ADVANCED SERVICES – UNIT 7

Q) Explain any two methods of “passive solar energy utilization” systems with neat sketches

Passive solar design refers to the use of the sun’s energy for the heating and cooling of living spaces.
Passive systems are simple, have few moving parts, and require minimal maintenance. Passive
solar technologies use sunlight without active mechanical systems (as contrasted to active solar).

In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, and distribute
solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer.

The key to designing a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate. Passive
solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, but existing buildings can be
adapted or "retrofitted".

Operable windows, thermal mass and thermal chimneys are common elements found in passive
design. Operable windows are simply windows that can be opened. Thermal mass refers to materials
that store heat energy and prevent rapid temperature fluctuations. Thermal chimneys create or
reinforce the effect hot air rising to induce air movement for cooling purposes.

Passive Heating System

Heating the building through the use of solar energy involves the absorption and storage of incoming
solar radiation, which is then used to meet the heating requirements of the space.

– Incoming solar radiation is typically stored in thermal mass such as concrete, brick, rock, water or a
material that changes phase according to temperature.

– Incoming sunlight is regulated by the use of overhangs, awnings and shades while insulating
materials can help to reduce heat loss during the night or in the cold season.

– Vents and dampers are typically used to distribute warm or cool air from the system to the areas
where it is needed.

 The three most common solar passive systems are direct gain, indirect gain and isolated gain.

o A direct gain system allows sunlight to windows into on occupied space where it is absorbed by
the floor and walls.
 o In the indirect gain system, a medium of heat storage such as wall, in one part of the building
absorbs and stores heat, which is then transferred to the rest of the building by conduction,
convection or radiation.

o In an isolated gain system, solar energy is absorbed in a separate area such as greenhouse or
solarium, and distributed to the living space by ducts. The incorporation of insulation in passive
systems can be effective in conserving additional energy.

Passive cooling Systems:

These systems function by either shielding buildings from direct heat gain or by transferring excess
heat outside. Carefully designed elements such as overhangs, awnings and eaves shade from high
angle summer sun while allowing winter sun to enter the building.

 Desiccant cooling systems are designed to dehumidify and cool air. Desiccant materials such as
silica gels naturally absorb moisture from humid air and release the moisture when heated, a
feature that makes them re-useable. In a solar desiccant system, the sun provides the energy to
recharge the desiccants.

 Evaporative cooling - Water evaporation is an effective method of cooling buildings, since water
absorbs a large quantity of heat as it evaporates. Evaporative cooling techniques can be broadly
classified as passive and hybrid.

o Passive direct systems include the use of vegetation for evapotranspiration, as well as the use
of fountains, pools and ponds where the evaporation of water results in lower temperature in
the room.

o Passive indirect evaporative cooling techniques include roof spray and roof pond systems.

o Roof spray - The exterior surface of the roof is kept wet using sprayers. This cools the roof
surface and a temperature gradient is created between the inside and outside surfaces causing
cooling of the building.

o Roof pond - The roof pond consists of a shaded water pond over an non-insulated concrete
roof. The temperature within the space falls as the ceiling acts as a radiant cooling panel for the
space, without increasing indoor humidity levels.
 Earth cooling tubes - These are long pipes buried underground with one end connected to the
house and the other end to the outside. Hot exterior air is drawn through these pipes where tit
gives up some of its heat to the soil, which is at a much lower temperature at a depth of 3m to 4m
below the surface. This cool air is then introduced into the house.
 Earth-sheltered buildings - Earth sheltering achieves cooling by conduction where part of the
building envelope is in direct contact with the soil. Earth berming can considerably reduce solar
heat gain and also increase heat loss to the surrounding soil, resulting in increase in comfort.

Q) Solar energy usage in buildings – where and how?

There are two main ways that solar energy is used in our buildings:

1. Solar Heat 2. Solar Electricity

1. Solar Heat:

Solar water heating systems have two main parts: a solar collector and a storage tank. Generally, the
collector is a thin, flat, rectangular box with a transparent cover mounted on the roof, facing the sun.

The sun heats an absorber plate in the collector, and this heats the water running through tubes inside
the collector. The heated water is pumped or moved by gravity into the storage tank. Solar water
heaters can use about two thirds less energy than those of other methods.

Heat from a solar collector can power heating and cooling systems in buildings.

Passive solar heating - Some buildings are designed for passive solar heating, and do not need a solar
collector. Basically, passive solar heating is when opportunities are made for the sun to shine into the
building to warm it up.

2. Solar Electricity:

Photovoltaic (PV) solar cells directly convert sunlight into electricity. PV cells are combined into
modules called arrays, and the number of arrays used determines the amount of electricity produced.

Large PV systems are integrated into buildings to generate electricity for export to the National grid.

SOLAR HOT WATER SYSTEMS (SYLLABUS)

Solar energy can be captured to heat water and/or air. The hot water created by a solar system can be
used for (a) space heating; (b) space cooling; (c) domestic hot water. The fundamental requirement
for a solar system is to have a sunny location where the solar collectors can be located.

The collectors should have full sun from 9 AM to 3 PM. The collectors should face south at
approximately the same angle as our latitude (30 degrees).

Solar water heating systems are designed to deliver hot water for most of the year. However, in winter
there sometimes may not be sufficient solar heat gain to deliver sufficient hot water. The system,
either connected to an electric geyser in the house or an electric al backup is provided in the storage
tank of the system which is switched on when water is not sufficiently hot.
There are five major components in solar water heating systems:

1. Collector(s) to capture solar energy.

2. Circulation system to move a fluid between the collectors to a storage tank
3. Storage tank to hold the hot liquid, usually a well-insulated water heater.
4. Backup heating system
5. Control system to regulate the overall system operation

Working of solar water heating systems:

Solar water heating systems use solar panels, called collectors, fitted to the roof. Small tubes run
through the collector and carry the fluid to be heated. The tubes are attached to an absorber plate,
which is painted black to absorb the heat. As heat builds up in the collector, it heats the fluid passing
through the tubes.

These collect heat from the sun and use it to heat up water which is stored in a hot water cylinder. A
boiler or immersion heater can be used as a back up to heat the water further to reach the
temperature you want.

There are two types of solar water heating panels:

1. Evacuated tubes
2. Flat plate collectors, which can be fixed on the roof tiles or integrated into the roof.

Types of Solar Water Heating systems:

1. Active systems use one or more pumps to circulate water and/or heating fluid in the system.

Example: Indirect or closed loop systems use a heat exchanger that separates the potable water from
the fluid, known as the "heat-transfer fluid" (HTF) that circulates through the collector. The two most
common HTFs are water and an antifreeze/water mix that typically uses non-toxic propylene glycol.
After being heated in the panels, the HTF travels to the heat exchanger, where its heat is transferred to
the potable water. Though slightly more expensive, indirect systems offer freeze protection and
typically offer overheat protection as well.

2. Passive systems rely on gravity and the tendency for water to naturally circulate as it is heated.
They cost less and have extremely low or no maintenance, but the efficiency of a passive
system is significantly lower than that of an active system. Overheating and freezing are major
concerns.

Example: Batch System: It consists of one or more metal water tanks painted with a heat absorbing
black coating and placed in an insulating box with a glass cover that admits sunlight to strike the tank
directly. The batch system’s storage tank is the collector as well. Each time a hot water tap is opened,
heated water from the batch system tank is removed and replaced by incoming cold water.

Since the tank that is storing the heated water is sitting outside, there will be heat loss from the tank
during the night. This can be minimized by an insulating cover placed on the heater in the evening.
Q) A 3-star hotel which is in operation for last 10 years now wants to have solar water heating
system. Explain its various parameters and how it will be installed.

Hotels are among the best sites for solar hot water systems because

– They tend to be busiest in summer

– Their large and constant hot water load (a third of the energy used in hotels is for heating
water!),
– Their roofs are typically large and flat. 

In new buildings, solar thermal technology can be planned as an integral part of the heating system to
optimize overall energy supply. Planners have the freedom to decide how collectors are integrated into
the building (say as roof cladding or building façade) and the spatial arrangement of heat storage,
control units, boilers can also be matched to actual needs.
Refurbishment – Exact design and dimensioning is important. Back-ups in the form of boilers or heat
pumps should be available when collector output is too low. When retrofitting existing tanks can be
kept and supplemented with solar heat storage unit.

– Collective solar domestic hot water systems can be installed into multi-family houses, hotels, office
buildings etc. These collective systems have a collector surface ranging from ten to several hundred
square meters. Most large systems used for collective solar thermal domestic hot water are
designed as forced-circulation systems – using a pump, but multiple thermo syphon systems are
also used where appropriate.
– The hot water profile (that is to say, how much hot water is used at different times of day is
necessary for system sizing.
– For estimating the system’s life-cycle cost, it is necessary to know the energy consumption of the
existing system. The life-cycle cost takes into account the cost of the system, installation,
maintenance costs and energy savings over the system’s practical lifespan.
– Determine the optimal system size for the hotel by varying flow rate, collector type, total collector
area (i.e., number of collectors), water storage tank size, and time of day of hot water usage.  The
optimal system is, for this study, defined as that which minimizes the life-cycle cost. 
– Generally active systems are used. (Describe active system from above)
– Amongst the hotels with solar water heating systems installed in their premises, a preference was
seen for Flat Plate Type collectors (FPC) over Evacuated Tube Type Collectors (ETC).
Generally speaking, the size of your solar thermal system will vary depending on the climate and
overall water usage. The following guidelines can be used to estimate your system requirements:

Collector surface area

1.5 m2 flat-plate collector surface per person
1 m2 evacuated tube collector surface per person
As you can see, evacuated tube type collectors are more efficient given the same area. This may be
something to consider if your rooftop is not very large.

Storage tank volumes

20-30 gallons per person 

Solar Water Heater Installation

1. Collectors installation:
– Decide on location of solar hot water system
– Check access for piping from solar tank to point of use
– Install pipe runs from solar tank to point of use
– Pipes should be installed rising slightly to avoid the creation of air pockets
– Insulate all pipe runs
– Assemble solar water heater system on roof.

2. Plumbing:

To add the solar water heater to an existing hot water system, such as electric, oil or gas, connect the
cold water supply to the solar heater and connect the outlet from the solar heater to where the cold
water would normally enter your existing hot water heater.

To preserve the option of removing the solar heater from the system for maintenance, use two fittings
and valves, so that cold water can either be routed through the solar heater before going to the
conventional heater, or directly to the conventional heater.

In this way, the solar tank can be drained and the conventional system continues to operate.

3. Locate and assemble the storage tank

Q) Compare and contrast the construction and performance of flat plate & parabolic solar energy
collectors.
A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight and then transfers this heat to a solar fluid
which moves the heat into the downstream system.

Collector Terminology

Gross Area - The gross area is the actual area occupied by the collector. It is determined by its external
dimensions.

Aperture Area- The aperture area is the area through which light enters the collector. This determines
the maximum amount of energy which the collector can absorb. The aperture area can be quite
significantly smaller than the gross area.
Absorber Area-The absorber area is the area of the actual absorbing surface. This is usually smaller
than the aperture area.

Flat plate collectors

It is a Medium Temperature Collector- Medium temperature collectors often refer to solar water
heating systems in the form of flat plates or evacuated tube collectors. These collectors are used to
collect, store, utilize heat for domestic hot water (such as for showers, laundry, or process applications,
among others), for space heating, and for space cooling.

The main components of flat plate collector are a transparent front cover, collector housing and an
absorber. The absorber, inside the flat plate collector housing, converts sunlight to heat and transfers
it to water in the absorber tubes. As the collector can reach stagnation temperatures up to 200°C (i.e.
when no water flows through), all the materials used must be able to resist such heat. Therefore, the
absorber is usually made of metal materials such as copper, steel or aluminium.

The collector housing can be made of plastic, metal or wood and the glass front cover must be sealed
so that heat does not escape and dirt, insects or humidity do not get into the collector itself. Many
collectors also have controlled ventilation so as to avoid condensation inside the glass front cover. The
collector housing is highly insulated at the back and sides, keeping heat losses low.

A sheet of glass covers the collector as it faces the sun and this helps to prevent most of the convection
losses. Furthermore, it reduces heat radiation from the absorber into the environment in a similar way
to how a greenhouse does. However, the glass also reflects a small part of the sunlight, which does not
then reach the absorber at all.

Flat panel collectors can have gross areas ranging from 2m2 - 18m2 in a single collector.

Parabolic Trough Collector

It is a High Temperature Collector - High temperature collectors – also referred to as concentrating

collectors - uses mirrors and/or lenses to concentrate sunlight to achieve very high temperatures (750F
to 1000F). This technique is called Concentrated Solar Power, or CSP. These high temperatures are
used in large scale power production, usually to turn steam turbines.

A parabolic trough solar collector uses a mirror in the shape of a parabolic cylinder to reflect and
concentrate sun radiations towards a receiver tube located at the focus line of the parabolic cylinder.
The receiver absorbs the incoming radiations and transforms them into thermal energy, the latter
being transported and collected by a fluid medium circulating within the receiver tube.

This type of set up works at its best in desert areas where there is no shortage of sunlight and very
little cloud.

Q) Short notes on: Photovoltaic cells, grid connected photo voltaic system, Stand-alone photovoltaic
system

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY

Solar electrical energy is generated when the sun’s energy strikes a solar photovoltaic (PV) panel.
When light energy is absorbed by a material known as a semiconductor, an electrical charge is created,
this property of the material is known as the photoelectric effect. Silicon is the most common
semiconductor used by PV cell manufacturers.

A series of PV panels are combined in PV arrays that send Direct Current (DC) to an inverter, which
converts the electricity to Alternating Current (AC) Power. The AC power is integrated into the
building’s electrical system, thereby reducing the amount of electricity that must be purchased from
the grid.
There are two main types of PV systems: 1. Grid-connected PV system and 2. Stand-alone PV system.

1. GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEM

A grid-connected PV system is one which connects to the electricity grid. The electricity produced by
the PV system is "exported" to the grid. The main advantage of using a grid-connected PV system is
that the grid can be used as what is effectively an electricity storage system, where the electricity is
"stored" and then "re-purchased" and so they do not need physical storage systems (batteries) and so
the investment cost is reduced.

In a typical grid-connected PV system, the electricity is fed from the PV modules into an inverter. The
inverter converts the electricity produced by the PV system (which is DC) into AC electricity for export
to the electricity grid. The inverter is usually connected to either the main circuit breaker or fuse box,
or else connected directly to the incoming cables from the grid.

If the PV system is not supplying sufficient electricity to power the loads in the building (e.g. at night,
when there is no solar energy available), then the electricity from the grid is used. When the electricity
supplied by the PV system is greater than the loads in the building, then the electricity can be exported
to the electricity grid.

2. STAND-ALONE PV SYSTEM

Stand-alone PV systems are not connected to the grid. Stand alone systems are set up so that you use
the electricity produced by the PV system directly. In order to take full advantage of the electricity
produced, it needs to be stored. For this reason, a stand alone system will commonly include battery
storage. A stand-alone system is more complicated and expensive, as well as requiring a little more
maintenance, like refilling water in the batteries.

Stand-alone PV systems are very useful where there is no electrical grid connection (e.g. in the
developing world) and also for applications such as street lighting, traffic signs etc.
Q) Write short notes on: a. Biomass b. Tidal c. Biogas.

(A) BIOMASS

Biomass, as a renewable energy source, refers to living and recently dead biological material that can
be used as fuel or for industrial production. 

Plants used up a lot of the sun's energy to make food. They stored the foods in the plants in the form
of chemical energy. As the plants died, the energy is trapped in the residue. This trapped energy is
usually released by burning and can be converted into biomass energy.

It is such a widely utilized source of energy, probably due to its low cost and indigenous nature, that it
accounts for almost 15% of the world's total energy supply and as much as 35% in developing
countries, mostly for cooking and heating.

How is biomass converted into energy?

Burning- Burning stuff like wood, waste and other plant matter releases stored chemical energy in the
form of heat, which can be used to turn shafts to produce electricity. Let's see this simple illustration of
how biomass is used to generate electricity.

Decomposition- Things that can rot, like garbage, human and animal waste, dead animals and the like
can be left to rot, releasing a gas called biogas (also known as methane gas or landfill gas). Methane
can be captured by a machine called Micro turbine and converted into electricity. Sometimes, animal
waste (poop) can also be converted into methane by a machine called 'Anaerobic Digester'

Fermentation- Ethanol can be produced from crops with lots if sugars, like corn and sugarcane. The
process used to produce ethanol is called gasification.

(b) TIDAL

Tidal power generates electricity by capturing the energy contained in moving water mass, i.e., tides,
much the same way that hydro power plants capture energy from falling water.

Tidal energy can be captured in two ways:

1. Tidal Barrage
Tidal power can be harnessed using a barrage (dam) built across an estuary that captures the
potential energy generated by the change in height (or head) between high and low tides. As
the tide goes in and out, the water flows through tunnels in the dam. The ebb and flow are
 used to either turn a water turbine or compress air through a pipe that then turns a turbine,
which generates electricity.

2. Tidal Fences and Turbines

Tidal fences and turbines can also be used to capture tidal power. Tidal fences are turbines that
operate like giant turnstiles, while tidal turbines are similar to wind turbines. In both cases,
electricity is generated when the turbines are turned by the tidal currents that occur in coastal
waters. Ocean currents generate relatively more energy than wind (air currents) because ocean
water has a higher density than air and therefore applies greater force on the turbines.

(c) BIOGAS

Biogas is a biofuel, and usually means a mixture of methane and hydrogen produced by using bacteria
to break down organic material.

How it works:

Waste material is digested in the absence of oxygen (called "anaerobic digestion” or "fermentation". It
works best at around 35~40 degrees Celsius. The organic matter can be manure, sewage sludge,
municipal solid waste, biodegradable waste or any other biodegradable feedstock. Biogas is
mainly methane and carbon dioxide.

Biogas can be used for electricity production, If compressed, it can replace compressed natural gas for
use in vehicle.

The gas produced depends on the material you started with.

– If you start with manure, sewage or "green waste" from your garden, you get mainly methane and
carbon dioxide
– If you start with wood or other biomass, you get "wood gas" which is nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon
monoxide and a little methane

Q) Explain the construction of any one type of biogas plant with a neat sketch
Q) Short Notes: Biomass digesters

A biogas plant is the name often given to an anaerobic digester that treats farm wastes or energy
crops. A “biogas digester” is a simple system which produces biogas, via the natural anaerobic
decomposition of organic material.

The specific microbes that are responsible for the creation of biogas, can only do so in the absence of
oxygen, hence the anaerobic conditions. Preferably the design should allow for the biogas to be stored
under pressure, making the application of the biogas so much easier.

Apart from the production of methane, the digester system will effectively remove all pathogens from
the sewerage and the effluent produced is clean enough to be re-used for irrigation purposes.

A biogas digester could be as simple as filling a black polyurethane (the fabric inflatable boats are
made of) bag with a manure slurry and leaving it in the sun. As the manure begins to decompose, the
gas produced inflates the bag, creating pressure that allows the gas to be tapped.

The most well-known digesters around the world, however, have either been the Fixed Dome Digester
originating from China, or the Floating Dome Digester (also known as the Gobar Gas Digester) from
India. The biggest disadvantage of both designs has been the fact that they are traditionally built using
brick & mortar and result in leaked gas due bad workmanship or settlement cracks.  A further problem
with the fixed dome design is that gas is never under constant pressure, greatly limiting its application.

A floating dome digester has a dome (normally made of steel) that fits in the neck of the digester and
basically floats on the gas produced in the belly of the digester below. As gas is produced in the
digester it collects in the dome, eventually creating enough pressure for the dome to in effect "float"
on the gas.

A well is made out of concrete. This is called the digester tank. It is divided into two parts. One side has
the inlet, from where slurry is fed to the tank. The tank has a cylindrical dome made of stainless steel
that floats on the slurry and collects the gas generated. The slurry is made to ferment for about 50
days. As more gas is made by the bacterial fermentation, the pressure inside the dome increases. The
gas can be taken out through outlet pipe.  The decomposed matter expands and overflows into the
next chamber in tank.  This is then removed by the outlet pipe to the overflow tank and is used as
manure for cultivation purposes.

A fixed-dome plant consists of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gas holder, which sits on top of the
digester. When gas production starts, the slurry is displaced into the compensation tank. Gas pressure
increases with the volume of gas stored and the height difference between the slurry level in the
digester and the slurry level in the compensation tank.

Construction: A well and a dome are made out of concrete. This is called the digester tank. The dome is
fixed. The function of the plant is similar to the floating holder type bio gas plant. The used slurry
expands and overflows into the overflow tank.  
Q) What is the importance of Carbon –Nitrogen ratio in biogas generation? How can this be brought
to required level?

The main components of biogas are carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). The ratio between the
two varies depending on a number of conditions (including what species of bacteria are in the reactor
and what is being put into it), but 60% CH4:40% CO2 being the average.

Significance of C: N ratio:

The easiest variable to control that produces the most methane and the least by-products is the C: N
ratio, or carbon-nitrogen ratio. If you were to look at the metabolism biochemistry of the bacteria,
you would find that for every nitrogen atom they consume, they need 30 carbon molecules. What this
means is that if all the waste you put in (mixed together) has a total of 30 times more carbon than it
does nitrogen, the bacteria will use up (almost) all of the carbon and nitrogen and there will be less
stuff left-over to form other by-products

If the C/N ratio is very high, the nitrogen will be consumed rapidly by methanogens for meeting their
protein requirements and will no longer react on the left over carbon content of the material. As a
result, gas production will be low. On the other hand, if the C/N ratio is very low, nitrogen will be
liberated and accumulated in the form of ammonia (NH4). NH4 will increase the pH value of the
content in the digester. A pH higher than 8.5 will start showing toxic effect on methanogen population.

A C: N ratio, 25–30: 1 is optimum for biogas production. Chicken, cow and pig manures are commonly
used for biogas because they have a good natural C: N ratio.
Maintaining levels: (nai milra kuch precise)

Materials with high C/N ratio could be mixed with those of low C/N ratio to bring the average ratio of
the composite input to a desirable level. In China, as a means to balance C/N ratio, it is customary to
load rice straw at the bottom of the digester upon which latrine waste is discharged. Similarly, at
Machan Wildlife Resort in Nepal, feeding the digester with elephant dung in conjunction with human
waste enabled to balance C/N ratio for smooth production of biogas.

If, you are unable to achieve a CN value of 30 to prevent a reactor from producing a lot of (for
example) H2S (which is a very dangerous gas in large quantities), there are simple ways to filter out any
unwanted compounds. For example, ferrous materials—like from natural soils or certain iron ores—
will react with and remove H2S when biogas is passed through it.