouth to prevent any inhalation of the substance,
large errors in the weighing. Borosilicate glassware and plas- and they should use gloves to prevent any contact with the
tic receivers have a well-known propensity for picking up skin. [NOTE—The use of gloves is good practice for handling
static charge, especially at low relative humidity. The gloves any chemical. If it is necessary to handle the container being
used to protect the operator also may increase the potential weighed, the analyst should wear gloves not only for self-
for a static charge problem. Placing the container in a metal protection but also to prevent moisture and oils from being
holder may help to shield the static charge, and antistatic deposited on the weighed container.]
gloves also can help to alleviate the problem.
Volatile samples: When weighing a liquid that has a
low boiling point, analysts must receive the specimen in a
vessel with a gas-tight enclosure of small diameter. The ana- á1265ñ WRITTEN PRESCRIPTION
lyst then tares the vessel and enclosure, adds the desired
amount of sample, and replaces the enclosure. After the bal- DRUG INFORMATION—
ance display stabilizes, the analyst records the specimen
weight.
GUIDELINES
Warm or cool samples: Samples that are warm or cool
should be equilibrated in the laboratory, or the weight read-
ings may be erroneous. With regard to warm samples, the The purpose of these guidelines—comprising format, con-
apparent weight is smaller than the true weight because of tent, and accessibility of prescription drug leaflets—is to
heat convection. For example, a flask that is warmer than help ensure that leaflets are useful. In this context, “useful”
ambient air warms up this air, which then flows upward means that recipients receive, understand, and are motiva-
ted to apply written information about their medicines to