Adjective Order

Introduction

In English, it is common to use more than one adjective before a noun — for example, “He's a silly young fool,” or “She's a smart,
energetic woman.” When you use more than one adjective, you have to put them in the right order, according to type. This page
will explain the different types of adjectives and the correct order for them.

1. The basic types of adjectives

An opinion adjective explains what you think about something (other people may not agree with you).
Opinion
For example: silly, beautiful, horrible, difficult

A size adjective, of course, tells you how big or small something is.
Size
For example: large, tiny, enormous, little

An age adjective tells you how young or old something or someone is.
Age
For example: ancient, new, young, old

A shape adjective describes the shape of something.

Shape
For example: square, round, flat, rectangular

A colour adjective, of course, describes the colour of something.

Colour
For example: blue, pink, reddish, grey
 An origin adjective describes where something comes from.
Origin
For example: French, lunar, American, eastern, Greek

A material adjective describes what something is made from.

Material
For example: wooden, metal, cotton, paper

A purpose adjective describes what something is used for. These adjectives often end with “-ing”.
Purpose
For example: sleeping (as in “sleeping bag”), roasting (as in “roasting tin”)

2. Some examples of adjective order

Opinion Size Age Shape Colour Origin Material Purpose

a silly young English man

a huge round metal bowl

a small red sleeping bag

`
Adjective Clauses
Here is a brief review of adjective clauses and relative pronouns.

An adjective clause is used to describe a noun:

The car, which was red, belonged to Young-Hee.

A relative pronoun is usually used to introduce an adjective clause:

Young-Hee, who is a Korean student, lives in Victoria.

The main relative pronouns are:

Pronoun Use Example

Who used for humans in the subject position Hans, who is an architect, lives in Berlin.

Marike, whom Hans knows well, is an

Whom used for humans in the object position
interior decorator.

Marike has a dog which follows her

Which used for things and animals in the subject or object position
everywhere.
 Pronoun Use Example

used for humans, animals and things, in Marike is decorating a house that Hans
That
the subject or object position (but see below) designed.

used for humans, animals and things in Marike, whose dog follows her everywhere,
Whose
the subject or object position to show possession is an animal lover.

There are two main kinds of adjective clause:

1. Non-defining clauses

Non-defining clauses give extra information about the noun, but they are not essential:

The desk in the corner, which is covered in books, is mine.

Explanation: We don't need this information in order to understand the sentence. “The desk in the corner is mine” is a good
sentence on its own — we still know which desk is referred to. Note that non-defining clauses are usually separated by commas,
and “that” is not usually used in this kind of context.

2. Defining clauses

Defining clauses give essential information about the noun:

The package that arrived this morning is on the desk.

Explanation: We need this information in order to understand the sentence. Without the relative clause, we don't know which
package is being referred to. Note that “that” is often used in defining relative clauses, and they are not separated by commas.

Adverbs
There are many types of adverbs and adverb phrases. This page will introduce some of the basic types of adverbs and their
functions.

What is an adverb?

Basically, most adverbs tell you how, where, or when something is done. In other words, they describe the manner, place, or time
of an action. Here are some examples:

Type Adverb Example

Manner slowly Jane drives slowly.

Place here The party is going to take place here.

Time yesterday I called him yesterday.

How to recognize an adverb

Many adverbs end with the suffix -LY. Most of these are created by adding -LY to the end of an adjective, like this:

Adjective Adverb

slow slowly

delightful delightfully

hopeless hopelessly

aggressive aggressively

However, this is NOT a reliable way to find out whether a word is an adverb or not, for two reasons: many adverbs do NOT end in
-LY (some are the same as the adjective form), and many words which are NOT adverbs DO end in -LY (such as kindly, friendly,
elderly and lonely, which are adjectives). Here are some examples of adverbs which are the same as adjectives:

Adjective Adverb

fast fast

late late

early early
The best way to tell if a word is an adverb is to try making a question, for which the answer is the word. If the question uses how,
where or when, then the word is probably an adverb. Here is an example:

Word in context Question Adverb?

Junko plays tennis aggressively. How does Junko play tennis? Yes — uses HOW.

What kind of house do they No — uses WHAT KIND OF, so this is an

They have a small house.
have? adjective.

Matthew called the When did Matthew call the

Yes — uses WHEN.
police immediately. police?

Adverb Phrases
An adverb may be a single word, such as quickly, here or yesterday. However, adverbs can also be phrases, some made with
prepositions, others made with infinitives. This page will explain the basic types of adverb phrases (sometimes called "adverbial
phrases") and how to recognize them.
Basic types of adverbs

In the section on adverbs, you learned about three basic types of adverb: manner, place and time adverbs. There are at least two
more that are important. Frequency adverbs answer the question "How often?" about an action. Purpose adverbs answer the
question "Why?” Here are some examples:

Type Adverb Example

Frequency usually Mika usually gets up early.

Purpose for fun I write computer programs for fun.

While the first example, usually, is a single word, the second example (for fun) is a phrase consisting of a preposition and a noun
— in other words, it is a prepositional phrase which functions as an adverb phrase.

Adverb phrases made with prepositions

All kinds of adverb phrases can be made with prepositions. Here are some examples:

Type Adverb phrase Example

Manner with a hammer The carpenter hit the nail with a hammer.

Place next door The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
 Type Adverb phrase Example

Time before the holidays We must finish our project before the holidays.

Frequency every month Jodie buys two CDs every month.

Purpose for his mother Jack bought the flowers for his mother.

Adverb phrases made with infinitives

Another kind of adverb phrase can be made with the infinitive form of a verb. Most of these phrases express purpose, as in these
examples:

Type Adverb phrase Example

Purpose to buy a car I'm saving my money to buy a car.

Purpose to support the team The students all showed up to support the team.

Purpose to show to her mother Sally brought a painting home from school to show to her mother.
Adverb Clauses
An adverb may be a single word such as quickly, here or yesterday (see the page Adverbs), or a phrase such as the day before
yesterday or to see my mother (see the page Adverb Phrases). However, adverbs can also be clauses, containing a subject and a
full verb. This page will explain the basic types of adverb clauses (sometimes called "adverbial clauses") and how to recognize
them.

Adverbs, adverb phrases, and adverb clauses

Look at these sentences:

I saw the movie yesterday.

I saw the movie on Friday.

I saw the movie before I left for Calgary.

In the first sentence, “yesterday” is a one-word adverb, “on Friday” is an adverb phrase, and “before I left for Calgary” is an adverb
clause. All of them answer the question “When?”, but the adverb clause has a subject (“I”) and a full verb (“left”). It is introduced by
“before”, so it is a dependent clause. This means that it cannot stand alone: “Before I left for Calgary” would not be a full sentence.
It needs a main clause (“I saw the movie”). An adverb clause, then, is a dependent clause that does the same job as an adverb or
an adverb phrase.
Types of adverb clause

There are many types of adverb clauses. Here are some examples of the most common types:

Type Question answered Example

Wherever there are computers, there is Microsoft

Place Where?
software.

Time When? After the fruit is harvested, it is sold at the market.

Cause Why? (What caused this?) I didn't call her because I'm shy.

Why? (What was the reason for doing She took a computer course so that she could get a
Purpose
this?) better job.

Although Jay has a Master's degree, he works as a store

Concession Why is this unexpected?
clerk.

Condition Under what conditions? If you save your money, you will be able to go to college.

As you can see from the examples above, most adverb clauses can be recognized because they are introduced by a particular
word or phrase (such as "when" and "so that"). These words and phrases are called subordinating conjunctions, and there are
many of them, including these:

after, before, until, while, because, since, as, so that, in order that, if, unless, whether, though, although, even though, where
Articles — a/an, the

Introduction

This lesson is about the indefinite articles, “a” and “an”, and the definite article, and “the”.

a/an = indefinite article that refers any noun

the = definite article that refers to a certain or specific noun

For example:

“Let's see a movie” means any movie. (indefinite)

“Let's see the movie” means a certain movie. (definite)

“A” or “an”?

“An” is used instead of “a” before a vowel sound. For example:

An artist from the local community painted the wonderful mural at Chemainus.
Indefinite Article: A / AN

Explanation Example

“A” and “an” are used when it is not clear which thing or She was talking to a girl at the store. (This is an
person we are talking about. unknown girl, so a is used.)

“A” and “an” can be used only with count nouns. I need a bottle of milk. I need an interesting topic for
my speech.

Definite Article: THE

Explanation Example

“The” is used when it is clear which thing or person we are talking Greg was talking to the girl from New
about. York.
(This a specific girl from New York,
so the is used.)

The sun comes up every day.

“The” is used when there is only one of a particular thing. London is the capital of England.
Explanation Example

We went to the most expensive city in the

world.

The + adjective Do you think that the rich should give

money to the poor?
“The” is used with some adjectives (without a noun).
For example: the young, the old, the sick
(The meaning is always plural.)

The + nationality adjectives The Italians are famous for their delicious
food.
“The” is used with most nationality words which refer to the people of
a specific country.
For example: the Canadians, the Japanese

Certain nouns use the: The Atlantic is a huge, deep, dark ocean.

names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Mississippi, the Atlantic The Middle East is fascinating.

points on the globe: the Equator, the South Pole The Gulf of Mexico is below Texas.

We live near the Saanich Peninsula.

 Explanation Example

geographical areas: the Middle East, the West, as well

as deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas

Second Conditional

Introduction

The second conditional (also called conditional type 2) is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the present or in
the future. This page will explain how the second conditional is formed, and when to use it.

The structure of a second conditional sentence

Like a first conditional, a second conditional sentence consists of two clauses, an “if” clause and a main clause:

“If” clause Main clause

If I had a million dollars, I would buy a big house.

If the “if” clause comes first, a comma is usually used. If the “if” clause comes second, there is no need for a comma:

Main clause “If” clause

I would buy a big house If I had a million dollars.

We use different verb forms in each part of a second conditional:

“If” clause if + subject + simple past verb*

Main clause subject + would + verb

*Note that this "simple past" form is slightly different from usual in the case of the verb BE. Whatever the subject, the verb form is
"were", not "was": If I were rich, I'd buy a big house.

Using the second conditional

The second conditional is used to talk about things which are unreal (not true or not possible) in the present or the future --
things which don't or won't happen:

Example Explanation

If I were you, I would drive more carefully in the rain. I am not you — this is unreal.
 Example Explanation

Paula would be sad if Jan left. Jan will not leave — that's not going to happen.

If dogs had wings, they would be able to fly. Dogs don't have wings — that's impossible.

Third Conditional

Introduction

The third conditional (also called conditional type 3) is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the past. This page
will explain how the third conditional is formed, and when to use it.

The structure of a third conditional sentence

Like the other conditionals, a third conditional sentence consists of two clauses, an “if” clause and a main clause:

IF clause main clause

If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.

Explanation: I failed the exam, because I didn't study hard enough.

If the “if” clause comes first, a comma is usually used. If the “if” clause comes second, there is no need for a comma:

main clause IF clause

I probably would have passed the exam If I had studied harder.

We use different verb forms in each part of a third conditional:

IF clause if + subject + past perfect verb*

main clause subject + would (OR could, OR might) have + past participle

*The past perfect is formed with the auxiliary verb “had”, and the past participle (or third form) of the verb.

Note also that third conditional forms can be contracted:

Full form If I had studied harder, I probably would have passed the exam.

Contracted form If I'd studied harder, I probably would've passed the exam.
Using the third conditional

The third conditional is used to talk about things which did not happen in the past. If your native language does not have a
similar construction, you may find this a little strange, but it can be very useful. It is often used to express criticism or regret:

Example Explanation

If you had driven more carefully, you would not have Criticism: You had an accident because you didn't drive
had an accident. carefully enough.

If we had played a little better, we could have won the

Regret: We didn't play well, so we lost the game.
game.

If you had saved your money, you could have bought Criticism: You didn't save your money, so now you can't
a computer. afford a computer.

If it had snowed, we could have gone skiing. Regret: It didn't snow, so we couldn't go skiing.
Forming Gerunds
Here is a brief review of gerunds and how to form them.

Gerunds are nouns formed from verbs.

walking, talking, thinking, listening

Gerunds are formed by adding ING to verbs.

think + ing = thinking

Spelling Rules

There are a few spelling rules that you need to know in order to form gerunds correctly. The spelling of a gerund depends on
the vowels (a, e, i, o, u) and consonants (b, c, d, f, etc.) at the end of the verb.

Rule Example

think + ing =
If there is more than one consonant, just add ING
thinking

beat + ing =
If there is more than one vowel, just add ING
beating
 Rule Example

If there is one vowel and one consonant, and the syllable is stressed, double the consonant hit + t + ing =
and add ING hitting

If there are one or more consonants and E, remove the E and add ING take + ing = taking

study + ing =
In most other cases, just add ING studying
see + ing = seeing

Gerunds and Infinitives

Here is a brief review of the differences between gerunds and infinitives.

Gerunds are formed with ING.

walking, talking, thinking, listening

Infinitives are formed with TO.

to walk, to talk, to think, to listen

Jobs

Gerunds and infinitives can do several jobs:

Both gerunds and infinitives can be the subject of a sentence.

Writing in English is difficult.

To write in English is difficult.

Both gerunds and infinitives can be the object of a verb.

I like writing in English.

I like to write in English.

But... only gerunds can be the object of a preposition.

We are talking about writing in English.

Usage

It is often difficult to know when to use a gerund and when to use an infinitive. These guidelines may help you.

Gerunds are often used when actions are real, concrete, or completed.
Gerunds For example: I stopped smoking.
(The smoking was real and happened until I stopped.)
 Infinitives are often used when actions are unreal, abstract, or future.
Infinitives For example: I stopped to smoke.
(I was doing something else, and I stopped; the smoking had not happened yet.)

Modals of Certainty in the Present

You can use modal auxiliaries with the base forms of verbs to convey ideas of necessity, obligation, politeness, possibility and
probability. Modals have only one form, so they are never spelled with an -s.

Must, could, might, may, couldn’t and can’t are used to show how possible or probable the speaker thinks a present situation is.
Using “must” conveys a strong feeling of certainty; nevertheless, there is still some doubt in the speaker’s mind.

Could, may and might show that a speaker is 50% or less certain about a present situation.

By using couldn’t and can’t, a speaker shows that he believes a situation is very unlikely or impossible. Must not also conveys a
strong feeling that something is not probable nor possible. However, unlike couldn’t and can’t, which are normally
contracted, must not is usually written as two words.

Correct: You just ate three hamburgers, an order of large fries and dessert. You can’t still be hungry.
Incorrect: You just ate three hamburgers, an order of large fries and dessert. You mustn’t still be hungry.

May not and might not convey the idea that a speaker is 50% or less certain that a situation is not possible or probable. They are
not normally used in their contracted forms.
Correct: They are late. They might not know the way here.

Incorrect: They are late. They mightn’t know the way here.

Might and could are used in questions regarding the possibility or probability of present situations. However, may and must are
not.

Correct: Could Tom be in class now?

Incorrect: May Tom be in class now?

For most short answers, a modal alone is used. However, if the question includes a be verb, a modal with be is required.

Person A: Is Stephanie coming over tonight?

Person B: I’m not sure. She might be.

Person C: Does Rachel like spicy food?

Person D: I don’t know. She might.

Do not confuse may be and maybe. “May be” (two words) is a modal, whereas “maybe” (one word) is an adverb.

Maybe I will go to bed early tonight.

Example: I may be late getting home tonight.

Modals of Possibility and Probability for Past Situations
Must, may, might, can’t and couldn’t are used with a present perfect verb form to show how certain a speaker is that a past
situation happened or didn’t happen.

Affirmative

Formula: MODAL + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE (to show how certain the speaker is that something happened)

Must have + past participle shows a great deal of certainty that something happened, but there is still some doubt in the
speaker’s mind. He/she is not 100% certain. For example:

The students did well on the test. They must have studied hard.

(There are other possible reasons why the students did well on the test. It might have been very easy, or they might have already
learned the material. The speaker uses must have studied hard to show that he/she thinks this is the most logical reason they did
so well.) For example:

I’ve phoned Jim several times, but he doesn’t answer. He must have gone out.

(The speaker believes this is the most logical reason why Jim doesn’t answer the phone. However, other reasons are possible. He
might not have heard the phone, or he might not have wanted to talk to anyone.)

May, might and could convey the idea that a speaker is only 50% or less certain that something happened. The use
of could implies a little more certainty. For example:

My wife doesn’t answer the phone. She may (might, could) have gone shopping.
(The speaker doesn’t know for sure that his wife went shopping. However, it is his best guess.)

Negative

Formula: MODAL + NOT + BASE VERB + PAST PARTICIPLE (to show how certain the speaker is that something didn’t happen)

Can’t or couldn’t have + past participle shows that the speaker is very certain something didn’t happen. For example:

Robin looks tired today. She can’t have slept well last night.

(This is the speaker’s best guess as to why Robin looks tired. Of course, other reasons are possible. For instance, she might be
ill.)

May or might not have + past participle shows that the speaker is 50% or less certain that something didn’t happen. For example:

There was a strange light in the sky yesterday evening. I don’t know for sure what it was, but I may have seen a U.F.O.
(Unidentified Flying Object).

An appropriate modal + have is used in most short answers. However, if the question has a be verb, the formula for responding
is appropriate modal + have been. For example:

Person A: Has Jennifer decided which courses she’s going to take next semester?

Person B: I’m not sure. She might have.

Person C: Do you think Tim enjoyed the concert?

Person D: I don’t know. He may have.

Modals of Possibility and Probability with Continuous Tenses
We use modals of possibility or probability to make a guess or draw a logical conclusion about an activity in progress at the
present time; that is, during the time of speaking.

Formula: SUBJECT + APPROPRIATE MODAL + BE + ING VERB

Person A: What’s all that noise?

Person B: The neighbour’s son is in a rock band. They must be practicing.

We also use modals of possibility or probability to make guesses or logical conclusions about past activities.

Formula: SUBJECT + APPROPRIATE MODAL + HAVE BEEN + ING VERB

Person A: I didn’t hear a sound when I passed by the children’s room earlier.

Person B: They must have been sleeping.

Must, could, might, may, couldn’t, can’t, may not and might not are used to show how certain the speaker is that an action is
presently occurring or not occurring. Using must conveys a strong feeling of certainty; nevertheless, there is still some doubt in
the speaker’s mind.

Could, may and might show that a speaker is 50% or less certain that an action is in progress.

Couldn’t and can’t show that the speaker believes strongly that a situation is not taking place. For example:
 It’s noon. George went to bed at 10:00 last night. He can’t still be sleeping!

May not and might not convey the idea that a speaker is 50% or less certain that an action is not possible or probable. They are
not normally used in their contracted forms.

Correct: They aren’t here yet and it’s getting late. They might not be coming.

Incorrect: They aren’t here yet, and it’s getting late. They mightn’t be coming.

Might and could are used in questions regarding the possibility or probability of actions taking place. However, may and must are
not.

Correct: Could Tom be studying now?

Incorrect: May Tom be studying now?

For most short answers, a modal alone is used. However, if the question includes a be verb, a modal with be is required.

Person A: Is Simon joining us?

Person B: I’m not sure. He might be.

Remember that not all verbs are used in the continuous (progressive) form. Non-action verbs that describe situations or
conditions that aren’t expected to change, such as seem, appear, cost, weigh, have and be are not used. Other types of non-
continuous verbs are:

 Verbs of the senses (hear, smell, see, taste, etc.)

 Verbs of ownership (have, belong, own, possess)
 Verbs that convey feelings (love, hate, like, hate, prefer, want, etc.)
Modals of Necessity, Prohibition, and Permission
Must, have to and have got to convey the idea that something is strongly required or obligatory, often by law. Must is a true
modal, so its form never changes. Have to and have got to on the other hand, are phrasal modals which change forms to agree
with their subjects. For example:

I must renew my passport before I go on vacation.

I have to/ have got to renew my passport before I go on vacation.

William has to/ has got to renew his passport before he goes on vacation.

Must not and cannot (and their contracted forms mustn’t and can’t) convey the idea that something is not allowed or prohibited,
often by law. For example:

You cannot drive in Canada without a valid driver’s license.

Can is used to convey the idea that something is allowed at the time. Could is used to talk about something that was allowed in
the past, and will be able is used to talk about something that will be permitted in the future. For example:

There’s plenty of room in the car. You can bring your friend with you.

Several years ago, people could smoke in almost all public buildings in British Columbia,

But now it is not allowed. For example:

In the future, people will be able to travel vast distances through space as easily as we travel around the world today.

Should conveys the idea that it would be wise to do something. In other words, it is a good idea to do it. For example:
 In order to get to the airport in time to catch our flight, we have to leave home at 7:00 in the morning. Therefore,
everyone should go to bed early tonight.

Do/ does are used with have to and has/ have are used with have got to when forming questions. Must is not commonly used in
American English to form questions, nor is it used with do/does. For example:

It’s still early. Do you have to leave so soon?

She’s working hard. Has she got to finish the assignment tonight?

It’s still early. Must we leave now?

Future Possibility and Probability Modals

Will have to, have to and must convey the idea that an action is going to be necessary in the near future. The negative forms
are will not and do not have to. For example:

The movie starts at 9:00 and it’s already 8:15. We will have to leave soon, or we will miss the beginning.

There’s no hurry. The movie doesn’t start until 9:00, and it’s only 6:45. We do not have to leave for a while yet.

Should and ought to convey the idea that something is expected in the future. For example:

As far as I know, the ferry is running on schedule. We should arrive in Vancouver in about an hour.

Let’s stop by their house on the way home. They ought to be home by the time we get there.
Could, may or might convey the idea of future possibility. Of these, may expresses a stronger degree of certainty that an event
will occur. For example:

The temperature is dropping. It could snow during the night.

To convey the idea that a future event will possibly not take place, use may not or might not. Do not use could not.

Correct: The temperature is rising. It may not snow tonight after all.

Incorrect: The temperature is rising. It could not snow tonight after all.

Modals of Preference
To express a preference when different choices are possible, you can use would rather. Because it is followed by the base form of
a verb, it functions as a modal auxiliary. Study the examples below.

I would rather stay home.

I would rather play tennis.

Separate choices with “than”

When the choices are named, they are separated by than, as in the following examples.

I would rather go to the beach than study on such a nice day.

I would rather be rich than poor.
Prefer someone else do something

When you prefer that someone else do something, the formula is:

subject + would rather + subject + simple past verb tense

For example:

I would rather you drove home.

Note: Although the simple past tense is used in the above example, it refers to the present or future.

Prefer someone not do something

When you don't want someone to do something, the formula is:

subject + would rather + subject + didn't + do something

For example:

I'd rather you didn't do that.

Person A: Do you mind if I stop to do some shopping on the way home?

Person B: I'd rather you didn't. I don't want to miss the beginning of the hockey game on TV.
Negative form

The negative is:

subject + would + rather + not + verb

For example:

I’d rather not catch a bus. Let’s take a taxi instead.

Note: The subject and would are often contracted (I’d, we’d, she’d, etc.).

Other Ways of Expressing Preference

To say what is generally preferred, you can use prefer + infinitive or prefer + gerund, as in the following examples.

I prefer to eat at home. (prefer + infinitive)

I prefer eating at home. (prefer + gerund)

Structures following “prefer”

The following three structures can follow prefer:

 Structure Example

prefer + noun to noun I prefer hot chocolate to tea.

prefer + doing something to doing something different I prefer drinking hot chocolate to drinking tea.

prefer + to do something + rather than + do something else I prefer to drink hot chocolate rather than drink tea.

Using “would prefer”

The structure would prefer is used to talk about what someone wants in a specific situation, not all the time, and is followed by an
infinitive verb or a noun. See the following examples.

Would you prefer spaghetti or fish for dinner?

Would you prefer to catch a bus or take a taxi home after the party?

Note: Unlike would rather, prefer and would prefer are not followed directly by base verbs, so they are not modals.
Modals in the Past

Formation of Present and Past Modals

Present or future actions

When showing present or future time, the modal auxiliaries might, may, could, must and should precede the simple form of the
verb, as in the example sentences below.

My friend got two speeding tickets last week. He must be a fast driver. (present)
The weather report said the temperature might drop below freezing level overnight. (future)

To form a negative sentence, place not directly after the modal.

She said she might not come.

A modal followed by be + progressive verb shows that the speaker thinks an action is happening at the moment.

Don’t make so much noise. My father might be sleeping.

Past actions

When expressing past actions, might, may, could, must and should precede have + past participle, as in the following example.

The explosion was very loud. Even people living several kilometers away must have heard it.
To form a negative past tense modal sentence, use modal + not + have + past participle.

Tom is usually a good student, but he did poorly on the last test. He might not have understood the instructions.

To say you think an action was happening at a time in the past, use modal + have been + progressive verb, as in the next
example.

The fire alarm sounded very early in the morning. Most residents of the building must have been sleeping at the time.

Meaning and Use

1. Might have, may have, could have

Might have, may have and could have are used to show past possibility. In other words, they are guesses about what happened at
a period before now. See the examples below.

I can’t find my glasses. I might have left them in the car.

She promised to be here by now, but I don’t see her. She may have missed the bus.

The lights are all off in the house next door. Our neighbours could have gone out.

2. Could have

Could have is also used to talk about something the speaker was able to do in the past but didn’t.

We were all having so much fun that we could have stayed longer. (We didn’t stay longer.)

I could have finished the report if I had stayed longer at the office. (I didn’t stay longer at the office. I went home.)
3. Must have

Must have is used to show probability in the past. That is, the speaker is almost certain that an action took place at a time before
now.

There’s no milk in the refrigerator. We must have drunk it all.

Many more cars than usual were parked on our street last night. Someone must have had a party.

4. Should have, ought to have for advice

Should have and ought to have are used to express advice or offer an opinion regarding the past. It refers to an action that would
have been good or appropriate, but never happened.

John missed the bus. He should have left his house a few minutes earlier. (He didn’t.)

John missed the bus. He ought to have left his house a few minutes earlier.

5. Should have, ought to have for expectation

Should have and ought to have are also used to express past expectation.

John should have been here by now. (I expected him to be here by now, but he isn’t.)

John ought to have been here by now.

6. Using “not”

The use of not with a past tense modal expresses the idea that whatever action took place was not good or appropriate. Consider
the following examples.

I should not have drunk so much coffee. Now, I can’t sleep.

My suitcase is too heavy. I shouldn’t have packed so many things.

Count and Non-Count Nouns

Introduction

3
Count nouns are the names of objects which can be counted, such as carrots.
carrots

Non-Count nouns are the names of things or substances which cannot be counted, such
water
as water.
Uses

You need to know the difference between count and non-count nouns in order to:

 use articles (the and a/an) correctly

 use plurals correctly
 use quantity words or quantifiers (e.g. much or many) correctly

Reflexive Pronouns

Introduction

Certain pronouns are known as reflexive pronouns.

1. Common Uses

We use reflexive pronouns when the subject and object in a sentence are the same, as in the following examples.
The baby saw himself/herself in the mirror and laughed.

Can I borrow your spare key, so I can let myself into the apartment?
If you don't know him, you should introduce yourself.

Reflexive pronouns are also used to stress or emphasize a noun, in which case they are most often placed immediately after the
noun, as in the following example sentences.

Money itself can't buy happiness.

The company president himself made the announcement.

I myself am not interested.

The use of "by + reflexive pronoun" signifies that the performer of the action had no help, as in this example sentence.

She made the dress by herself (or simply herself).

However, "be + reflexive pronoun" means to act or behave in an unusual manner. See the following example sentence.

I'm sorry for getting angry. I guess I'm not myself today. (The meaning here is that the speaker is not behaving as he or she
usually does.)

2. Uses with Verb + Preposition Combinations

Reflexive pronouns are used after many verb + preposition combinations, such as those that follow:
 Verb + Preposition Example

believe in If you believe in yourself, you will succeed.

take care of Take care of yourselves while I'm away.

look after Look after yourselves while I'm away.

care about If you don't care about yourself, nobody else will.

3. Seldom or Never Used

Many English words, however, such as those which follow, are seldom or never used with reflexive pronouns.

Concentrate Hurry Remember

Decide Lie down Sit down

Feel Meet Wake up

Get tired Relax

4. Uses for Emphasis

Certain other English words are only used with reflexive pronouns for emphasis. Some of them are listed below.

Dress Hide Shave

Undress Move Wash

Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns

The following pronouns do not refer to specific people. They are indefinite.

nothing anything something everything

no one anyone someone everyone

nobody anybody somebody everybody

Remember to use singular personal pronouns when referring to any of these words, as in the following example sentences.

Someone dropped his/her wallet in the cafeteria.

Everybody has his/her share of problems.

Anyone can succeed if he/she tries hard.

Note: In informal spoken English, plural personal pronouns are commonly used to refer to indefinite pronouns, as in these
examples.

Someone dropped their wallet in the cafeteria.

Everybody has their share of problems.

Anyone can succeed if they try hard.

Some indefinite pronouns, such as both, few, many, others, and several, are considered to be plural. Study the following
examples.

Both of them are here.

Few were at the meeting.

Although the weather was bad, many attended the performance.

Some people enjoyed the speech, but others weren't impressed.

Hardly anyone liked the food. In fact, several refused to eat it.

Some indefinite pronouns can take either singular or plural verbs, depending on their context. Compare the pairs of sentences
below.
Indefinite
Singular Example Plural Example
Pronoun

all All is not lost. All are here now.

I told several people about the meeting, but I don't know

any I'd like more soup. Is any left in the pot?
if any are coming.

If you are still hungry, there is more in the The restaurant is already crowded, and more are waiting
more
kitchen. Just help yourself. at the door.

A few people couldn't attend the ceremony, but most were

most Most disappeared.
able to come.

If you like orange juice, there is some in the Some were disappointed with the judges' decision, but the
some
refrigerator. majority of people thought it was fair.
Whom, Whose, and Who’s

Introduction

Certain English words can be confusing for English-language students because they sound alike, or have similar spellings. Three
common ones are whom, whose and who’s.

Whom

Whom is an object pronoun

A clause is a group of words which include a subject and a verb. There are two types. Main clauses, which begin with a capital
letter and end with a period or other form of punctuation, can stand alone as complete sentences. Subordinate clauses on the
other hand, cannot stand alone as complete sentences. Instead, they give more information about a noun or verb in the main
clause. Whom is a relative pronoun used to introduce subordinate clauses that refer to people, not things, as in example
sentences below. Because it is an object pronoun, whom cannot be the subject of a subordinate clause. The pattern is: whom +
subject + verb.

Main clause + subordinate (adjective) clause:

Isn't he the man whom we saw earlier?

Main clause + subordinate (noun) clause:

I know whom you talked to.

Whom with a preposition

Whom is often used with a preposition, as in the example sentences below. Whether the preposition comes at the beginning of a
clause or at the end makes no difference to the meaning of the clause. However, placing the the preposition at the beginning
makes it more formal.

That is the man about whom we spoke. (more formal)

That is the man whom we spoke about. (less formal)

Note: In informal spoken English, we are less likely to use whom. For example:

That is the man who(m) we spoke about.

Whose

Whose is used in questions to ask about possession.

Question: Whose chair is it?

Answer: It's mine.

Whose is also a relative pronoun that introduces subordinate clauses, as in the two examples below. Whose is used to show
possession.

Main clause + subordinate (adjective) clause:

That's the student whose essay I corrected last night.

 Do you know whose car that is?

Expressions of Quantity with “Whom” and “Whose”

Both whom and whose can be used in expressions of quantity plus “of”, such as those listed below. See the example sentences
which follow.

both of a lot of several of none of

a number
some of a few of half of
of

most of all of two of many of

For example:

There are 16 students in my class, all of whom are very friendly.

I belong to a literary club, most of whose members are teachers.

Who’s

Unlike whom and whose, who’s is not a single word, but rather, a contraction for who + is. (Who is relative pronoun which, unlike
whom or whose, can be the subject of a subordinate clause.) See the example sentence.
Main clause + subordinate (noun) clause:

Do you know who's giving the lecture today?

Who’s can also be used to ask a question, as in this example.

Who’s giving the lecture today?

Collective Nouns and Pronouns

Introduction

English nouns are either countable or uncountable. Count nouns change in their plural forms by adding "s", while non-count
nouns do not.

Non-Count Nouns

Non-count nouns already refer to an entire group that is composed of various individual parts, so no “s” is added to create a
plural form. A few examples are information, furniture, rice, homework and coffee.

Non-count nouns always take singular verbs, as in the following example sentence.

The information in this pamphlet is useful for tourists.

(non-count noun + singular verb)

Collective Nouns

Like non-count nouns, collective nouns also refer to entire groups. Sometimes they refer to groups of people. Examples of this
type of collective noun are: crowd, government, team, family, audience, committee, gang, staff, band, orchestra, choir and police.

Collective nouns can also refer to things. Examples are pair, bundle, and bunch.

Finally, collective nouns can refer to animals, birds, fish or insects. Some examples of this type are: pride (for lions), bed (for
clams or oysters), flock (for birds or sheep), and swarm (for bees or locusts).

When a collective noun refers to a collection of some sort consisting of different individuals or parts, it is replaced by a plural
pronoun that takes a plural verb, as in this example.

The coach is pleased with the team because they are doing well.

(Collective noun “team” replaced by “they” + plural verb)

On the other hand, collective nouns that refer to solitary, impersonal groups or units, are replaced by the singular, impersonal
“it”, as in the following example. Therefore, when replacing collective nouns with pronouns, it is important to know whether you
are talking about the group as a whole, or to its individual parts.

The team is not doing well this season. It has lost three games in a row.

Note: Only singular determiners (words that help define a noun, such as his, her, their, a, an, the, this, these, that, those) are used
with singular, collective nouns. Study the example below.

This gang is responsible for a number of recent car thefts. Correct!

These gang is responsible for a number of recent car thefts. Incorrect!

Preposition Combinations

Noun, Verb and Adjective + Preposition Combinations

Prepositions and the rules concerning their usage can be confusing to learners of English as a second language. Basically,
prepositions are connecting words that join objects to other parts of sentences. Preposition choice is determined by the noun,
verb, adjective or particle which precedes it.

Noun + Preposition Combinations

English has many examples of prepositions coming after nouns. In such cases, the prepositions are often followed by a phrase
containing a noun, as in example (a) below. They can also be followed by a noun, as in example (b), or an -ing verb, as in
example (c).

(a) Scientists at the research institute think they are close to finding a solution to the problem.
(b) Everyone was surprised by his lack of concern.
(c) We need to call an expert at plumbing as soon as possible.

Here are a few more nouns and prepositions which are used together:

the use of a solution to influence on evidence of

the cost of an increase in a possibility of danger of

 the price of a reason for a supply of a method of

a lack of belief in the cause of difficulty with

Verb + Preposition Combinations

Many English prepositions also follow verbs. Sometimes they introduce a phrase that contains a noun, as in example (a). They can
also introduce a noun, as in example (b), or an -ing verb, as in example (c).

(a) I don't know how long we can depend on his generosity. He has already done so much for us.
(b) Many of the town's residents relied on neighbours for help during the flood.
(c) She believes in helping people who are less fortunate than her.

Here are some other verbs and prepositions that are used together:

I insist on . . . He can deal with . . .

This can result in . . . Do you plan on . . .

We belong to . . . This could lead to . . .

My answer will depend on . . . You can rely on . . .

They fight for . . . We fight against . . .

 We contribute to . . . I believe in . . .

Adjective + Preposition Combinations

English also has many instances of prepositions coming after adjectives. In many cases, the prepositions precede phrases
containing nouns, as in example (a), or pronouns, as in example (b). It is also possible for the prepositions to precede an -ing
verb, as in (c).

(a) I was amazed at all the improvements.

(b) We were all shocked by his behavior.
(c) Because the exam was more difficult than I expected, I'm worried about passing.

Here are some more adjectives and prepositions that are used together:

proud of identical to different from tired of

related to opposed to satisfied with eager for

based on famous for necessary for excited about

Common Sentence Errors with Prepositions

There are three common types of sentence errors which involve prepositions.

1. Using a preposition which doesn't fit the context of the sentence:

I was amazed from all the improvements. Wrong!

I was amazed at all the improvements. Right!

2. Omitting a preposition that belongs in a sentence:

I was amazed all the improvements. Wrong!

I was amazed at all the improvements. Right!

3. Adding a preposition which is not needed in the sentence:

I was amazed at that the improvements were done so quickly. Wrong!

I was amazed that the improvements were done so quickly. Right!
Prepositions of Place and Time

Introduction

The following information and rules will help you use prepositions of place and time correctly.

Prepositions of Place (Location/Destination)

1. Use “on” with lines and surfaces.

Vancouver is on the west coast of Canada. line

Put the vase on the table. surface
They were sitting on the grass. surface

2. Use “in” with areas that have boundaries and enclosed places.

I was born in England, but I grew up in Canada. areas that have boundaries
We had a picnic in the park last Saturday. enclosed place
I think I left my keys in the bedroom. enclosed place

3. Use “arrive” + “at” with activities, buildings and general locations.

Everyone arrived at the picnic at the same time. activity

The tour group will arrive at the Empire State Building at three o'clock. building
The bus arrived at the station earlier than we expected. location
4. Use “arrive” + “in” with countries, states and cities.

Which month did you arrive in Victoria?

5. Prepositions are not used with the following locations or destinations:

overseas, inside, here, home, upstairs, downtown, abroad, outside, there, where, downstairs

6. Some other prepositions of location are: next to, beside, between, in front of, under.

On my desk, the telephone is next to the lamp.

The computer monitor is beside the lamp.
The speaker is between the telephone and the monitor.
The keyboard is in front of the monitor.
The computer is under the desk.

7. Use “to”, “into”, and “onto” to show movement.

When our car broke down, we walked to the nearest gas station.
The delivery people carried the new couch into the living room.
The man slipped, and fell onto the couch.

Note: The opposite of “to” is “from” / the opposite of “into” is “out of” / the opposite of “onto” is “off”.

8. Some other prepositions which show movement are: through, across, up, down, along, past

The train went through a tunnel.

When the forest fire started, the deer swam across the river to safety.
 We walked up/down/along the street until we found a restaurant.
The parade went past city hall and ended at the new arena.

Prepositions of Time

1. Use “at” for specific times.

The movie starts at 7:00.

2. Use “in” with months, seasons, and years.

We got married in December.

Most people prefer to get married in the spring or summer, but we chose to get married in the winter.

Note: We say “in the morning”, “in the afternoon”, and “in the evening”, but we say “at night” and “by day”.

3. Use “on” for days and dates.

I had to work late on Wednesday, so I missed the bus. day

Diane's friends held a party for her on her birthday. date

4. Use “since” to say when an activity began, and “for” to say how long it has been going on.

He has been president of the company since 2003.

We have been waiting for twenty minutes.
I have lived here for two years.
Note: The present perfect is often used with “since” and “for” to talk about activities which began in the past and continue in the
present.

Using Colons and Semi-Colons

Introduction

The most common punctuation marks in English are probably the period and the comma. However, good writing in English will
usually make use of the colon and the semi-colon. Although these look similar and have similar names, their functions are
completely different. This page will explain the functions of the colon and the semi-colon.

1. The colon

A colon consists of two dots, one above the other:

The colon is often used to introduce a list of items. For example:

You will need to bring three things to the party: some food, something to drink, and a small gift for the hostess.

This sentence contains a list of three items. The first part of the sentence tells you that there will be three things; then the colon
tells you "here are the three things". You can also use a colon to introduce an explanation or a definition of something. For
instance:
 I'll tell you what I'm going to do: I'm going to quit!

"Elephant (noun): a large grey mammal found in Africa and India."

2. The semi-colon

A semi-colon consists of a comma with a dot above it:

The semi-colon is often used to join together two independent clauses — in other words, it joins two clauses that could be
sentences. For example:

Mary drives a Mercedes; Joanne drives a Chevrolet.

These two clauses could be separate sentences: "Mary drives a Mercedes. Joanne drives a Chevrolet." However, when we use a
semi-colon, we are usually suggesting that there is a relationship between the sentences, but we are not making that relationship
clear. Usually, you can tell from the context what the relationship is. In the example above, the relationship is probably
CONTRAST; we could also use "but" to make this clear: "Mary drives a Mercedes, but Joanne drives a Chevrolet." When we use a
semi-colon, it is often because we want to make the reader think about the relationship for herself. This is useful in many
situations, such as when writing cautiously, ironically, or humorously.

One more very common use of the semi-colon is to join two clauses using a transition such as however, therefore, or on the other
hand. Here are some examples:
 Transition Example

in
She works all day in a store; in addition, she takes classes in the evenings.
addition

however John is Canadian; however, he lives in the United States.

otherwise You should get your brakes fixed; otherwise, you might have an accident.

Hundreds of people cross the border from the US to Canada every day; therefore, it is not possible to search all
therefore
of them carefully.

Tag Questions

Introduction

A tag question is a small question that is attached , or "tagged", to the end of a sentence. Rather than repeat the main verb, a
form of "be" or other auxiliary verb or modal is used in the tag. Below are a few examples.

You came by train, didn’t you?

It’s very windy today, isn’t it?
 You can meet me at the station, can’t you?
You couldn’t give me a ride, could you?

Sentence Pattern

If the sentence is negative, the tag is usually positive, as in the example below.

You didn’t tell him, did you?

Note: Sentences with negative words are considered to be negative. Therefore, they require positive tag question endings, as in
these examples:

He never drinks alcohol, does he?

Nobody left a message, did they?

If the sentence is positive, the tag is usually negative, as in the next example.

You told him, didn’t you?

Twelve Rules for Tag Questions

Rule Example

1. After “let’s”, the tag begins with “shall”. Let’s invite the neighbours over for dinner on the
weekend, shall we?
Rule Example

2. Use “aren’t I” in tags to mean “I am not”. I’m on time, aren’t I? (correct)

I’m on time, am’t I? (incorrect)

3. Use “won’t” for polite request tags. You’ll bring the other things, won’t you?

4. Use “will” or “would” with imperative sentences (commands). Wait here until I return, will you?
Wait here until I return, would you?

5. Use “mustn’t” with the modal “must”. This must be the address, mustn’t it?

6. Two endings are possible when “have” is the main verb of the You have enough money, haven’t you? (British English)
sentence. You have enough money, don’t you? (North American
English)

7. Use pronouns for people, not proper names, in question tags. Paul is a good tennis player, isn’t he?
Betty has a good job, hasn’t she?

8. Use “it” in a question tag when the sentence includes the words
This is your pen, isn’t it?
“this” or “that”.
 Rule Example

9. Use “they” in a question tag when the sentence includes “these”

Those are your sandals, aren’t they?
or “those”.

10. Use “there” in a question tag when the sentences includes

There is a lot of work to do today, isn’t there?
“there + a form of be”.

11. Use “they” in a question tag when the sentence includes

Everyone is here now, aren’t they?
indefinite pronouns
Nobody has eaten yet, have they?
(nobody, no one, someone, somebody, everyone, everybody).

12. Use “didn’t” in a question tag when the sentence includes the
You used to go skating very often, didn’t you?”
verb “used to”.

Using Tag Questions

Tag questions are used to ask for agreement or to ask for things, favours, or new information. To determine which, listen to the
speaker's tone. A rising tone at the end of a tag question indicates that it is a real question. The speaker wants to know
something or wants someone to do something. Falling tone however, means that the speaker is looking for agreement.
 Rising tone -
You couldn't lend me some money, could you?
asking for a favor

Rising tone –
You don't happen to know if the No. 50 bus has already passed here, do you.
asking for information

Falling tone - The boss wasn't in a good mood today, was he?
asking for agreement That dress looks great on her, doesn't it?

Note: We usually use a negative sentence with a positive tag to request things or information, as in the preceding examples.

Embedded Questions

Introduction

An embedded question is a question that is included inside another question or statement. They are common after introductory
phrases, such as:

I wonder
Could you tell me
Do you know
 Can you remember
Let's ask
We need to find out
I'd like to know
Could you tell me
I'm not sure
Would you mind explaining

Five Rules for Using Embedded Questions

Rule One

If the embedded question is part of a statement, use a period and not a question mark at the end of the sentence. Also, if the
question is in the present or past simple verb tense, omit the auxiliary verbs do, does, and did and change the verb to its
appropriate form, as in the example below.

Direct Question What time did he leave?

Embedded Question I wonder what time he left.

Rule Two

If the embedded question includes an auxiliary verb or the verb "to be", reverse the positions of the subject and the auxiliary verb,
as in the examples below.
 Direct Question What did he say?

Embedded Question Could you tell me what he said?

Direct Question Can you help me?

Embedded Question I wonder if you could help me.

Direct Question Is he a doctor?

Embedded Question Do you know if he is a doctor?

Rule Three

Do not use a verbal contraction at the end of the sentence.

Direct Question Where is she?

 Correct Embedded Question Do you know where he is?

Incorrect Embedded Question Do you know where he's?

Rule Four

Embedded questions are introduced by whether, whether or not, and if when there is no question word in the sentence (yes/no
questions).

Direct Yes/No Question Will he be there?

Do you know if he will be there?

Embedded Question Do you know whether or not he will be there?
Do you know whether he will be there or not?

Rule Five

The infinitive can follow a question word or whether in embedded questions, as in the following example.

Direct Question What should I do?

 Embedded Question Please tell me what I should do.

Embedded Question with an Infinitive Please tell me what to do.

Using Embedded Questions

There are times when native English speakers prefer to use embedded rather than direct questions. Here are two examples.

1. Politely Asking for Information

Direct Question What time does the bus arrive?

Could you tell me what time the bus arrives?

Embedded Question
(more polite)

2. Talking About Something Which Is Unknown to the Speaker

Direct Question Why did she decide not to come with us?
 Embedded Question I don't know why she decided not to come with us.

Note: The embedded question is in a statement, so it ends with a period, not a question mark.

Stative and Dynamic Verbs

Introduction

Verbs in English can be classified into two categories: stative verbs and dynamic verbs. Dynamic verbs (sometimes referred to as
"action verbs") usually describe actions we can take, or things that happen; stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which
is not changing or likely to change. The difference is important, because stative verbs cannot normally be used in the continuous
(BE + ING) forms. This will explain the differences between the two types of verb, and give lots of examples of each kind.

Dynamic verbs

There are many types of dynamic verbs, but most of them describe activities or events which can begin and finish. Here are some
examples:
 Dynamic
Type Examples
Verb

She plays tennis every Friday.

play activity
She's playing tennis right now.

The snow melts every spring.

melt process
The snow is melting right now

When one boxer hits another, brain damage can result. (This suggests only ONE
momentary punch.)
hit
action When one boxer is hitting another, brain damage can result. (This suggests MANY
repeated punches.)

Dynamic verbs, as you can see from the table above, can be used in the simple and perfect forms (plays, played, has played, had
played) as well as the continuous or progressive forms (is playing, was playing, has been playing, had been playing).

Stative verbs

Stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is quite static or unchanging. They can be divided into verbs
of perception or cognition (which refer to things in the mind), or verbs of relation (which describe the relationships between
things). Here are some examples:
 Stative Verb Type Examples

hate perception I hate chocolate.

believe perception She believes in UFOs.

contain relation The box contains 24 cans of soda.

own relation Yong owns three motorbikes.

Note that we CANNOT use these verbs in the continuous (progressive) forms; you CAN'T say "*Yong is owning three cars." Owning
is a state, not an action, so it is always in the simple form.

Example verbs

Here some common stative and dynamic verbs. The lists may help you to understand what types of verbs are likely to be stative
and what types are commonly dynamic.

Stative love; hate; like; see; hear; sound; think (meaning "have an opinion"); mind (meaning "care
Verbs about"); recognize; seem; have (meaning "own"); prefer; doubt; consist of; mean
 Dynamic
eat; drink; go; type; read; write; listen; speak; watch; say; grow; work; sleep; cook; talk
Verbs

Dynamic verbs, as you can see from the table above, can be used in the simple and perfect forms (plays, played, has played, had
played) as well as the continuous or progressive forms (is playing, was playing, has been playing, had been playing).

Expressing the Future

Introduction

While the English language has past and present tenses, it does not have a future tense. To say what will happen in the future,
you can use the modal auxiliary will (plus the base form of the main verb), the verb phrase be going to (plus the base form of the
main verb, the present simple or the present progressive, but be careful. There are times when one is preferred over the others.

The Present Simple Tense for Future Events

The present simple tense is used to talk about future events that have been scheduled. Examples would be meetings, timetables,
airline schedules, etc. See the examples below.

Hurry up! I don't want to miss any of the game. It starts at 1:00.
The meeting is in the boardroom. It begins at 10:00.

He'll be here soon. His plane arrives at 6:45.

The Present Progressive Tense for Future Events

In English, we often use the present progressive (be + verb + ing) to talk about future events which have already been planned.
Time words in the sentence, such as next week, next year, tomorrow, etc., make it clear that the action is not happening at this
moment.

Be careful. Verbs that describe states rather than actions are not used in the progressive form. These include words like know,
believe, hear, love seem own and need. Study the examples below.

I'm playing golf with some friends on Saturday. (correct)

I'm needing a ride to work tomorrow. (incorrect)

In the first example, the speaker is talking about an action that has been planned. The use of the words on Saturday tell us that
the action is not happening now. The use of the verb need in the second example is incorrect. Need is used to show a state or
condition rather than an action. Therefore, it is wrong to use it in the progressive form. The chart below shows more words that
are not used in the progressive form.

Verbs Not Used in the Progressive

(a) Verbs describing feelings or attitude like, prefer, appear, seem, want, look, love, hate, appreciate, dislike, need

(b) Verbs showing ownership possess, belong, own, have

(c) Verbs associated with the senses smell, see, hear, taste
 (d) Verbs concerning mental activity forget, remember, understand, know, believe, mean, recognize, think

Note: Some of these words can be used in the progressive form with changes in meaning.

I have been meaning to write her. (The speaker was intending to write to her.)

I'm sorry. Miss Jones is seeing a client at the moment. Would you mind waiting? (Miss Jones is with a client.)

You will be hearing from my attorney! (My attorney will be contacting you.)

Will or Be Going To?

When English speakers predict what they think will happen or become true in the future, they can use either will or be going to.
Look at the example sentences below.

We'd better cancel the picnic. The weather person says we will have heavy rain on the weekend.
We'd better cancel the picnic. The weather person says we are going to have heavy rain on the weekend.

In both cases, the speakers are making predictions about the weather on the weekend. There is no difference in meaning between
the first example and the second. However, there are a number of situations when it is better to use will than be going to, and
vice versa.

Expressing Future Events with Will

We use will + the base form of the main verb in these situations.
Use “Will”
To talk about things that
we think will happen
(In such cases we often use
words such as “I think” or
“probably”.)
For official or formal
announcements concerning
future events
For promises or offers
related to the future
(In such cases, we are
expressing willingness.)
For decisions concerning
future events that are made
while talking
Example
James will probably
study history at university.
The graduation dinner will
take place on June 3rd of this
year.
You forgot your wallet. Don't
worry. I'll lend you some
money.
The phone is ringing. Don't
get up. I’ll answer it.
Person A: The car is very
dirty.
Explanation
I know James is interested in history. Therefore I guess or
predict that he will study history in the future.
Any type of ceremony, including a graduation ceremony, is a
formal or important event. Therefore, the use of will is
appropriate here.
In each case, the speaker is expressing a willingness to help
the listener.
Before this conversation, Person B was not planning to wash
the car after lunch. He decided to do so because of
 Use “Will” Example Explanation

Person B: You're right. I'll something Person A said. In other words, he made his
wash it after lunch. decision to wash the car during the conversation.

Don't worry. I won't forget to

pay you back the money.

I'll take care of your house

When making serious In each case, the speaker is expressing a promise to do
while you're out of the
promises something in the future.
country. Don't worry about a
thing.

I'll never forgive him!

Shall

Shall was used in the past for the affirmative will. Today however, the forms I will or we will are preferred. Nevertheless, shall is
still used in questions about the future that make offers and suggestions or ask for advice.

What shall we do if they don't come soon? (asking for advice.)

It's hot in here. Shall I open a window? (making an offer)

Shall we try to finish the project today? (making a suggestion)

Using Be Going To

We use be going to + the base form of the main verb in these situations.

Use “Be Going To” Example Explanation

The speaker is making a

prediction about a future
For prediction — Something smells good. Dinner is
meal based on what his
We use be going to + the base form of the main verb going to be delicious.
sense of smell tells him in
to make a prediction about the future based on our
the present.
sense of sight, smell, taste, hearing or touch. In other
words, something about the present causes us to
The sun is shining and there's not The speaker is making a
think an action will happen very soon or immediately.
a single cloud in the sky. It's prediction based on what
going to be a nice day. (s)he sees.

Last year we went to Hawaii for

For a plan —
our vacation. This year we are
We use be going to + the base form of the main verb The speaker is talking about
going to take a cruise to Alaska.
to talk about future events which have already been a planned event.
After work I'm going to play
planned.
squash with a friend.
 Use “Be Going To” Example Explanation

For informal situations — Mom and Dad are going to

We use be going to + the base form of the main verb be angry when they see the mess This is an informal situation
when we talk about informal situations involving you've made. You'd better clean it between two siblings.
future actions. up before they get home.

Future Time Clauses

Dependent and Independent Time Clauses

An English clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. There are two types: independent and dependent. An
independent clause expresses a complete thought, begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark or
exclamation mark. In other words, it is a complete sentence. However, a dependent clause, although it also contains a subject and
a verb, does not express a complete thought. Therefore it cannot stand alone; it must be joined to an independent clause. See the
example clauses below.

It was raining (independent clause) when I left the house this morning. (dependent clause)
She went home early (independent clause) because she didn't feel well. (dependent clause)

In these examples, the dependent clauses follow the independent clauses. However, you can start a sentence with a dependent
clause as long as you separate it from the independent (or main) clause with a comma, as in the examples below.
 When I left the house this morning, it was raining.
Because she didn't feel well, she went home early.

Future Time Clauses

Future time clauses are dependent clauses that must be joined to independent (main) clauses. It is customary to the future tense
in the independent clause and the present tense in the dependent (time) clause. Do not use the future tense in the time clause.
Study the examples below. In each case, the independent (main) clause is in bold type.

When the movie ends, I'm going to bed. (correct)

When the movie will end, I'm going to bed. (incorrect)
I'll feel more relaxed after I finish my project. (correct)
I'll feel more relaxed after I will finish my project. (incorrect)

Future time clauses begin with time words such as when, as soon as, after, before, until, and while. Below are a few example
sentences. As you saw earlier, a comma separates the time clause from the main (independent) clause when the time clause
comes first.

When I finish the dishes, I'll help you with your homework.
I'll help you with your homework when I finish the dishes.

As soon as I finish the dishes, I'll help you with your homework.
I'll help you with your homework as soon as I finish the dishes.

After I finish the dishes, I'll help you with your homework.
I'll help you with your homework after I finish the dishes.
Before I go home, I'll finish this report.
I'll finish this report before I go home.
Until I finish this report, I won't go home.
I won't go home until I finish this report.

While I am waiting for the bus, I'll drink my coffee.

I'll drink my coffee while I am waiting for the bus.

While I wait for the bus, I'll drink my coffee.

While I wait for the bus, I'll drink my coffee.

Present Perfect
Here is a brief review of the form and function of the present perfect tense.

Form

The present perfect is formed like this: have plus past participle

I have studied for three hours today.

Function

The present perfect is used when the time period has not finished.

I have seen three movies this week.

(This week has not finished yet.)
The present perfect is often used when the time is not mentioned.

Gerry has failed his exam again.

The present perfect is often used when the time is recent.

Ikuko has just arrived in Victoria.

The present perfect is often used with for and since.

Greg has lived here for 20 years.

Greg has lived here since 1978.

Present Perfect and Simple Past

Introduction

This section will help you to understand the differences between the Present Perfect Tense and the Simple Past Tense.
Has the time period finished?

Rule Example Explanation

The present perfect is used when the time period I have seen three movies this (This week has not
has NOT finished. week. finished yet.)

The simple past is used when the time period HAS I saw three movies last
(Last week has finished.)
finished. week.

Is it new information or old?

Rule Example Explanation

The present perfect is often used when giving recent Martin has crashed his car (This is new
news. again. information.)

The simple past is used when giving older Martin crashed his car last (This is old
information. year. information.)
Is it a specific time?

Rule Example Explanation

The present perfect is used when the time is not I have seen that movie
(We don't know when.)
specific. already.

I saw that movie on (We know exactly

The simple past is used when the time is clear.
Thursday. when.)

Has the action finished (sentences with “for” or “since”)?

Rule Example Explanation

The present perfect is used with for and since when I have lived in Victoria (I still live in
the actions have not finished yet. for five years. Victoria.)

The simple past is used with for when the actions have I lived in Victoria for five (I don't live in
already finished. years. Victoria now.)
Past Perfect

Introduction

The past perfect tense is often used in English when we are relating two events which happened in the past. It helps to show
which event happened first. This page will explain the rules for forming and using the tense.

Forming the past perfect tense

This tense is formed using two components: the verb HAVE (in the past tense), and the past participle form of a verb. With a
regular verb the past participle ends with -ED (just like the simple past). Irregular verbs have a special past participle form that
you have to learn. Here are the rules, using the regular verb "arrive" and the irregular verb "eat":

Subject HAVE Past Participle Contraction

arrived. I'd arrived.

I had
eaten. I'd eaten.

arrived. You'd arrived.

You had
eaten. You'd eaten.

arrived. He'd arrived.

He had
eaten. He'd eaten.
 Subject HAVE Past Participle Contraction

arrived. She'd arrived.

She had
eaten. She'd eaten.

arrived. It'd arrived.

It had
eaten. It'd eaten.

arrived. We'd arrived.

We had
eaten. We'd eaten.

arrived. They'd arrived.

They had
eaten. They'd eaten.

Using the Past Perfect

The past perfect is used to show you which of two events happened first. Imagine that two things happened in the past:

Past Event I went to see the movie.

Past Event We discussed the movie in class.

Here, we don't know which order the events happened in. That may be important -- perhaps I went to see the movie after the
discussion, or maybe I saw the movie before the discussion. There are many ways to make this sequence clear, and the past
perfect is one of them. This is how we do it:
 I went to see the movie. We had discussed the movie in class.

Here, we know that the discussion took place first — even though the sentence describing it comes afterwards. We discussed the
movie, and then I went to see it. This can be very useful when you are telling a story or relating a sequence of events. At any point
in your story, you can jump back to a previous event, and your reader will not be confused because the past perfect will make it
clear that the event happened previously.

Here is another example:

I wanted to live in a foreign country, so I applied for a job in Japan. Judy lived in Japan, so I called her to
Simple find out more about the culture and lifestyle there.
Past
(Judy was probably still living in Japan when I called her.)

I wanted to live in a foreign country, so I applied for a job in Japan. Judy had lived in Japan, so I called her
Past to find out more about the culture and lifestyle there.
Perfect
(Judy no longer lived in Japan — she returned from there before I applied for the job.)
The Passive
1. Introducing the Passive

Look at the following sentences.

Sentence A: People eat sushi in many parts of the world.

Sentence B: Sushi is eaten by people in many parts of the world.

Sentence A is considered active because the doer of the action (or agent) is the subject of the sentence.

Sentence B is passive. That is, the object of the active verb (eat) in the first sentence is the subject of the passive verb (is eaten) in
the second sentence. This means that only verbs which have objects (transitive verbs) can be made passive.

Active sentences are usually regarded as stronger than passive sentences. Passive sentences are common, however, especially in
academic writing. In fact, there are three situations when it is better to use a passive sentence instead of an active one. They are
listed below.

Using the Passive

Situation One: When we don't care or don't know who performs the action.

The injured workers were rushed to the hospital.

Situation Two: When we can't or don't want to say who performed the action.

Has the truth been hidden from us?

Situation Three: When we want to place emphasis on the receiver of the action rather than the doer, or agent.

Thousands of homes were destroyed by the hurricane.

2. Forming the Passive

We form the passive by using the correct form of the verbs “be” (is, am, are, be, been, being, was, were) or “get” (get, gets,
getting, got, gotten) plus a past participle. Be careful. Passive sentences with get plus a past participle are less formal than those
with be plus a past participle. Consequently, they are most often used in spoken English and informal writing.

Most of the trash got taken to the recycling centre. (informal)

Most of the trash was taken to the recycling centre. (formal)

Using the “by phrase”

As you have learned, passive sentences are used when writers don't know or don't care who actually performed the action. Thus,
the majority of passive sentences do not include “by phrases”. Only when it is important for readers to know who performs the
actions, do writers include it in passive sentences. Consider the following examples.

That building was designed by a famous architect.

(The “by phrase” is important, so it is included.)

“Macbeth” and “King Lear” were written by William Shakespeare.

(The “by phrase” is included because it is important.)
The mail is usually delivered before noon.
(The “by phrase” is not necessary because we know who delivers the mail each day.)