Unit - I

Special services in High rise buildings and provision to be made for installation and operation.
Lifts: Types of lifts, Passenger, Capsule, Hospital bed- lift; goods-lift etc. Working and operation
of lifts, parts of lifts; industry standards and capacity calculations. Provision to be made in
buildings for installation; Introduction to working of escalator and design;

Unit - II
Electronic Systems in Buildings: Telephone and communication, EPABX networks, transmission.
Security systems, Burglar alarms, video surveillance, access control. Computer labs, access
flooring, server rooms.

Unit - III
Fire safety in buildings, portable fire fighting equipment, built in wet riser system, sprinkler
system, fire hydrant, class of fire and occupancy.
Cooking gas distribution, piped gas supply, bulk gas supply, bottled gas supply, Relevant NBC
other standards, Stoves, burners and grills.

Unit - IV
Swimming Pools: Pool design, Tank and channels, cascades, finishes; Water circulation,
balancing tank. Filtration and water treatment; Water quality and disinfection

Unit - V
Hotel services: Specialty; services required for hospitality industry; Laundry services; Kitchen
services; Channeled Music, Internet.

Unit – VI
Environmental services: Waste generation, types of waste, treatment and disposal facilities,
Industrial buildings; Hospital buildings.

Unit - VII
Alternative energy sources for buildings: Solar energy, Hot water system, photo voltaic cells;
Biomass digesters; Wind energy.
UNIT 1

High Rise Fire Safety Systems

When building heights rise above 75 feet, NFPA standard #101 require special high rise fire
safety systems to protect modern modern structures from the special risks brought about by
the increased elevation. These facilities require high rise fire alarm systems with special
capabilities such as emergency voice paging, fire fighters telephone and other special fire
protection systems. If you manage, maintain, or occupy such buildings, you should consider
Reliable Fire Equipment as the nation's premier specialist in the installation, testing and
maintenance of high rise fire safety systems.

High Rise Fire Safety Fire Alarm Systems

The AM-2020 fire alarm system is intended primarily for high rise buildings. An addressable,
analog system, the AM2020 is capable of addressing 1,980 detectors, addressable interfaces, or
control modules. Equipped with built in standard fire alarm system networking, the AM-2020 is
able to address even more devices when networked with AFP-200 and AFP-400 control panels.
The control panel supervises elevator recall, activates smoke control systems, emergency
generators, and building fire pumps. It is the ideal high rise fire safety system for large
buildings.

High Rise Emergency Voice Paging

With the high rise building comes the need for emergency paging systems. We have systems for
single, dual, or triple channel voice; automatic message playback with multiple messages
capable of simultaneous transmission to different zones of the building while manual paging is
in progress in still other zones of the building. Complete zone selection and automatic override
capabilities are provided with the Notifier annunciator control panel. Speaker strobes installed
throughout the facility provide emergency tones, pre-recorded messages, or live messages
from the AM-2020 control panel.

Fire Alarm Fire Fighters Telephone Systems

In a high rise fire safety system a fire fighter's telephone system is a necessity. Emergency
telephone stations are positioned at every floor throughout the building to enable fire
department personnel to communicate freely in their fire fighting efforts. The emergency
phone system provides two-way communications throughout the entire facility.

Fire Extinguishers

Fire extinguishers provide the first line of defense against fire. Long before temperatures
become sufficiently high to activate the fire sprinkler system, fire extinguishers can provide
rapid fire suppression before combustion reaches life threatening levels. Reliable Fire
Equipment provides extinguishers, fire extinguisher maintenance services, and the OSHA
required fire extinguisher trainingfor employees working in high rise buildings. Your high fire
safety system plan should not overlook them.

High Rise Fire Sprinkler Systems

Fire sprinkler systems provide the primary building structural fire protection. In the event of a
fire in the building, heat from combustion melts the fusible element in the fire sprinkler head
releasing water onto the surface of the fire. Reliable Fire Equipment can integrate maintenance
of your fire sprinkler system with other components of your total high rise fire safety system.

Emergency Lights

Emergency lights enables building occupants to safely escape the building in the event of a
power failure. Equipped with back up batteries capable of powering exit and emergency lights
for more than an hour, emergency lights become a critical element of a high rise safety system
in the event of a power failure. Reliable Fire Equipment provides emergency lights, emergency
lighting maintenance, and testing. In many high rise buildings emergency lights are connected
to the building fire alarm system.

Fire Hose and Standpipes

High rise buildings usually have fire hose and reel stations positioned throughout the
facility. Fire hose must be tested at periodic intervals to meet current fire codes. Reliable can
provide fire hose testing to meet the requirements of NFPA standard #1962.

Security, CCTV, and UniNet Networking

The Notifier AM-2020 control panel is fully listed by Underwriter's Laboratories for security
applications. Using Notifier'sUniNet networking protocol, building closed circuit television
cameras and intrusion alarms can be integrated into a seamless building wide protection
systems. In the event of an alarm in a smoke detector on a specific floor, security cameras can
be manually or automatically rotated to provide visual confirmation of activities in the

One Call Does It All

Reliable Fire Equipment offers the most complete high rise fire safety systems available today:

 Large networked fire alarm systems

 Fire extinguishers and extinguisher training
 Emergency lights and service
 Fire hose and standpipe service
 Fire sprinkler system service
 Security systems for high rise facilities
  Emergency Service 24 Hours a Day, 7 Days a Week
 Service on all other fire protection equipment: "One Call Does it All"

LIFTS

An elevator (or lift) is a vertical transport vehicle that efficiently moves people or goods

between floors of a building. They are generally powered by electric motors that either drive
traction cables and counterweight systems, or pump hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical piston. 

Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a legal requirement in new multi-story
buildings, especially where wheelchair ramps would be impractical.

Passenger service
A passenger elevator is designed to move people between a building's floors.

Passenger elevators capacity is related to the available floor space. Generally passenger
elevators are available in capacities from 1,000 to 6,000 pounds (450–2,700 kg) in 500 lb
(230 kg) increments.[citation needed] Generally passenger elevators in buildings eight floors or less are
hydraulic or electric, which can reach speeds up to 200 ft/min (1.0 m/s) hydraulic and up to
500 ft/min electric. In buildings up to ten floors, electric and gearless elevators are likely to
have speeds up to 500 ft/min (2.5 m/s), and above ten floors speeds begin at 500 ft/min
(2.5 m/s) up to 2000 ft/min (10 m/s).[citation needed]

Sometimes passenger elevators are used as a city transport along with funiculars. For example,
there is a 3-station underground public elevator in Yalta, Ukraine, which takes passengers from
the top of a hill above the Black Sea on which hotels are perched, to a tunnel located on the
beach below. At Casco Viejo station in the Bilbao Metro, the elevator that provides access to
the station from a hilltop neighbourhood doubles as city transportation: the station's ticket
barriers are set up in such a way that passengers can pay to reach the elevator from the
entrance in the lower city, or vice versa. See also the Elevators for urban transport section
Types of passenger elevators
Passenger elevators may be specialized for the service they perform, including: hospital
emergency (Code blue), front and rear entrances, double decker, and other uses. Cars may be
ornate in their interior appearance, may have audio visual advertising, and may be provided
with specialized recorded voice instructions.
An express elevator does not serve all floors. For example, it moves between the ground floor
and a skylobby, or it moves from the ground floor or a skylobby to a range of floors, skipping
floors in between. These are especially popular in eastern Asia.

Freight elevators
A freight elevator, or goods lift, is an elevator designed to carry goods, rather than passengers.
Freight elevators are generally required to display a written notice in the car that the use by
passengers is prohibited (though not necessarily illegal), though certain freight elevators allow
dual use through the use of an inconspicuous riser. Freight elevators are typically larger and
capable of carrying heavier loads than a passenger elevator, generally from 2,300 to 4,500 kg.
Freight elevators may have manually operated doors, and often have rugged interior finishes to
prevent damage while loading and unloading. Although hydraulic freight elevators exist, electric
elevators are more energy efficient for the work of freight lifting. [citation needed]

Hydraulic elevators

 Conventional hydraulic elevators. They use an underground cylinder, are quite common
for low level buildings with 2-7 floors, and have speeds of up to 200 feet/minute (1
meter/second).
 Holeless hydraulic elevators were developed in the 1970s, and use a pair of above
ground cylinders, which makes it practical for environmentally or cost sensitive buildings
with 2, 3, or 4 floors.
 Roped hydraulic elevators use both above ground cylinders and a rope system, which
combines the versatility of inground hydraulic with the reliability of holeless hydraulic, even
though they can serve up to 8-10 floors.

Traction elevators

 Geared and gearless traction elevators

Geared traction machines are driven by AC or DC electric motors. Geared machines use worm
gears to control mechanical movement of elevator cars by "rolling" steel hoist ropes over a
drive sheave which is attached to a gearbox driven by a high speed motor. These machines are
generally the best option for basement or overhead traction use for speeds up to 500 ft/min
(2.5 m/s).
Gearless traction machines are low speed (low RPM), high torque electric motors powered
either by AC or DC. In this case, the drive sheave is directly attached to the end of the motor.
Gearless traction elevators can reach speeds of up to 2,000 ft/min (10 m/s), or even higher. A
brake is mounted between the motor and drive sheave (or gearbox) to hold the elevator
stationary at a floor. This brake is usually an external drum typeand is actuated by spring force
and held open electrically; a power failure will cause the brake to engage and prevent the
elevator from falling (see inherent safety and safety engineering).

In each case, cables are attached to a hitch plate on top of the cab or may be "underslung"
below a cab, and then looped over the drive sheave to a counterweight attached to the
opposite end of the cables which reduces the amount of power needed to move the cab. The
counterweight is located in the hoist-way and rides a separate rail system; as the car goes up,
the counterweight goes down, and vice versa. This action is powered by the traction machine
which is directed by the controller, typically a relay logic or computerized device that directs
starting,acceleration, deceleration and stopping of the elevator cab. The weight of the
counterweight is typically equal to the weight of the elevator cab plus 40-50% of the capacity of
the elevator. The grooves in the drive sheave are specially designed to prevent the cables from
slipping. "Traction" is provided to the ropes by the grip of the grooves in the sheave, thereby
the name. As the ropes age and the traction grooves wear, some traction is lost and the ropes
must be replaced and the sheave repaired or replaced.

Elevators with more than 100' (30 m) of travel have a system called compensation. This is a
separate set of cables or a chain attached to the bottom of the counterweight and the bottom
of the elevator cab. This makes it easier to control the elevator, as it compensates for the
differing weight of cable between the hoist and the cab. If the elevator cab is at the top of the
hoist-way, there is a short length of hoist cable above the car and a long length of
compensating cable below the car and vice versa for the counterweight. If the compensation
system uses cables, there will be an additional sheave in the pit below the elevator, to guide
the cables. If the compensation system uses chains, the chain is guided by a bar mounted
between the counterweight rails.
 Passenger lifts are specially designed to suit a wide variety of applications. A choice of
finishes in the form of decorative laminates is offered using wooden panels or M.S.
Sheets. Cargo lifts are made of M.S. Sheets with chequered plate at the bottom to
withstand rugged use.

Hospital lift

Bed lifts are the ideal solution for any type of health & medical centre, nursing home,
clinic, and hospitals of any size.

Capacity ranges from 1000kg/13 person to 2500kg/33 person and are designed for the
safe vertical movement of patients, beds, medical equipment and the all important
medical staff.

In any type of lift, safety and reliability are important factors, but in health and medical
centres these become vital elements. Our bed lifts meet all these requirements to the
maximum, together with other factors such as spaciousness, freedom of movement and
hygiene.
PARTS OF AN ELEVATOR :

Counterweight

A tracked weight that is suspended from cables and moves within its own set
of guide rails along the hoistway walls.This counterweight will be equal to the
dead weight of the car plus about 40% of the rated load.

Hoistway

The shaft that encompasses the elevator car.Generally serving all floors of the
building.In high-rise buildings hoistways may be banked. With specific
hoistways serving only the lower floors and others serving only middle or
upper floors while traveling in a blind hoistway until reaching the floors that it
serves. A blind hoistway has no doors on the floors that it does not serve.

Elevator Car

A heavy steel frame surrounding a cage of metal and wood panels. The top of
the car frame is called the “crosshead”. Cabled elevators are usually
suspended from the crosshead. The bottom of the frame is usually referred to
as the “safety plank”.The elevator car door travels through the hoistway with
the car.A toe guard is present at the bottom of some cars. This guard protects
the passengers from being exposed to the open hoistway under the car if the
doors are opened when it is not at the landing. The guard is between 21” and
48” long.

Elevator Door

These doors can sometimes opened on the inside by hand, except where anti-
egress devices are installed.This will also break the electrical interlock which
will cut the power to the car.

Hoistway Doors

Horizontal operating hoistway doors are generally hung from the top on rollers
that run in a track, with the bottom of the door running in a slot.Forcing these
doors at the middle or at the bottom will cause damage to the doors and their
mounting hardware. The doors can also be knocked out of their track and fall
into the hoistway.
Hoistway Door Interlock

The hoistway door locking mechanism provides a means to mechanically lock

each hoistway door. They are also interconnected electrically to prevent
operation of the elevator if any of the elevator’s hoistway doors are open.

Hoistway emergency door keys

Carried on trucks and the squad, permit the unlocking of the hoistway door
interlock.

Car top operating station

Provided on some cars for operating the car from the car top. To be used by
the elevator technician when servicing the car.This station should only be
operated under the direct supervision of the elevator technician.

Photo-electric and infrared sensors

A sensor between the hoistway and car doors that detects objects in their path
and prevents the doors from closing.Photo-electric eyes were problematic and
are being phased out.

Roller guides

A set of three wheels that roll against the guide rails. Usually mounted to the
safety plank and crosshead. They keep the car in contact with the guide rails
and prevent sway.

Safeties

Emergency braking mechanism that stops the car by wedging into the guide
rails when over speeding has occurred.It is activated by the speed governor
sensing over speeding of the elevator car.

Hoisting cables (or ropes)

Used on traction type elevators, usually attached to the crosshead and

extending up into the machine room looping over the sheave on the motor and
then down to the counter weights.

Hoisting cable are generally 3 to 6 in number. They are steel with a hemp core
to keep them pliable and lubricated.

These cables are usually 1/2”or 5/8” in diameter. The 1/2”cables have a
breaking strength of 14,500lbs and the 5/8” 23,000lbs each.

However, at 900 degrees the wire steel rope contains only about 13% of its
original tensile strength.

Guide Rails

Tracks in the form of a “T” that run the length of the hoistway, that guide the
elevator car. Usually mounted to the sides of the hoistway, at the middle of
the elevator car.

Car emergency exit

Usually located at the top of the elevator cars, sometimes on the side, other
times not present.Top exits open from outside the car. Side exits are extremely
dangerous to use and are no longer being installed. Existing side exits have
been disabled by being permanently bolted shut.

Machine room

Usually located above the hoistway in a penthouse or two floors above the
highest floor it serves, but may be in the basement if overhead space is
unavailable. Generally containing hoisting machines, controllers, generator,
speed governor and the main electrical disconnects to the elevators.
INTRODUCTION OF WORKING OF ESCALATORS & DESIGN

Escalators are one of the largest, most expensive machines people use on a regular basis, but
they're also one of the simplest.

At its most basic level, an escalator is just a simple variation on the conveyer belt. A pair of
rotating chain loops pull a series of stairs in a constant cycle, moving a lot of people a short
distance at a good speed.
The core of an escalator is a pair of chains, looped around two pairs of gears. An electric motor
turns the drive gears at the top, which rotate the chain loops. A typical escalator uses a 100
horsepower motor to rotate the gears. The motor and chain system are housed inside the
truss, a metal structure extending between two floors.

Instead of moving a flat surface, as in a conveyer belt, the chain loops move a series of steps.
The coolest thing about an escalator is the way these steps move. As the chains move, the steps
always stay level. At the top and bottom of the escalator, the steps collapse on each other,
creating a flat platform. This makes it easier to get on and off the escalator. In the diagram
below, you can see how the escalator does all of this.

Each step in the escalator has two sets of wheels, which roll along two separate tracks. The
upper set (the wheels near the top of the step) are connected to the rotating chains, and so are
pulled by the drive gear at the top of the escalator. The other set of wheels simply glides along
its track, following behind the first set.

The tracks are spaced apart in such a way that each step will always remain level. At the top
and bottom of the escalator, the tracks level off to a horizontal position, flattening the stairway.
Each step has a series of grooves in it, so it will fit together with the steps behind it and in front
of it during this flattening.

In addition to rotating the main chain loops, the electric motor in an escalator also moves the
handrails. A handrail is simply a rubber conveyer belt that is looped around a series of wheels.
This belt is precisely configured so that it moves at exactly the same speed as the steps, to give
riders some stability.

The escalator system isn't nearly as good as an elevator at lifting people dozens of stories, but it
is much better at moving people a short distance. This is because of the escalator's high loading
rate. Once an elevator is filled up, you have to wait for it to reach its floor and return before
anybody else can get on. On an escalator, as soon as you load one person on, there's space for
another.

Planning & Design Factors- FOR ELEVATORS

• Circulation/Movement of people in buildings

• Mode (horizontal or vertical)

• Movement type (natural or mechanically assisted)

• Human behaviour (complex, unpredictable)

• Design objectives

• Free flow of people & goods

• Safe operation, comfort & service

• Occupy minimum space & require less costs

• Aesthetics, disabled access, etc.

Circulation elements in buildings include:

• Corridors
Physical • Portals (e.g. entrance, door, gate)
• Stairways or architectural elements
• Ramps
• Lifts
• Escalators - Mechanical or engineering
• Moving walkways elements
* Try to identify them in a building

Human factors
• Physical dimensions
• Occupancy ellipse 600 mm by 450 mm (0.21 m2)
• Personal space (buffer zone)
• Female: 0.5 m2 (0.8 m diameter circle)
• Male: 0.8 m2 (1.0 m diameter circle)
• Density of occupation
• Desirable: 0.4 person/m2
• Comfortable: 1.0 person/m2
• Dense: 2.0 person/m2
• ‘Crowding’: 3.0 person/m2
• Crowded: 4.0 person/m2

Interpersonal distances
• Public distance: > 7.5 m (far); 3.6-7.5 m (near)
• Social distance: 2.1-3.6 m (far); 1.2-2.1 m (near)
• Personal distance: 0.75-1.2 m (far); 0.45-0.75 m (near)
• Intimate distance: < 0.45 m
Major design concerns
• Circulation efficiency
• Location & arrangement (prevent bottlenecks)
• Coordination with lobby, stairway & corridor
• Fire & safety regulations
• Handling capacity (quantity of service)
• Interval or waiting time (quality of service)
• Consideration by lift functions
• Passenger, goods, firemen, shuttle, observation.

Escalator – typical design

• Speed: 0.5 and 0.65 m/s, up to 0.9-1.0 m/s on deep

systems like subway
• Step widths: 600, 800 & 1000 mm; min. step or
tread length = 400 mm
• Inclination: usually at angle 30o
• 35o if rise < 6 m & speed < 0.5 m/s
• Boarding and alighting areas
• Safe boarding, 1.33 – 2.33 flat steps
Escalator – typical applications
• Low- to medium-rise buildings
• Large no. of people e.g. airports, subway stations, department stores, shopping malls
• Escalator arrangements
• Parallel
• Multiple parallel
• Cross-over or criss-cross
• Walk around

Escalator: handling capacity

• N = (3600 x P x V x cos θ) / L
• N = no. of persons moved per hour
• P = no. of persons per step
• V = escalator speed (m/s)
• L = length of step (m)
• θ = angle of incline
• Ce= 60 V k s (persons/minutes)
• V = speed along the incline (m/s)
• k = average density of people (people/step)
• s = number of escalator steps per metre
UNIT 2

EPABX

A private branch exchange (PBX) is a telephone exchange that serves a particular business or
office, as opposed to one that a common or telephone company operates for many businesses
or for the general public. PBXs are also referred to as:

* PABX - private automatic branch exchange 

* EPABX - electronic private automatic branch exchange

PBXs make connections among the internal telephones of a private organization — usually a
business — and also connect them to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) via trunk
lines. Because they incorporate telephones, fax machines, modems, and more, the general
term "extension" is used to refer to any end point on the branch.

PBXs are differentiated from "key systems" in that users of key systems manually select their
own outgoing lines, while PBXs select the outgoing line automatically. Hybrid systems combine
features of both.

PBX functions

Functionally, the PBX performs four main call processing duties:

Establishing connections (circuits) between the telephone sets of two users (e.g. mapping a
dialled number to a physical phone, ensuring the phone isn't already busy)

Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them (i.e. channelling voice signals
between the users)

Disconnecting those connections as per the user's requirement

Providing information for accounting purposes (e.g. metering calls)

In addition to these basic functions, PBXs offer many other calling features and capabilities,
with different manufacturers providing different features in an effort to differentiate their
products

System components

A PBX will often include:

  The PBX’s internal switching network
 Microcontroller or microcomputer for arbitrary data processing, control and logic.
 Logic cards, switching and control cards, power cards and related devices that facilitate
PBX operation.
 Stations or telephone sets, sometimes called lines.
 Outside Telco trunks that deliver signals to (and carry them from) the PBX.
 Console or switchboard allows the operator to control incoming calls.
 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) consisting of sensors, power switches and batteries.
 Interconnecting wiring.
 Cabinets, closets, vaults and other housings.
 Investigate the principles of describe the methods by which signals convey information
transmission
 Information systems using analogue and analyse an information system digital
techniques as related
 Analyze transfer functions for various control to control loops and systems.

Burglar alarms

Burglar alarms 
A burglar alarm is a system designed to detect intrusion – unauthorized entry – into a building
or area. They are also called security alarms ,security systems, alarm systems, intrusion
detection systems, perimeter detection systems, and similar terms.

Burglar alarms are used in residential, commercial, industrial, and military properties for
protection against burglary (theft) or property damage, as well as personal protection
against intruders. 

Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglary protection; combination systems
provide both fire and intrusion protection

The most basic alarm consists of one or more sensors to detect intruders, and an alerting device
to indicate the intrusion. However, a typical premises security alarm employs the following
components:
 Premises control unit (PCU), or panel: The "brain" of the system, it reads sensor inputs,
tracks arm/disarm status, and signals intrusions. In modern systems, this is typically one or
more computer circuit boards inside a metal enclosure, along with a power supply.
 Sensors: Devices which detect intrusions. Sensors may placed at the perimeter of the
protected area, within it, or both. Sensors can detect intruders by a variety of methods,
such as monitoring doors and windows for opening, or by monitoring unoccupied interiors
for motions, sound, vibration, or other disturbances.
 Alerting devices: These indicate an alarm condition. Most commonly, these are bells,
sirens, and/or flashing lights. Alerting devices serve the dual purposes of warning occupants
of intrusion, and potentially scaring off burglars.
 Keypads: Small devices, typically wall-mounted, which function as the human-machine
interface to the system. In addition to buttons, keypads typically feature indicator lights, a
small mulch-character display, or both.
 Interconnections between components. This may consist of direct wiring to the control
unit, or wireless links with local power supplies.
 Security devices: Devices to detect thieves such as spotlights, cameras & lasers.

In addition to the system itself, security alarms are often coupled with a monitoring service. In
the event of an alarm, the premises control unit contacts a central monitoring station.
Operators at the station see the signal and take appropriate action, such as contacting property
owners, notifying police, or dispatching private security forces. Such signals may be transmitted
via dedicated alarm circuits, telephone lines, or Internet.

Main types of burglar alarms

As you have already understood that there are mainly two kinds of burglar alarms. To know
more about these alarms you can learn the details below:

Electric Circuit - These are the most simple alarm systems that use electrical circuits. Generally,
you can employ them to protect the borders of your house, that is the probably the entrypoints
to your house that the burglar might use. These security systems are further divided into two
types:
a) Closed-circuit systems - In this system as long as your door is closed the electric circuit
remains closed and whenever somebody opens the door, the circuit becomes discontinuous,
and the alarm is set off.

b) Open-circuit systems - In an open circuit what happens is when somebody opens the door
the open-circuit is completed and electricity starts flowing so the alarm is prompted.

Motion Detectors - These are the other type of security systems. They can detect burglars who
have already entered your house. Their principle of working is to send out radio energy and
observing the reflection pattern. Now when someone walking into the room obstructs the
reflection pattern, the alarm gets active and sends a signal to the control box.

If you are looking for a full proof security system to protect your house, you can use the
combination of the motion detectors and open or closed circuit alarms.

VIDEO SURVEILLANCE

Video Surveillance System is an important security requirement to be provided at waiting hall,

railway yards, workshops, reservation counter, parking area, main entrance/ exit, platforms,
foot over bridges etc. of railway station and others railway establishments to capture images of
commuters & public and to carry out analysis.

TYPES OF VIDEO SURVEILLANCE:

Hidden Cameras :The Federal Bureau of Investigations and other law enforcement agencies
frequently use hidden video cameras to aid them in criminal investigations. While video
equipment used to be very bulky, new microchip technologies have resulted in for pocket size
cameras that may record activity at close range without a high risk of detection. Oftentimes,
these cameras may be hidden or even sold as part of commonplace objects such as clocks or
"EXIT" signs. These devices function by wireless transmitter so that cords do not give away their
location.

Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Systems :You probably have seen a security guard sitting
behind a bank of monitors that display various hallways and rooms in a building. This
technology is known as a Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) System. By monitoring important
sectors of a building, security guards do not have to spend as much time on foot patrol. Besides
protecting against theft and vandalism, CCTVs may be used in the workplace or schools to
analyze incidents and discourage misconduct. Given the vast amount of material to be recorded
(e.g., eight video cameras taping footage 24 hours day), many CCTV systems use time lapse
video recording.

Low-Light Surveillance: Most video cameras are optimized to function in direct sunlight or in
well-lit areas. However, situations may arise when light is not available. For instance, a military
reconnaissance team will not be able to use flashlights to grope their way through enemy
territory. Fortunately, infrared video cameras pick up light outside of a human's visual color
spectrum. Typical video cameras may be outfitted with a special infrared attachment for use in
low-light conditions. Another option would be to buy a thermal imaging video camera that can
pick up heat emitted by objects (e.g., a human being sneaking across a cornfield in the dead of
night). Thermal imaging cameras also may be useful for aerial surveillance of marijuana crops
because they emit more heat than other plant life.

Long-Range Surveillance :Criminals wary of video surveillance make elusive targets. They may
avoid speaking about sensitive issues inside their homes or offices. Some even cover their
mouths to keep someone from reading their lips. However, cameras equipped with extra long
lenses can pick up clear images from hundreds of yards away. These devices are often used
with specialized shotguns or directional microphones that can pick up sound from long
distances.
Fake security cameras :These are not actual cameras. They are a very inexpensive alternative to
purchasing an actual system. While these cameras can act as a deterrent, should something
happen, you will not have a record of it.
Covert surveillance cameras: These cameras look like regular items. A wall clock in a small
store, a teddy bear in a baby’s room, a potted plant by the front door—each one of these could
very easily be a surveillance camera. You can record without anyone knowing it.
Wireless security cameras :These offer more flexibility in set up. They are easy to install, can be
moved easily, are often small, have no tell-tale wires, and are very discreet.

Wired surveillance cameras :These cameras are appropriate for permanent setup. If you have
one location that you would like to constantly monitor and will not need it to be changed, a
wired camera is an option. Some may have to be professionally installed.

Access control

It  is a system which enables an authority to control access to areas and resources in a given
physical facility or computer-based information system. An access control system, within the
field of physical security, is generally seen as the second layer in the security of a physical
structure.

Access control is, in reality, an everyday phenomenon. A lock on a car door is essentially a form

of access control. A PIN on an ATM system at a bank is another means of access control.
Bouncers standing in front of a night club is perhaps a more primitive mode of access control
(given the evident lack of information technology involved). The possession of access control is
of prime importance when persons seek to secure important, confidential, or sensitive
information and equipment.
Item control or electronic key management is an area within (and possibly integrated with) an
access control system which concerns the managing of possession and location of small assets
or physical (mechanical) keys.

ACCESS CONTROL

Access control is the selective restriction of access to a place or other resource. The act
of accessing may mean consuming, entering, or using.

Access Controls: The security features that control how, users and systems communicate
and interact with one another.

Access: The flow of information between subject and object

Subject: An active entity that requests access to an object or the data in an object

Object: A passive entity that contains information.

Three distinct functions of an access system are :

 Identification
 Authentication
 Authorization.

Identification

o Method of establishing the subject’s (user, program, process) identity.

 Use of user name or other public information.

 Know identification component requirements.

Authentication

o Method of proving the identity.

 Something a person is, has, or does.

 Use of biometrics, passwords, passphrase, token, or other private

information.

Biometrics :
Verifies an identity by analyzing a unique person attribute or behavior (e.g., what a person “is”).

Most expensive way to prove identity, also has difficulties with user acceptance.

Most common biometric systems:

• Fingerprint

• Palm Scan

• Hand Geometry

• Iris Scan

• Signature Dynamics

• Keyboard Dynamics

• Voice Print

• Facial Scan

• Hand Topography

Passwords :

• User name + password most common identification, authentication scheme.

• Weak security mechanism, must implement strong password protections

• Implement Clipping Levels.

Techniques to attack passwords

• Electronic monitoring

• Access the password file

• Brute Force Attacks

• Dictionary Attacks

• Social Engineering.

Passphrase :

• Is a sequence of characters that is longer than a password.

 • Takes the place of a password.

• Can be more secure than a password because it is more complex.

Token Devices :

Two types of Token Devices (aka Password Generator) are available :

• Synchronous

» Time Based

» Counter Synchronization

• Asynchronous.

Some devices used for authentication are :

 Smart Cards and Memory Cards

• Memory Cards: Holds but cannot process information.

• Smart Cards: Holds and can process information.

» Contact

» Contactless.

 Hashing & Encryption

Hash or encrypting a password to ensure that passwords are not sent in clear text
(means extra security)
 Salts: Random values added to encryption process for additional complexity.
 Cryptographic Keys
Use of private keys or digital signatures to prove identity.

Authorization :

Determines that the proven identity has some set of characteristics associated with it that gives
it the right to access the requested resources.

Authorization concepts to keep in mind:

• Authorization Creep

• Default to Zero
 • Need to Know Principle

• Access Control Lists.

Problems in controlling access to assets:

• Different levels of users with different levels of access

• Resources may be classified differently

• Diverse identity data

• Corporate environments keep changing.

Access Control Models

Three Main Types

• Discretionary

• Mandatory

• Non- Discretionary.

Discretionary Access Control (DAC) :

A system that uses discretionary access control allows the owner of the resource to specify
which subjects can access which resources.

Mandatory Access Control (MAC) :

• Access control is based on a security labeling system. Users have security

clearances and resources have security labels that contain data classifications.

• This model is used in environments where information classification and

confidentiality is very important (e.g., the military).

Non-Discretionary (Role Based) Access Control Models :

• Role Based Access Control (RBAC) uses a centrally administered set of controls to
determine how subjects and objects interact.

• Is the best system for an organization that has high turnover.

ACCESS FLOORING

The main purpose for the installation of a raised floor is to create a voided floor space in which
services, such as electrical, optical, telecommunication, heating/ventilation and mechanical can
be routed. A raised access floor system, as opposed to a raised floor, provides the means of
accessing key or whole areas of the subfloor void in order to install, repair, alter or remove
those services.

Categories of raised access flooring:

There are two categories of raised access flooring systems; partial and full.

Partial access floor systems relate mainly to a continuously decked raised floor, formed with
individual panels or boards that are supported on joists or pedestals to suit a determined
height. The boards/panels are ‘permanently’ fixed to the means of support and access to the
subfloor void can only be performed via a series of hinged/removable traps or hatches, or
through a run of removable flooring.
Full access floor systems relate to the installation of a continuously decked raised floor, formed
with individual panels, supported on pedestals to suit a determined height. The raised floor
panels are manufactured to a regular size, are removable from their installed position and apart
from cut panels, are wholly interchangeable within the installed system. For the purposes of
this AIS site guide, all references to raised access floor systems made henceforth shall be for full
access floor systems.

Types of raised access flooring

The type of raised access flooring required is determined by the needs of the intended user, the
environment in which the floor system is to be installed and the anticipated loads that will be
imposed on the floor system, both during installation and following handover to the client/end
user.

Whilst actual requirements should be discussed with a manufacturer, the general guideline for
choosing the structural grades of raised access flooring is as follows:
 Light grade: General office use without heavy equipment or storage items.
 Medium grade: General office use where heavy office-type equipment will be used –
cabinets, photocopiers, heavy desking etc. Walkway and circulation areas.
 Heavy grade: Computer/PABX rooms, heavy storage areas, high public traffic areas
 Extra heavy grade: As heavy grade, but to incorporate particular client loading
requirements.

The height of the raised access floor system above the subfloor will be determined by a
combination of three factors:
a) The extent and type of services required within the subfloor void.
b) The minimum distance allowed between the finished floor surface to the underside of the
ceiling as directed by current regulations.
c) The range of pedestals available from the manufacturer.

Installation

Within the context of a multi-trade construction project, the installation sequence of a raised
access floor system is dependent on a variety of factors. Quite often the raised access floor will
serve as a working platform for works at a higher level, such as suspended ceiling installations
and the fitting of services within the ceiling void. The raised access floor system may be
installed either before or after the installation of subfloor services and this can influence the
preparation, installation and completion of the floor system. If fitted to the subfloor prior to the
raised access floor installation, cables and services may need to be protected or ‘bridges’
constructed to allow transit routes for personnel and materials. If fitted after the floor
installation, raised access floor panels may need to be lifted to allow access to the subfloor
void. It is always preferable to install pre-finished raised floor systems after the completion of
construction and decoration works to avoid unnecessary damage. Where the subfloor void is to
be used as a plenum, then care is to be taken to ensure that dust and debris cannot enter the
void through the operations of other trades.

UNIT 3

Portable Fire Fighting Equipment

FIRE BLANKETS

Fire blankets are classified in British Standard 7944 and are described as follows:

a) Light Duty - These are suitable for dealing with small fires in containers of cooking

fat or oils and fires in clothing.

b) Heavy Duty - These are for industrial use where there is a need for the blanket to

resist penetration by molten materials.

Fire Hydrant
A fire hydrant is a pipe that allows water to flow from a water mainwith the control of a valve in
order to put out a fire.

Before the invention of the fire hydrant, firefighters used the bucket brigade or hand pumping
systems, of getting water to put out fires

A firefighter connects a fire hose to the fire hydrant and releases a valve to get water from the
water main. The different valves on a firehydrant allow it to be attached to different water
sources that may be either pressurized or not pressurized. Most fire hydrants are designed to
allow not less that 250 gallons (950 liters) of water to flow through the hydrant per minute.

Wooden outer encasements were used before the more familiarcast iron fire hydrant cover
commonly seen today.

Dry barrel and wet barrel are the two kinds of fire hydrants. The wet barrel fire hydrant holds a
constant water supply, while the dry barrel fire hydrant needs to have a valve release to let
water in. The main benefit of a dry barrel fire hydrant is that its design avoids a frozen water
supply in very cold climates. Some wet barrelled fire hydrants may be made of bronze rather
than iron, or they may have an inside finish that avoids rusting.

The barrel of a fire hydrant may also be known as a "standpipe." Some fire hydrants are

rounded in style, while others have more angular lines. The outlets on a fire hydrant are usually
made of bronze, but the caps may be made from other types of metal.

SPRINKLER SYTEMS

Fire Sprinklers

A Fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection measure, consisting of a water supply,
providing adequate pressure and flowrate to a water distribution piping system, onto which
fire sprinklers are connected.

Water Sprinkler Systems

Water sprinkler systems consist of a water supply, distribution valves and piping connected
to automatic sprinkler heads. While current sprinkler systems are primarily intended to
control the spread of fire, many systems have accomplished complete extinguishment.
Types

Wet pipe systems

Wet pipe sprinkler systems are installed more often than all other types by a wide margin. They
also have the highest reliability, as they are simple, with the only operating component being
the automatic sprinkler. A water supply provides pressure to the piping, and all of the piping is
filled with water adjacent to the sprinklers. The water is held back by the automatic sprinklers.

Dry pipe systems

Dry pipe systems can only be used (by regulation) in spaces in which the ambient temperature
may be cold enough to freeze the water in a wet pipe system, rendering the system inoperable.
Dry pipe systems are most often used in unheated buildings, in outside canopies attached to
heated buildings (in which a wet pipe system would be provided), or in refrigerated coolers. Dry
pipe systems are the second most common sprinkler system type.

Deluge systems

"Deluge" systems are systems that have open sprinklers, i.e. the heat sensing operating
element is removed during installation, so that all sprinklers connected to the water piping
system are open. These systems are used for special hazards where rapid fire spread is a
concern, as they provide a simultaneous application of water over the entire hazard.

Pre-Action Systems

Pre-action sprinkler systems are specialized for use in locations where accidental activation is
undesired, such as in museums with rare art works, manuscripts, or books.

Pre-action systems are hybrids of wet, dry, and deluge systems, depending on the exact system
goal. There are two sub-types of pre-action systems: single interlock, and double interlock.
Foam water sprinkler systems

A foam water fire sprinkler system is a special application system, discharging a mixture of
water and low expansion foam concentrate, resulting in a foam spray from the sprinkler. These
systems are usually used with special hazards occupancies associated with high challenge fires,
such as flammable liquids, and airport hangars. Operation is as described above, depending on
the system type into which the foam is injected.

CLASS OF FIRE BASED ON OCCUPANCY

Group –A-RESIDENTIAL: Include any building in which sleeping accommodation is provided for
normal residential purposes with or without cooking or dinning.

Group –B-EDUCATIONAL:
B1-SCHOOLS UP TO SENIOR SECONDARY LEVEL
B2- ALL OTHERS /TRAINING INSTITUTIONS

Group –C-INSTITUITIONAL:
C1-HOSPITALS AND SANOTORIA
C2-CUSTODIAL INSTITUTIONS
C3-PENAL AND MENTAL INSTITUTIONS

Group –D-ASSEMBLY :
D1-BUILDINGS HAVING A TEATRICAL PICTURE –MORE THAN 1000
D2-BUILDINGS HAVING A TEATRICAL PICTURE –UP TO 1000
D3- BLGS WITHOUT A PERMANENT STAGE –LESSTHAN 300 PERSONS WITH NO PERMANENT
SEATING

Group –E-BUSINESS:
E1- offices ,banks ,professional establishments ,like offices ,engineers ,Dr, lawer,and police
stations .
E2-Lab, research, libraries and test houses
E3-computer Installations

Group –F-MERCHANTILE:shops, stores, departmental stores

Group –G- INDUSTRIAL: low, moderate & high Hazard buildings

Group –H STORAGE: storage buildings

Group –J- HAZARDOUS

CLASSES OF FIRE

Class A fires involve solid materials, usually of organic matter such as wood, paper etc. They can
be dealt with using water, foam or multi-purpose powder extinguishers, with water and foam
considered the most suitable. Your risk assessment will help you decide how many you need.

Class-Bfires : (hydrocarbons and fuels on fire) require much different handling than the
standard water approach. Many fuels, such as gasoline or oil float on water, and water would
actually end up spreading the fire further. Other fuels, such as coal, will not be put out by
water, as fire spreads to the inside of the coal and cannot be reached by water - as soon as the
water stops, the fire inside of the coal spreads back out to the outside. Fire control of these
fires requires specialized methods, and can be problematic to ordinary fire stations due to the
fact that these materials may not always be available.

One way to control a class-B fire would be to dump chemical dust on it - this is also a method
for handling class-A fires, and actually tends to be preferable due to the fact that sprayed water
tends to cause property damage. Gasoline fires are more often smothered in a cooling
proteinfoam.

Class-C fires: are electrical fires - fires that are caused by an electrical source and get their heat
from electricity. These fires are dangerous because if water is used on them, electrical current
will be passed through the stream and back into the firefighter. There are only two ways to deal
with this type of fire - take away the oxygen (smother it with foam or a fire extinguisher) or
simply turn off the electricity, which will cause the fire to either die out or become a regular
class-A fire.

COOKING GAS DISTRIBUTION

. Gas supply network must be designed to ensure easy and effective maintenance of different
parts and complete safety upon any leakage,"

"Special well-ventilated cabinets, made of un-inflammable substances, must be provided for

gas cylinders.

"They should be away from direct sunlight and sources of ignition. Gas cylinders must be stored
in specific cabinets in a vertical position all the time. No other items or substances may be
stored in gas cylinder cabinets," 
It is also necessary that a valid extinguisher be mounted at gas storage locations in an easily
accessible place.
"Periodic maintenance program of all parts and connections of gas lines must be developed and
documented in special records,"

Maintain an effective firebreak by removing and clearing away flammable vegetation and
combustible growth from areas within 30 feet of buildings or structures. An additional firebreak
up to 150 ft. may be required.

Keep flammable objects, including pot holders, dish towels and curtains, at least three feet
away from the stove.

 Wood and coal stoves, fireplaces, chimneys, and all other solid-fueled heating
equipment needs to be inspected annually by a prIf there is a microwave fire, keep the
door closed and unplug the microwave. Make sure to have the microwave oven serviced
before you use it again.
 If there is an oven fire, keep the door closed and turn off the heat. If the fire doesn't go
out immediately, call the fire department.

A grease fire occurs when oil or greasy foods are heated and ignite. The simplest way to fight a
grease fire is to carefully slide a lid over the pan. Turn off the burner, don't move the pan, and
keep the lid on until the pan cools completely. Baking Soda may also be used to suffocate the
fire. NEVER PUT WATER ON A GREASE FIRE. Water causes the grease to splatter and the fire to
spread. Also, NEVER attempt to take a grease fire outdoors. It will be too hot to carry and you
will drop it, causing a major house fire.

Be sure any gas-fueled heating device is installed with proper attention to ventilation, and
never put unvented gas space heaters in bedrooms or bathrooms

 Space heaters should be kept at least three feet away from anything that can burn.

If outlets or switches feel warm, shut off the circuit and have them checked by an electrician.

Never overload a socket. The use of "octopus" outlets or "power bar", outlet extensions that
accommodate several plugs, is strongly discouraged. Try to limit one high-wattage appliance
into each individual outlet at a time

If a circuit breaker trips or a fuse blows frequently, cut down on the number of appliances on
that line. In many older homes, the capacity of the wiring system has not kept pace with today's
modern appliances and can overload electrical systems. Some overload signals include:
dimming lights when an appliance goes on, fuses blowing frequently or shrinking TV picture.

Try to avoid extension cords. If you feel an extension cord is necessary, make sure that it is not
frayed or worn. Do not run it under carpet or around doorways.

GAS SUPPRESSION SYSTEM NAV S !25 SYSTEM CO 2 SYSTEM Archer offers two types of gas
agents for different type of fire risks. All gas systems involve basic components: gas cylinders,
cylinder valves and actuators, discharge piping and nozzles. The number of cylinders and
amount of gas depends on the type of gas agent and size of the risk being protected. Each gas
agent has a different discharge rate for effective fire extinguishing as well as to minimize
damage from room overpressure or toxic by-products. This discharge rate is controlled by the
number and size of nozzles as well as the size of pipe network. Archer will carefully calculate all
these factors to ensure proper fire protection of each risk. Archer has the experience to design
and supply gas fire fighting systems for all types of applications, including turbine generators,
computer server rooms, ship engine rooms and archive storage.

Piped gas

Flaws in piped cooking gas system

 The gas pipe does not have any local isolation valve at the point where the rubber tube
joins it. Also, the isolation valve is located above the window and the stove, beyond easy
reach.
 The rubber tube runs from the top to the stove and will get softened due to heat. The
metering device is also located above the stove where it may get damaged due to heat
and oily vapour.
 The window of the kitchen is provided just at the back.

An isolation valve in the form of a gas tap is provided just before the tube. This valve is
operated whenever the cook-top has to be operated (this was not clearly visible in the
photograph). The valve that you have mentioned is the master cut-off valve for the kitchen. In
between these two, there is also an additional safety device that shuts of the flow of gas in case
there is an uninterrupted flow of LPG vapour.

Bulk Gas Systems:

Where sufficient demand exists, central bulk gas systems (including cryogenic tanks and
vaporizers) shall be provided in lieu of numerous compressed gas cylinders.  Typically, this
applies to gasses such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen, but may vary for each project. Bulk
systems shall be located in a secured area and in full compliance with NFPA standards.  The
specific location of bulk tanks shall be subject to NIH approval.  For cases where a set contract is
in place, the NIH project officer can advise as to the gas purveyor is to be utilized for provision
and service of the bulk cryogenic tank farm, as well as how systems are to be specified for
purchase or (less common) rental.  Duplex vaporizers, refrigeration units, etc. should generally
be provided as necessary to ensure continuous service. Stand-off warning signage shall be
provided for bulk tanks with regards to safety valve/rupture disc discharge.  Cryogenic piping
systems shall be vacuum jacketed.

Bottled Gas Supplies

Particular care is needed with cylinders of Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) which may be sued for
mobile heating or in workshops. Never be tempted to keep these cylinders in ordinary
storerooms. Bottled gas should be stored outside in well ventilated conditions, out of sight and
substantially secured against vandal.

UNIT 4

The balancing tank is located below and beyond the pool wall and it has a suction line going to
the equipment. The tank itself, is filled by pool water that either goes over the edge ( like in a
vanishing edge pool) or via a pipe or channel near the pool surface. The tank itself is the
reservoir that the pump takes water from and filters. That filtered water is then sent back after
being treated and heated, to the pool returns. This fills the pool to the level of the wall
(vanishing edge) or to the channel or pipe, for overflow to the balancing tank. In a nut shell,
that's how these pools work. How you plumb it, type of pipe you use, etc, will vary depending
on your local codes. These days, most municipalities will insist on a schedule 40 PVC pipe or a
 red stripe poly pipe. If you go with the poly, DON'T use nylon insert fittings. The nylon, though
more expensive, degrades when exposed to chlorine. Use the cheaper poly

Balance Tank
A balance tank is used in pools that do not use skimmer boxes. Its primary use is for the storage
of excess water generated from the displacement of swimmers bodies. A pool with a balance
tank maintains a constant depth regardless of how many people are in the pool. Once the
swimmers exit the pool the extra water that the balance tank has been holding returns to the
pool and the balance tank returns to its normal operating level. The balance tank is also fitted
with an equalising and control valve and is an ideal place to dose chemicals that are able to be
"slug dosed". The circulating pump's suction is also located in the balance tank. Fittings and
avoid using any galvanized as well.

FILTRATION

 Sand – The bullet proof filter

Water is pushed through a bed of filter sand and removed through a set of lateral tubes at
the bottom. The filter area of a sand filter is equal to the area of the filter itself. For example,
a 24” filter will have 3.14 sqft of filter area. Only the top 1” of sand is actually used to filter
the water. The principle behind this filter is that water is pushed through the filter sand,
somewhat like an espresso machine. Dirty water goes in the top and clean water exits out the
bottom. As the filter sand becomes plugged with debris from the pool, the pressure increases
on the filter and the water flow drops. In order to clean the filter, you just run it in reverse
and dump the waste water; this is referred to as “backwashing” the filter. Once the filter is
backwashed, you move to the rinse mode and that repacks the sand and then back to filter.
This has to be done manually every few weeks. From a hydraulics standpoint, a backwash
valve is typically the most inefficient piece of equipment you can add to a swimming pool
system. Should the sand ever become really dirty, it is easily and inexpensively replaced. In
terms of particle size filtered out, sand is the lease effective method – it can allow smaller
particles to pass back into the pool.
 Cartridge – The economic low maintenance filter.
This one is easy to understand. Water passes though a filter material and the filter captures
the debris. This is just like the water filters used under your sink. Cartridges have much more
available area to filter than sand. Most start at 100 sqft and the majority of the cartridge
filters sold are larger than 300 sqft. So they don’t clog up as quickly and therefore you touch
them less frequently. There are two types of cartridge filters in general. In the first case, there
are filters elements that are inexpensive to replace and as such, they don’t tend to last as
long. Then there are other filters that have very expensive elements and these last 5 or more
years. In both cases, cartridge filters are designed to run at lower pressure than sand. This
puts less back-pressure on the pump and hence you get more flow and turnover for an
equivalent pump size. Generally these filters have to be cleaned once or twice a season by
simply hosing them off, so you don’t touch them as often. In terms of particle size filtered
out, cartridge is somewhere between sand and DE.
 DE – The water polisher.
Diatomaceous earth is mined and is the fossilized exoskeletons of tiny diatoms. They are used
to coat “grids” in the filter housing and act as tiny sieves to remove debris. They are very
small and as such can filter out particles as small as 5 microns. Diatom filter area are sized
between sand and cartridge – around 60-70 sqft are most common. Once the filter pressure
rises, the filter is backwashed just like a sand filter and then “recharged” with more DE
powder. Typically it is poured in a slurry into the skimmer and it then coats the filter grids. DE
filters run at higher pressures than cartridge filters and as such can lead to some inefficiency
and flow loss.

Cleaning the Swimming Pool water

Pollution in pool water comes either from the environment or is carried into the water by the
swimmers. Environmental pollution includes dust, leaves, chemical wastes, pollen, spores,
bacteria and so on, that are blown into the water by the wind. Swimmers carry other pollutants
into the water: sweat, suntan oils, urine, bacteria, viruses, etc.

Every swimming pool has a circulation pump and filter. The filters most common these days are
sand filters, and are much easier to maintain than the earlier diatomaceous filters of a few
years back. The pool pump ensures that the swimming pool water moves through the filter
every day, thus removing unwanted pollutants and disinfected organic materials as quickly as
possible.

Other common pool filters include DE (diatomaceous earth) filters, which are able to filter out
finer particles of dirt, though they require more maintenance. Cartridge filters are also quite
widespread and are quite simple to maintain. Nowadays a filter sand substitute
containingzeolite is gaining in popularity. The zeolite (specifically the clinoptilolite mineral) is
able to filter particles as finely as DE filters in addition to having a capacity to absorb ammonia
and its complexes (reducing combined chlorine and offensive chlorine odours), while not
requiring any extra maintenance.

Generally, the swimming pool pump should run for at least 6 - 8 hours each day. There is
usually a timer which cycles the pool pump on and off to ensure this constant filtration. The
circulation of pool water will remove floating or suspended particles of dirt from the water, but
has no effect on the substances which have settled to the bottom of the swimming pool or
"stuck" to the walls.

Depending on the environmental conditions and swimmer load, the swimming pool
needsregular brushing and vacuuming, generally about once a week in the swimming season
for home pools. With the circulation pump turned off, the walls and floor of the pool are swept
with a stiff brush. When the "dust" from the brushing settles, it is vacuumed off the floor of the
swimming pool. The pool must also be vacuumed after treating with a flocculant. Nowadays,
there is a variety of automatic swimming pool cleaners, which suck the dirt off the walls and
floor of the swimming pool whenever the pool pump is running. These are really great for pool
owners who never seem to have the time for swimming pool chores.

Now that the vacuuming is done, it is time to backwash the filter. Sand filters trap dust and
dirt, as the name implies, in a bed of sand. When the filter has accumulated a large amount of
dirt, the water cannot pass freely through the sand and the filter loses efficiency as the pressure
increases. Backwashing sends water backwards through the filter and flushes the trapped dirt
out. After backwashing, you will notice an increase in return pressure to the pool, and if you
have a pressure guage, you should notice an increase of at least 0,5 bar.

With the pool pump off, turn the filter setting to "backwash". Remove the leaf basket from the
weir, clean and replace it. Turn on the pump and let it run until the water coming out of the
waste pipe is clear. This generally needs a few minutes. Turn off the pump and set the filter to
rinse; this cleans out the pipes and prevents any dirt from returning to the pool. It also settles
the sand in the filter which has been stirred up by the backwashing. Run the pump for about a
minute and then turn it off. Set the filter to "closed". Open the leaf trap near the pump, remove
the basket and clean out all the leaves, twigs and rubbish it may have collected. Replace the
basket, set the filter to "filter" and turn your pump back to its automatic (timer) operating
position.

Great! The swimming pool looks clean and the filter has been rejuvenated. Now it's time totest
the pool water and adjust the pH and chlorine levels.

If your swimming pool needs topping up, now is the ideal time to put the hose in the pool. It is
very healthy for the swimming pool water to be replaced bit by bit, to prevent it becoming stale
and creating chemical problems or pool water problems. A routine of 5-minute backwashing
followed by a 1-minute rinse every week will ensure that you replace about 5% of the
swimming pool water each month. This means a complete changeover of swimming pool water
approximately every 2 years.

REMEMBER too, that the useful lifespan of the sand in your filter is 3-5 years. If you neglect to
change the sand, your filter will not be able to remove the finer particles of dirt and your
swimming pool can never be completely clean. Have the pool filter opened for inspection at
least every 2 years to avoid filtration problems.

Swimming pool water treatment

Swimming pool water must undergo treatment, in order to remain clear and clean, free from
harmful substances, bacteria, viruses, algae and other pathogens and suitable for use by
swimmers.
Purification steps
Swimming pool water is treated by means of various purification steps (figure 1). The water is
first transported from swimming pools to a water purification plant (1). In the water purification
plant, it will flow through a hair removal filter (2), which removes raw pollutions, such as hairs,
plasters and leaves, from water. After that, a flocculant (3) is added, which causes smaller
colloids to bind together. Colloids are visible floating particles of organic matter, such as skin
tissue and textile fibers. This group of pollutants also concerns colloidal pollutants, such as
saliva, soap remains, cosmetic products and skin fats. When these pollutants are abundant,
they cause turbidity.
Parameters that indicate the presence of undissolved particles are water turbidity
and potassium permanganate (KMnO4) demand of the water. Potassium permanganate is used
as an indicator of organic matter oxidation.
Floating particles are removed from water in a sandfilter. The sandfilter is backflushed
periodically. Finally, pollutants are discharged into the sewer.

water quality
If not properly maintained, the water in your domestic swimming pool harbours a range of
microbes, including bacteria and algae, that can cause health problems such as ear, nose and
throat infections. You should check your swimming pool regularly to make sure that the water
is healthy. A simple way to do this is to take a daily look into the pool. Is the water clear? Can
you see to the bottom of the pool? Does the water look any different to how it looked the day
before? Any changes, such as cloudiness, mean that you need to test the water and take steps
to improve water quality before anyone goes swimming. 

Sources of contamination
Some of the various sources of bacteria and microbes in your pool can include:

 People swimming in the pool - this is the main source of bacteria.

 Animals, such as dogs - some pets like to paddle in the pool on hot days.
 Dead wildlife - for example, frogs or lizards or insects may occasionally drown in your
pool.
 Debris from around the property, such as leaves, grass and dust.

Swimming pool maintenance

The five keys to maintaining water quality in your swimming pool include:

 Filtration
 Chlorination
 pH level
 Total alkalinity (TA)
 Calcium hardness.

Filtration
The water in your pool is pumped through a filter to remove debris and particles. How long you
need to run the filter depends on the size of your swimming pool and the horsepower of your
pool pump. If you are unsure, check your instruction manual or consult with a pool
maintenance company. Remember that even when you are filtering your pool according to
specifications, about 35 per cent of the water still won't be filtered.

Chlorination
Chlorine is a chemical that disinfects the water and helps to remove debris. You should use a
chlorine stabiliser to extend the chlorine's half-life. Generally, the longer your filtration cycle,
the less chlorine you will need. Similarly, the more chlorine you use, the shorter your required
filtration cycle. Remember that your chlorine requirements will be affected by a range of
factors including your pump and filter system, water temperature, water level, amount of
debris, and the number of swimmers in your pool.

pH level
The pH level indicates how acidic or alkaline the water is at any given time. A pH level of 7
means that water is neutral; above 7 means the water is alkaline, while below 7 indicates
acidity. You should aim for a pH level of between 7 and 7.6. If the water pH is higher than 8,
anyone who swims in the pool is at risk of skin rashes, while a pH of lower than 7 can sting the
swimmers' eyes. Some of the many factors that can affect your pool's pH level include heavy
rain, lots of swimmers and pool chemicals. Remember to regularly check your pool's pH level.

Total alkalinity (TA) 

Total alkalinity (TA) means the sum of all alkaline chemicals in your water. If TA is too low, the
pH balance can become unstable; concrete and painted pool surfaces will also deteriorate over
time. TA and pH are interconnected; for example, raising the TA could also raise the pH. Make
sure you don't disrupt your pool's pH when adjusting the TA, and vice versa.

Calcium hardness
Calcium hardness refers to the amount of the mineral calcium dissolved in your water. Low
calcium levels will deteriorate pool surfaces, while high calcium levels will leave a 'scum' or
scale on surfaces and equipment.

General water quality suggestions

Be guided by pool professionals, but general suggestions on maintaining good water quality in
your swimming pool include:

 Check your pH and chlorine levels daily. Preferably, these tests should be done before
the first swim of the day, to make sure the water quality hasn't altered overnight.
 In very hot weather, it is a good idea to check the pH and chlorine twice daily.
 Remember that heated pools need more chlorine than non-heated pools.
 Brush and vacuum your pool on a regular basis.
 Regularly check the pump, skimmer boxes and other pool equipment, and repair or
 replace parts as necessary.

Solving common problems

Be guided by your pool maintenance specialist or pool chemical supplier, but general
suggestions include:

 Algae - these single-celled organisms have a short life cycle, and can turn the water in
your swimming pool green within a few hours. The cause is zero chlorination, which
allows these organisms to thrive. Treatment includes lowering the pH level by adding
pool acid and, later, adding a copper treatment to the water to kill the spores. You can
use a brush and garden hose to remove algae from pool surfaces. The next day, vacuum
the settled algae from the floor of your pool - don't try to remove it by running the filter.
Make sure you check the TA, pH and calcium hardness before you allow anyone to
swim.
 Faeces - young children can occasionally have a toileting accident while swimming. Get
everyone to vacate the pool, and fish out the faeces using a fine mesh scoop. If your
pool is small, you might consider draining and cleaning it. Otherwise, superchlorinate
the pool for at least half an hour before letting anyone swim. Always ensure chlorine
levels are back to regular levels before swimming.
 Chlorine smell - a strong chlorine smell can affect the eyes, nose and skin. Contrary to
popular belief, it's too little chlorine that causes the smell, not too much. Too little
chlorine permits chloramine compounds to form. It is these compounds that have the
strong smell and that cause the irritation. If your pool smells strongly, check the chlorine
level - you'll find you need to superchlorinate.

Safety suggestions for pool chemicals

Pool chemicals can be dangerous if not handled properly. Suggestions include:

 Keep pool chemicals locked up in a cool, dry place.

 Don't store pool chemicals near other chemicals or flammables, including petrol,
detergents or alcohol.
 Always use chemicals strictly as instructed.
 Don't combine chemicals together - for example, mixing different types of chlorine
together (such as granular and liquid) can cause an explosion.
 To avoid splashing the chemicals, add the chemicals to water - don't add the water to
the chemicals.
 If you are splashed, rinse contaminated clothing straight away and wash your skin
thoroughly in plenty of water.

Disinfection of swimming pool water

Micro-organisms polluted swimming pools. Every swimmer adds 1.000.000 to 1.000.000.000

microorganisms to the water. The water itself contains microorganisms, as well. After oxidation
a disinfectant must be added to the water to kill pathogenic microorganisms.

Demands on disinfectants

Disinfectants used for swimming pool water disinfection must meet certain demands. They
should be harmless and non-irritating to swimmers and attendants. They must be active in
small concentrations and remain their activity for a long time.

Contrary to drinking water disinfectants, disinfectants for swimming pool treatment must be
active in the pool itself, because pollutions and pathogenic micro-organisms are constantly
added to the water. Therefore the water has to maintain a residual disinfectant concentration.
The disinfectant must be easily traced and measured and should be safe to use.

Disinfection methods for swimming pool water

In some countries, sodium hypochlorite is used for both oxidation and disinfection of swimming
pools. When it is added to water, sodium hypochlorite increases the pH value. It is better to use
chlorine as a disinfectant and an oxidizer at a pH value of 6,5. Often, acid is added to lower the
pH value.

Demands on swimming pool conditions

Chlorine-based disinfectants are among the most frequently applied disinfectants and oxidizers
for swimming pool treatment. Chlorine is usually added as hypochlorous acid (HOCl) or
hypochlorite (OCl-).

Chlorine kills pathogenic microorganisms that are present in the water. When too much
chlorine is present, it can cause eye and mucous membrane irritation, as a result of chloramine
formation.

Threshold and maximum levels are set for chlorine concentration. For available chlorine the
minimum concentration in swimming pools is set to 0,5 milligram per litre. The maximum level
is set to 1,5 mg/l. When using cyanic acid (stabilizer) minimum and maximum values are set to
respectively 2,0 and 5,0 mg/L. For outdoor swimming pools and indoor pools smaller than 20
m2, the maximum level is set to 5,0 mg/l.

Lowering the chlorine concentration is undesirable, because this increases the risk of
waterborne diseases.

Alternative disinfectants can be used as well, these decrease the required amount of chlorine
or cause chlorine addition to be irrelevant.

The pH value is measured daily. It should be between 6,8 and 7,8. At a pH of 7,0, the amount of
free chlorine present is 70%, while this concentration decreases to 20% at pH of 8,0.

The water and air temperature in swimming pools is usually high. Furthermore the humidity is
high. This influences the activity of disinfectants and the behaviour of substances that are
formed in the swimming pool during disinfection. When sodium hypochlorite is used, chlorine
gas is formed due to reactions with the acid that is added to lower the pH of the water.
Chlorine gas must be removed, because it can be harmful to human health and corrosive on
materials. Chloramines, formed through reactions of ureum and chlorinated disinfectants, are
corrosive as well.

(YAHA TAK THEEK THA. AB YEH POOL TILE AND ALL KYA HAI NAI MALUM :P )

Pool Tile
Pool tile has been around for a long time, mostly because it offers a customized look in a variety
of colors and patterns. The other big advantage to this material is its durability and low
maintenance. Aside from regular cleanings and the occasional re-grouting, this material is built
to last with relatively little care. If tile is your choice in a pool finish, you will be happy to know
that in addition to a rainbow of color choices, you can expand your options even further with a
pattern or design. Some pool owners love the look of a random mosaic dotting the sides of the
pool. Others enjoy a mosaic filled with dolphins, turtles and tropical fish created with colored
tiles.
Fiberglass Pools
Fiberglass pools come in prefabricated shapes with steps and platforms built into the surface.
These pools are relatively inexpensive compared to other types of pool finishes, but fairly
durable, making them a good value. Fiberglass offers a smooth, slip-proof finish that families
with children may appreciate. The pools are usually available in a variety of shades of blue and
grey for a natural look and feel.
Gunite Finishes
Gunite has become one of the most popular and durable pool finishes today. This concrete
mixture is sprayed onto a rebar infrastructure, allowing more flexibility and strength than
traditional poured concrete pools. These pools can be platered and or painted to dress up the
pool's interior.  The surface can also be coated with a skid proof sealant to protect slipping in
the pool. Gunite is a wonderfully durable material.  Often times a plaster material is coated
over a roughened concrete and give a permanent strong finish.  Additives can be added into the
plaster such as aggregate, colored quartz sand and tile insets. 

UNIT 5

LAUNDRY SERVICES
A laundry service is a company which does laundry for its clients. There are a number of
different styles of laundry service, with varying rates. Laundry services are especially popular
with people who are very busy, and with people and organizations which have high volumes
of laundry, along with people who simply dislike doing laundry. Many communities
have laundry services, which may be listed in the phone book or available through laundromats.

In a classic laundry service, laundry is picked up from residences and businesses on a regular

schedule. People usually pay by weight for their laundry, with the service washing, drying, and
folding the laundry. Additional services like stain treatment, dry cleaning, and ironing may also
be offered at some laundryservices.

It is also possible to drop laundry off with a laundry service. Many laundromats allow customers

to drop laundry off for cleaning, also charging by weight. Customers may be able to pick from
an a la carte menu which includes folding, ironing, and mending services. These services often
offer quick turnaround for customers in a hurry.

Some laundry services cater to specific types of customers. Diaper services, for example, just

handle cloth diapers for their customers, dropping off a load of freshly laundered diapers every
time they pick up a dirty load. College laundry services handle dormitory laundry for college
students, which may be limited to sheets and towels owned by the service, or extended to all
student laundry. Other laundry services prefer to work with industrial customers like
restaurants, inns, hospitals, and animal shelters. Some are specifically certified to handle
biohazardous laundry, often charging an extra fee for hazardous substances.

When considering a laundry service, there are several things to think about. In the case of
people who do not own washers and driers, the alternative is
a laundromat. Laundry services are convenient, but they can also be very costly, and it may be a
good idea to price out laundromat services before committing to a laundry service. Turnaround
time is also an important consideration, as are the types of laundry which a service is willing to
handle. Finally, getting competing quotes from several laundry services is strongly
recommended, for people who live in regions where more than one service is operating.

People who use laundry services are sometimes willing to offer advice and recommendations.

Asking around among friends and family members to see who uses a service is a good idea, as
these people may be able to provide advice about the best service to use, and things to watch
out for.

KITCHEN DESIGN FOR RESTAURANTS

The heart of every restaurant is the kitchen. Here raw ingredients are prepared for cooking
(washing, peeling, chopping etc) and cooked for service. The quality of food and
 
speed of service depend on efficiency, hence planning, kitchen design and layout
must be undertaken with due care and expert advice if necessary. 
     Errors committed in planning and purchasing specifications are extremely costly in the end. A
poorly planned kitchen results in high payroll, slow production, unhappy kitchen staff, and
dissatisfied guests. 
     Ideally, kitchens should be planned according to the menu envisaged. This will allow proper
equipment selection, spacing, determination of capacity and purchase accordingly. Today's high
rents and construction costs dictate wise use of every square inch of space. Restaurateurs
should be knowledgeable about both cooking and space allocation. . Consultants, if hired,
should be interviewed in-depth before assignment. 
     The most qualified people in kitchen planning are experienced and successful chefs. They
know from experience the best and most efficient equipment, layout and spacing. 
The first decision involves selecting fuel. There are several from which to choose:

Wood
Natural gas
Propane gas
Electric
Steam
Heating oil

     Wood and heating oil equipment are generally not used in North American kitchens except
wood-fired pizza ovens since they require frequent cleaning and consume space. 
     The most frequently used fuels are natural gas, electricity, steam and propane.
     The choice of fuel depends on location. In large cities, natural gas and electricity are widely
available, and a combination of both is wise. In some regions, steam may be available and
recommended for certain pieces of equipment. There are also steam generating units ready to
install. Propane is recommended where neither gas nor electricity is available i.e. wilderness
camps or resorts.
     Chinese chefs prefer propane for its extremely intense heat. 
     If electricity and gas are available, equipment should be selected accordingly. This will allow
production if one or the other fuel is temporarily unavailable.
     In third world countries electricity supply may be disrupted frequently, and gas pressure
inadequate for commercial use. 
In such regions, propane or butane cylinders are recommended. Once the fuels choices are
made, utilities should be contacted to ensure for timely hook ups with main supply lines, and
further planning can resume. 
     Back-of-the-house space including the kitchen varies with both the menu size and type of
operation. There are no set rules or ratios for reference. However, in full-scale restaurants, five
square feet per seat is a good guideline. If many convenience ingredients are used, kitchen
space requirements will be less. For take out operations back-of-the-house requirements are
considerably less than in standard restaurants. 
     The first step in kitchen planning is a flow chart, which allows to eliminate bottlenecks both
for service and production. 
During planning, the following criteria should be considered: 
Departmentalisation, to achieve division of labour
Smooth traffic flow
Increased efficiency
Acceptable sanitary conditions 

Once these are settled, the following points become important:

Lighting
Ventilation
Sprinkler system
Floor covering
Wall covering

Ideally, receiving, storage, preparation and cooking areas should be on the same floor as the
restaurant. In downtowns of large cities, land costs are exorbitant, hence architects and kitchen
planners build vertically to fully utilize every square inch of space. While it is true that some
restaurateurs think  it unnecessary to plan the  kitchen with due care to detail, experienced
operators are convinced  that every hour spent on planning pays back handsomely. 
Hospital and school kitchens require a different approach and depend very much on the menu.
 
Lighting

Every kitchen must be well illuminated to prevent accidents, increase efficiency, facilitate
quality control and prevent waste. Fluorescent light fixtures are advisable for their efficiency
and cool operating temperatures. 

Ventilation

Ventilation is of great importance in any kitchen. It prevents odours from penetrating the dining
area and increase the well being of cooks. This in turn improves quality and efficiency. Some
operators actually air condition their kitchen with laudable results. A ventilation system consists
of:

The collection device (canopy)

Vehicle to move the air (motor)

Canopies are equipped with filters, of which there are three types

Wire mesh
Baffle
Liquid
(All filters must be thoroughly cleaned at regular intervals to reduce fire hazards, as they collect
grease)
The size of the canopy and motor depend on the size of the kitchen. Canopies must overhang
cooking equipment on both sides by at least 8" (20 cm) in most jurisdictions. 

Sprinkler systems

All kitchens and restaurants must have an appropriate sprinkler system. 

There are two types:

Water releasing
Carbon dioxide mixed with fire extinguishing chemicals

Water releasing sprinkler systems are inappropriate for kitchens. 

Carbon dioxide mixed with extinguishing chemicals type systems are recommended. 

Floor coverings

Kitchen floors must be non-slip to prevent accidents. Tile coverings are prone to cracking and
warping due to constant moisture present. If tiles are used, cover them with a non-slip coating.
Continuous non-slip floor covering containing stone chips is the most suitable. It can be applied
quickly and inexpensively. They are easy to clean and prevent insect infestation. 

Wall coverings

Kitchen walls can be covered with tiles or durable high gloss finish paint. Tiles are initially
expensive, but are durable and easy to clean.  High gloss finish paint is more expensive in the
long run and less sanitary. 

After aforementioned decisions are made, the planner can proceed to selecting and specifying
equipment: 
Cooking equipment, brands, capacity requirements, and sources
Stationary equipment i.e. mixers, bank saws, food processors
Work table sizes, heights, finishes and locations
Widths of aisles for traffic between stationary equipment 
Refrigeration units and freezers, types and sizes

Storage areas' size and shelving, for foodstuffs, china, cutlery and glassware
Dishwashing area equipment, location capacity
Receiving area, location, layout, size, equipment i.e scale, running water, lighting, security 
Garbage disposal area, location, size, and type 
(N. B. In hot countries, consider refrigeration, and in cold proper insulation and security from
scavenging animals)

Kitchen equipment
Kitchen equipment can be conveniently  grouped into five categories; storage-, preparation-,
cooking-, accessory- and service equipment. 
Restaurant planners are advised to study all equipment available, manufacturer, source, and
compatibility with local standards in force. 
Storage equipment consists of industrial food-grade shelving. It may be  wire or solid. Wire
shelving is appropriate for canned goods or boxes, solid shelving is required in refrigerators and
freezers. They are easy to clean. All shelving must be arranged appropriately to facilitate
adequate air circulation. 
There are upright, chest, and walk-in freezers. Chest freezers preserve cold air but utilize more
floor space, whereas upright freezes use less floor space but allow cold air to escape rapidly
each time the door is opened. 
Walk-in freezers are recommended for operations using considerable amounts of frozen foods.
Freezers can be purchased pre-fabricated, modular, or be custom -made. In every walk-in
installation, care should be taken to position the freezer to open into a refrigerator in order to
preserve at least part of the cold air, which inevitably escapes each time the door is opened.
(Cold air costs three times as much as warm air)
There are standard- or blast freezers for quick freezing of vegetables or plated food. Cryogenic
freezers use liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide and freeze fast. 
They are recommended for hospitals and institutions feeding large numbers of people at set
times

REFRIGERATORS
     Refrigerators prevent bacterial growth and prolong the shelf life of perishable foods. There
are electricity or gas fuelled, reach-in, roll-in, drawer and walk-in refrigerators. Electricity
powered refrigerators are the most common.
     Reach-in and walk-in refrigerators are readily available in a variety of sizes and
configurations. Walk-in refrigerators can be specified modular or custom made. Drawer and
roll-in refrigerators are practical and save labour but must be custom manufactured and
expensive. 
     All commercial refrigerators must be equipped with thermostats both inside and out.
Interiors of all must be easy to reach, clean, and well lit.. Walk-in refrigerators must have non-
slip floors and equipped to open from inside and outside. All doors must be airtight and
equipped with self-closing mechanisms to minimize cold air loss. 
     A well-designed compressor maintenance programme will help prolong usable life. Wooden
storage shelving is not recommended. Tempering refrigerators to re-thermalize plated frozen
food is practical in hospital and correctional institutions.

PREPARATION EQUIPMENT - constitute all equipment employed in food preparation (chopping,

dicing, cubing, peeling, slicing, mixing, processing). They speed up all these functions, reduce
labour, facilitate quality control and promote consistency. 
Specify sturdy brands, backed up by a good supply of spare parts, warranties, guarantees and
service. Foreign suppliers should be specified only if local manufacturers are inadequate or do
not  exist. 
COOKING EQUIPMENT. All equipment used  in cooking fall under this category, and may be
fuelled by electricity,   propane,  natural gas, oil, wood, or steam  . 
     The fuel must be selected with due care according to availability and style of cooking being
envisaged. 
     Steam generators are available, so are cooking equipment with self steam generating
installations. 
     Always specify cooking equipment with the least number of moving parts.
THE FOLLOWING COOKING EQUIPMENT IS STANDARD:

Ranges:  -hot top

               - open burners
Deep fryers: electric or gas
Broilers: ceramic brickets
               radiant
               infra red
               open
Salamanders: (top heat) 
                       electric 
                       infrared 
                       gas

STEAM FUELLED EQUIPMENT

     Steam jacketed kettles- Floor, counter top, tilting or non-tilting, with or without spout in
various sizes are available. 
     Pressure steamers are suitable for quantity batch cooking. Combi-ovens combine steaming
and roasting, and are popular due to their space saving features. 

OVENS – a wide range of ovens is available. They can be under ranges, freestanding, electric or
gas, steam injected or not. Convection ovens are practical for roasting and rotate hot air
speeding up cooking time. Conveyor type ovens are appropriate in high volume pizza
operations or in very busy bakeries. Micro wave ovens are used mostly for re-thermalizing. 
GRIDDLES – consist of a stainless steel non-stick surface fuelled either by gas or electricity,
equipped with appropriate grooves and grease collectors. They are versatile and very much in
demand in short order kitchens and cafeterias. 
TILTING FRYING PANS- may be gas or electric fuelled. They are practical in large banquet halls
or hotel banquet kitchens catering to huge banquets. Cooking equipment is rated either in units
per hour or BTU's (British Thermal Unit) One British Thermal Unit is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. The rating
is important to calculate power requirements. 
ACCESSORIES – Electronic thermostats, energy load levellers (reduce peak electricity demand)
and automatic shut off switches fall under this category. Service equipment – helps keep
prepared foods hot. Steam tables, flambé carts, gueridons, coffee machines, small wares (pots,
pans, whips, scoops) self levelling plate dispensers, dishwashers, compactors, filtering devices
fall into this category. 
     Once the equipment selection is completed, and  the layout determined, the planner must
contact utilities and advise them to ensure timely hook up to main supply lines. 
     Floor space dedicated to kettles must be furnished with splashguards and drainage.
     There is a wide range of manufacturers of kitchen equipment and the planner must carefully
specify before making purchase decisions. Equipment is sold by dealers, distributors, jobbers,
manufacturer's agents, or directly by the manufacturer pending on the size of the order or the
size. 
     In most cases local or regional restaurant and hotel supply companies are best equipped to
serve. 
Dealers quote F O B (Free On Board) prices and do not include installation. Both transportation
and installation have to be arranged by the purchaser or may be arranged by the dealer for an
additional charge. If cooking or service equipment is purchased abroad, it is important to check
specification and standards to ensure that they comply with local rules and regulations
    Equipment selection and purchasing require due attention to detail, cost and quality.
Planners must be knowledgeable, spend time and effort to ensure that all equipment arrives in
good order, and is installed to be approved by appropriate government departments and
comply with all rules and regulations.

UNIT 6

WASTE GENERATION
  

Definition
Quantity of materials or products that enter a waste stream before composting, incinerating,
landfilling, or recycling.

Municipal Solid Waste

Even though there are 58 urban municipalities in the state, most of the Gramapanchayaths are
showing the characters of urban areas particularly in respect of municipal solid waste
generation. So the state should plan to have municipal waste management system in all the
GramaPanchayath areas. In short the burden on the municipal solid waste will increase
necessitating very huge expenditure on MSW management.

Hazardous Waste

It is observed that in the industrial sector also the State is steadily developing, in turn the
hazardous waste generation will be more. Particularly the hazardous waste generated from
electrical and electronics industries such as PCB, the oil wastes, waste paints and varnishes and
even the house hold hazardous waste will be more.
About 423 industrial units are identified as generating and handling hazardous waste in the
State as per the Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1987. Apart from this,
there are hundreds if industrial units generating industrial solid waste. All industries with
wastewater treatment plants are generating solid waste. Hazardous wastes handling units are
classifies on the basis of their size of operation as large, medium and small. The sector wise
distribution of industrial units that hazardous waste in Kerala State us as shown in the below
figure

Biomedical waste

The number of health care facilities in the State is highest among all the States. Its number and
sophistication is also changing. More over, there is a trend that more and more foreigners are
making use of the health care facilities in the State. This will in turn increase the quantity of
biomedical waste generation and so more money to be found for waste management facilities,
apart from planning for meeting the future scenario. At present the total number of beds is just
about 1,10,00 and the biomedical waste generation is about 300gm/bed per day. Once the
facilities in the health care establishments are improved it is estimated that the biomedical
waste generation will be more that 500gm per bed per day.

Waste characteristics and its variation quantity

The Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) quality is same in all areas but its quantity varies. There are
cases of biomedical waste, industrial waste and hazardous waste mixing with MSW. No
segregation of MSW done in general. However in certain urban areas like Kozhikode Municipal
Corporation an attempt is being made to segregate the waste.

Industrial hazardous waste quality and quantity is based on the type of source. Industrial solid
waste and Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) sludge are not properly disposed. Waste generated
from conventional industries like coir and cashew also causing problems.

According to the pollution potential, hazardous wastes handling units are classified into three
categories namely red category (highly polluting), orange category (medium polluting) and
green category (less polluting). The distribution of hazardous waste handling units as per the
category wise classification is given below

Biomedical wastes are not fully segregated at source, though there is tremendous improvement
in the biomedical waste in the State. So the entire solid waste generated from health care in
institutions becomes infectious

Hazardous Waste:

•  The Hazardous Waste(Management and Handling)Rules 1989

•  The Environmental(Protection0,Act 1986

In the case of hazardous waste, temporary disposal/storage facilities in their own premises
have been installed on a few places. There is a proposal to start a common hazardous waste
facility at some central location

In the case of hazardous waste management with the initiative of the Kerala State Industrial
Development Corporation and the Industries Department Govt. is planning to have one
common facility at a central place in the State. The Kerala State pollution Control Board of
extending all technical help to Govt. in this aspec

Treatment and disposal of municipal waste

As cities are growing in size with a rise in the population, the amount of waste generated is
increasing becoming unmanageable. The local corporations have adapted different methods for
the disposal of waste – open dumps, landfills, sanitary landfills, and incineration plants. One of
the important methods of waste treatment is composting

Open dumps

Open dumps refer to uncovered areas that are used to dump solid waste of all kinds. The waste
is untreated, uncovered, and not segregated. It is the breeding ground for flies, rats, and other
insects that spread disease. The rainwater run-off from these dumps contaminates nearby land
and water thereby spreading disease. In some countries, open dumps are being phased out.

Landfills

Landfills are generally located in urban areas where a large amount of waste is generated and
has to be dumped in a common place. Unlike an open dump, it is a pit that is dug in the ground.
The garbage is dumped and the pit is covered thus preventing the breeding of flies and rats. At
the end of each day, a layer of soil is scattered on top of it and some mechanism, usually an
earth-moving equipment is used to compress the garbage, which now forms a cell. Thus, every
day, garbage is dumped and becomes a cell. After the landfill is full, the area is covered with a
thick layer of mud and the site can thereafter be developed as a parking lot or a park.

Landfills have many problems. All types of waste is dumped in landfills and when water seeps
through them it gets contaminated and in turn pollutes the surrounding area. This
contamination of groundwater and soil through landfills is known as leaching.

Sanitary landfills
An alternative to landfills which will solve the problem of leaching to some extent, is a sanitary
landfill which is more hygienic and built in a methodical manner. These are lined with materials
that are impermeable such as plastics and clay, and are also built over impermeable soil.
Constructing sanitary landfills is very costly and they are have their own problems. Some
authorities claim that often the plastic liner develops cracks as it reacts with various chemical
solvents present in the waste.

The rate of decomposition in sanitary landfills is also extremely variable. This can be due to the
fact that less oxygen is available as the garbage is compressed very tightly. It has also been
observed that some biodegradable materials do not decompose in a landfill. Another major
problem is the development of methane gas, which occurs when little oxygen is present, i.e.
during anaerobic decomposition. In some countries, the methane being produced from sanitary
landfills is tapped and sold as fuel.

Incineration plants

This process of burning waste in large furnaces is known as

incineration. In these plants the recyclable material is
segregated and the rest of the material is burnt. At the end of
the process all that is left behind is ash. During the process
some of the ash floats out with the hot air. This is called fly ash.
Both the fly ash and the ash that is left in the furnace after
burning have high concentrations of dangerous toxins such as dioxins and heavy metals.
Disposing of this ash is a problem. The ash that is buried at the landfills leaches the area and
cause severe contamination.

Burning garbage is not a clean process as it produces tonnes of toxic ash and pollutes the air
and water. A large amount of the waste that is burnt here can be recovered and recycled. In
fact, at present, incineration is kept as the last resort and is used mainly for treating the
infectious waste.

INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS

In some countries, significant quantities of organic industrial solid waste are generated.
Industrial waste generation and composition vary depending on the type of industry and
processes/technologies in the concerned country. Countries apply various categorisations for
industrial waste. For example, construction and demolition waste can be included in industrial
waste, in MSW(municipal solid waste), or defined as a separate category. The default
categorisation used here assumes construction and demolition waste are part of the industrial
waste. In many countries industrial solid waste is managed as a specific stream and the waste
amounts are not covered by general waste statistics.
These statistics are published periodically. In most developing countries industrial wastes are
included in the municipal solid waste stream, therefore, it is difficult to obtain data of the
industrial waste separately. Industrial solid waste disposal data may be obtained by surveys or
from national statistics. Only those industrial wastes which are expected to contain
DOC( Degradable Organic Carbons should be considered for the purpose of emission estimation
from waste. Construction and demolition waste is mainly inert (concrete, rubble, etc.) but may
contain some in wood and some fossil carbon in plastics. Recycling and reduction using
different technologies applied to industrial waste prior to disposal or incineration should be
taken into account, where data are available.

HOSPITAL BUILDINGS :

Hospitals produce a diverse set of wastes that require management. An important starting
point is to assess what types of waste a typical healthcare facility produces and begin to
understand who is responsible for tracking and managing each waste stream. The next stage
will involve determining the volumes of each waste generated and the associated costs.

These are the major categories of waste typically found in an acute-care hospital setting.

Solid Waste – This waste stream is also called municipal waste, black bag, clear bag, or non-
regulated medical waste. This is general trash, similar to what you would find in a hotel but
with more plastics and packaging.
Regulated Medical Waste – This waste stream  is also called potentially infectious material, red
bag waste or biohazardous waste.

Hazardous Waste – common hazardous wastes include hazardous pharmaceuticals, bulk

chemotherapeutic agents, mercury, xylene and other solvents, some paints, aerosol cans etc.

Pharmaceutical Waste – Some pharmaceutical waste is considered hazardous while a large

majority may not require handling as hazardous waste but should receive special disposal
considerations, including controlled substances. As regulatory scrutiny of pharmaceutical waste
increases, it is critical for healthcare organizations to understand the appropriate management
and disposal methods.

Universal Waste – certain hazardous wastes—when sent for recycling, may be managed under
a less stringent set of regulations and do not have to be counted toward total hazardous waste
volumes that determine generator status. Materials eligible to be handled as Universal Waste
include:
 batteries
 pesticides
 mercury-containing equipment
 bulbs (lamps)

Recyclables – Recyclables are items and materials bound for the waste stream that can be
converted into a reusable material.Recyclables in healthcare include the usual suspects found in
commercial buildings such as paper, cardboard, beverage and food containers, metal and glass.
Additionally, there are a host of healthcare-specific materials that can also be recycled,
including paper waste, medical plastics, and items that can be reprocessed for reuse rather
than disposed of.

Composting– This waste stream is primarily comprised of food and landscaping waste—

material that will breakdown naturally in short periods of time under the proper temperature
and pressure conditions, such as grass, weed clippings, tree limbs and branches, waste from
vegetable produce, bread and grains, and paper products such as napkins or paper plates.  One
hospital found that 23% of its total waste stream was food waste. Organizations are finding
ways to compost this material—either onsite or using an offsite contractor.

UNIT 7

Solar Energy

  Solar Energy, radiation produced by nuclear fusion reactions deep in the Sun’s core. Solar
energy travels to Earth through space in discrete packets of energy called photons 19. A Photon is
defined as a packet or quantum of a wave-like fluctuations in electric and magnetic fields
traveling through free space or a material medium17. 

   The simplest example of solar energy use is your calculator. As long as there is light in the
room, the calculator will always work by converting light into useful energy. The solar cells on a
calculator are called photovoltaic cells and are made of semiconductors, like silicon 19. 

   On the side of Earth facing the Sun, a square kilometer at the outer edge of our atmosphere
receives 1,400 megawatts of solar power every minute. Only half of that amount reaches
Earth’s surface. The amount of light that reaches any point on the ground depends on the time
of day. The total radiation power varies only slightly, about 0.2 percent every 30 years. Any
considerable change would alter or end life on Earth19.

   Greenhouses and solariums are common examples of the direct use of solar energy, having
glass surfaces that allow the passage of visible light from the sun but slow down the escape of
heat and infrared energy3.

Solar Energy - Advantages

• Clean, non-polluting.

• Renewable, endless supply that belongs to no one.

• Works best in the sunniest, often the poorest, parts of the world.

• Dovetails with other clean systems.

• Flexible and modular - systems can be resized.

• Safe.

Solar Energy - Disadvantages

• Some research and development not funded.

• Electricity produced is more expensive.

• Cannot be used as the only system in cloudy places.

• Energy has to be stored in batteries, hydrogen, water or other matter

HOT WATER SYSTEMS (BRIEF)

 The use of the sun's heat to warm a potable water supply instead of electricity is a very
efficient method and truly cost-effective. Solar HVAC systems, battery-backed off-grid systems,
solar farms and more are at the forefront of the solar power world innovations; There are two
basic types of solar heating systems: passive solar heating and active solar heating.

Active solar is a term referring to those technologies that can be employed to convert solar
energy into usable heat, to cause air-movement for ventilation or cooling. A passive solar
heating design does not actually include any sort of mechanical heating device.Rather, passive
solar heating functions by incorporating building features that absorb heat and then release it
slowly to maintain the temperature within the home.

Solar panels are one of the most important factors in the generation of Solar Energy. On an
average, 1 Sq. Ft. of Solar Panel generates 10.6 Watts of power. some of the modern Solar
Energy systems consist of magnifying glasses along with pipes filled with fluid. These systems
consist of frontal glass that focuses the sun’s light onto the pipes. The fluid present in the pipes
heats up instantly. In addition they pipes are painted black on the outside so as to absorb
maximum amount of heat. The pipes have reflective silver surface on the back that reflects the
sunlight back, thus heating the pipes further. This reflective silver surface also helps in
protecting everything that is on the back of the solar panel.The heat thus produced can be used
for heating up water in a tank, thus saving the large amount of gas or electricity required to
heat the water.

Wind Energy

Wind energy is defined as the “power generated by harnessing the wind,

usually by windmills”16. In scientific terms, wind energy is the "force" of winds
blowing across the earth’s surface21. Wind energy is usually associated with
wind turbines/windmills, but there are other similar concepts out there, check
outFloating Air Turbines and Underwater Power.

Wind is caused by uneven heating on the earth’s surface. The equator region
receives more heat than say, Antarctica. That heat tries to move from hotter to
colder regions. Wind energy was first harvested centuries ago, when early
windmills were used to power millstones, pumps, and forges.
Wind farms have been, and are being constructed in upland areas of the British Isles, such as
Wales and the Lake District, but they have been objected to because of visual and noise
pollution. To solve this problem, engineers have suggested offshore locations, where wind
speeds are higher and the impact of visual pollution is dramatically reduced 16.

When harnessed, wind energy can be converted into mechanical energy for performing work
such as pumping water, grinding grain, and milling lumber21. The amount of kinetic energy
within Earth's atmosphere is equal to about 10,000 trillion kilowatt-hours. 

The picture below shows how much wind energy is currently harvested by the entire world and
a future prediction. Image Source: WWEA

An efficient windmill can produce approximately 175 watts per square meter of propeller-blade
area at a height of 25m3. In 2006, a total of 73,904 MW was generated, so if each windmill has 2
sq. meters of area, that equals to over 200,000 wind turbines working throughout the globe.

Wind Energy - Advantages

• Wind energy is free, clean and non-polluting. The generation of wind power does not
produce any by-products that could be harmful to the environment. There are no chemicals
involved, no waste production, it's squeaky clean.
 

• Wind supply is plentiful, so wind

energy is a renewable supply. Click
on the image on the right, to see the
"amount of wind" available across
the United States.

• Suitable for less sunny regions. This creates the possibility of generating energy non-stop,
during day and night.

• Dovetails well with other systems. The generated wind energy can be used full time in
residential or commercial applications combined with your regular power supply. It can also act
as a back-up in case your residential supply line fails.
• Simple technology. There is nothing too complex, mechanically, in terms of designing and
building wind turbines.

• Cheap electricity.  Wind energy is relatively cheap as compared to other sources.

• Safe, if properly maintaine

Wind Energy - Disadvantages

• Aesthetically disturbing. Some people just don't like the look of giant whirling blades
structures outside their window. A number of companies are working on solving this problem.
Check out Underwater Wind Power and Floating Air Turbines.

A company called Verdant Power came up with an idea of placing

wind turbines underwater. This new free-flow hydropower
technology utilizes underwater currents to harvest energy. The
advantages are that this system is out of sight, hidden deep in rivers
or oceans. Some disadvantages could be the cost of installation and
maintenance. Image Sources: VerdantPower
 

An Ontario-based company is also working to an

alternative approach, by placing "turbines" floating
hundreds of feet high above the ground! This could
pose a risk for airplanes thought, or act as a giant
conducting wire for lightning bolts. Image
Source: Magenn Company.

• Inconstant nature of the wind. Hey, it might be windy, or not. Who knows. Constructions
companies try to place turbines in the most windy areas, even though at times, it still might not
be as windy.

• Affects the bird population. Birds and other flying creatures have trouble seeing the turbines.
Although special coloring patterns and slower moving blades have reduced this problem.

• Wind farms generate noise in quiet, rural sites. Construction companies tried to solve this by
moving the turbines offshore (in the middle of a lake or a river).
 Solar Energy Can Be Used for Heat and Electricity
When converted to thermal (or heat) energy, solar energy can be used to:
 Heat water — for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools
 Heat spaces — inside homes, greenhouses, and other buildings

Solar energy can be converted to electricity in two ways:

 Photovoltaic (PV devices) or “solar cells”change sunlight directly into electricity.

Individual PV cells are grouped into panels and arrays of panels that can be used in a wide
range of applications ranging from single small cells that charge calculator and watch batteries,
to systems that power single homes, to large power plants covering many acres.
Solar Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic Cells Convert Sunlight into Electricity
A photovoltaic cell, commonly called a solar cell or PV, is the technology used to convert solar
energy directly into electrical power. A photovoltaic cell is a nonmechanical device usually
made from silicon alloys.

How Photovoltaic Systems Operate

The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a photovoltaic system. Individual cells can
vary in size from about 0.5 inches to about 4 inches across.  However, one cell only produces 1
or 2 watts, which isn't enough power for most applications.

To increase power output, cells are electrically connected into a packaged weather-tight
module.  Modules can be further connected to form an array.  The term array refers to the
entire generating plant, whether it is made up of one or several thousand modules.  The
number of modules connected together in an array depends on the amount of power output
needed.

Weather Affects Photovoltaics

The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon sunlight.  Climate conditions (such
as clouds or fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar energy received by a
photovoltaic array and, in turn, its performance.  Most modern modules are about 10% efficient
in converting sunlight. Further research is being conducted to raise this efficiency to 20%.
Commercial Applications of Photovoltaic Systems
The success of PV in outer space first generated commercial applications for this technology. 
The simplest photovoltaic systems power many of the small calculators and wrist watches used
every day.  More complicated systems provide electricity to pump water, power
communications equipment, and even provide electricity to our homes.

Some advantages of photovoltaic systems are:

1. Conversion from sunlight to electricity is direct, so that bulky mechanical generator

systems are unnecessary.

2. PV arrays can be installed quickly and in any size.

3. The environmental impact is minimal, requiring no water for system cooling and
generating no by-products.
Photovoltaic cells, like batteries, generate direct current (DC), which is generally used for small
loads (electronic equipment).  When DC from photovoltaic cells is used for commercial
applications or sold to electric utilities using the electric grid, it must be converted to
alternating current (AC) using inverters, solid state devices that convert DC power to AC. 

BIOGAS PLANT – BIOGAS DIGESTER

A biogas plant consists of five main structure or components

Inlet tank
Digester
Dome,called as gas holder
Outlet tank
Composite pit

A “biogas digester” is a simple system which produces biogas, via the natural anaerobic
decomposition of organic material. The biogas digester, once its “starter culture” of
methanogenic (CH4producing) bacteria has been established (usually several weeks after initial
loading with animal manures or lake mud) can be fed daily with kitchen and garden waste.
The ecosystem of bacteria in the biogas digester extract energy from the organic material and
generate methane gas. The digested organic material exits the system as a high-quality fertilizer
in liquid form. This liquid anaerobic “compost” still contains all the minerals and other soil
nutrients of the kitchen and garden waste, including the nitrogen that can be lost through
aerobic composting.

Before being fed into the digester tank, the biomass is mechanically macerated — chewed up
— with an “Insinkerator” garbage disposal. For our biogas digester a slurry of ground biomass
and warm (40°C) water is poured into the tank inlet funnel. The inlet for the digester leads
down to the bottom center of the digester tank.

Before normal operation, the biogas digester must be “started.” This is done by preparing a 1:1
mixture of fresh animal manure and water, and allowing this to ferment anaerobically for
several weeks. The volume of this mixture should be around 200 liters for a 3000 liter digester
or roughly 30-40 kg of animal manures per cubic meter of digestor tank space.

Once the manure-mixture is producing flammable gas, feeding of the digester with biomass can
begin. It is best to begin gradually, for example with 1/3 of the expected feeding for the first
week, 2/3 for the second, and then onto a normal feeding regime.

Different methane-producing bacteria respond to temperature differently; some prefer cooler

temperatures as low as 17°C-20°C (psychrophilic). Others thrive at higher temperatures around
57°C (thermophilic). On the whole, however, biogas digesters well-suited to temperate climates
work best at temperatures around 37°C (mesophilic).