648 Glossary
First Inversion A chord with the 3rd as the lowest
tone.
Focal Point e highest note of a melody.
Foreign Relationships All key relationships that are
not enharmonic, parallel, relative, or closely related.
Form e way a composition is structured to create
a meaningful musical experience.
Forte Name Method of referring to a set class, de-
veloped by theorist Allen Forte. In this system, each
prime form is assigned a compact name represented
by two numbers; the first denotes its cardinality,
while the second denotes its relative position to
other prime forms of the same cardinality.
Free Anticipation A type of anticipation that is both
approached and le by leap. In other words, the an-
ticipation and resolution do not feature the same
chord tone.
French Augmented Sixth Chord A chord formed
by adding 1̂ and 2̂ to the augmented sixth interval
( 6̂–1̂–2̂– 4̂). Symbolized Fr+6.
Fugue A piece in which each voice states a short
theme (the subject) in turn, a er which it is tossed
about among the voices, fragmented, and developed.
Full Score A score in which all or most of the parts
are notated on their own individual staves.
Fundamental e lowest tone in a harmonic series.
G I
German Augmented Sixth Chord Formed by add-
ing 1̂ and 3̂ to the augmented sixth interval ( 6̂–1̂–
3̂– 4̂). Symbolized Ger+6.
Golden Ratio 1.618:1. This proportion is found
throughout nature and has been associated with
proportional balance in art and architecture.
Grand Sta A combination of two staves joined by
a brace, with the top and bottom staves typically
using treble and bass clefs, respectively.
Graphic Notation A notational style that uses non-
traditional symbols to represent musical information.
H
Half Cadence (HC) A common type of unstable or
“progressive” cadence. e HC ends with a V chord,
which can be preceded by any other chord.
Half Step e distance from a key on the piano to
the very next key, white or black. is is typically the
smallest interval encountered in tonal music.
Half-Diminished Seventh Chord (k7) Diminished
triad with a m7 above the root.
Harmonic Interval The distance between two
pitches that are sounded simultaneously.
Harmonic Minor Scale A minor scale type, which
can be thought of as a natural minor scale with
raised 7̂ or as a major scale with lowered 3̂ and 6̂.
Harmonic Progression In tonal music, goal-
directed motion from one chord to the next.
Harmonic Series e natural frequencies that sound
above a given fundamental and are part of any musi-
cal tone. e fundamental is the loudest component
of a musical tone, but above it, in multiples of the fre-
quency of the fundamental, is a series of other tones,
called harmonics, partials, or overtones.
Hemiola An interaction between rhythm and meter
that implies a 3:2 ratio.
Hexatonic Scale A six-note collection derived from
the juxtaposition of two augmented triads at the in-
terval of a half step.
Hirajoshi Scale Pentatonic collection that can be
thought of as being built on 1̂–2̂– 3̂–5̂– 6̂ of a natural
minor scale.
Home Key e primary (tonic) key of a movement.
Hyperinstrument An instrument that uses a com-
puter to augment musical expression and creativity.
Hypermeter A regular grouping of measures that is
analogous to meter.
Imitation e repetition of a pattern that occurs be-
tween two or more voices.
Imitative Counterpoint Counterpoint in which
similar melodic material is passed from part to part.
Imperfect Authentic Cadence (IAC) Any authentic
cadence that is not a PAC due to the use of vii in-
stead of V or V7, the inversion of the dominant or
tonic harmony, and/or the arrival on something
other than the tonic scale degree over the I chord.
Impressionism A term originally applied to a style
of painting that began in France in the late nine-
teenth century, the concept was re ected in music by
a turning away from more orderly formal procedures
of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries
and a fascination with color, as expressed through
new uses of harmony, instrumentation, and rhythm.
Integral Serialism e method of ordering musical
parameters other than pitch, such as rhythm, dy-
namics, and articulation.
Interval e measurement of the distance in pitch
between two notes.
 Glossary
Interval Class (ic) e shortest distance (in semi-
tones) between two pitch classes.
Interval Inversion A procedure wherein the lower
note of an interval is shi ed up one or more octaves
to a point immediately above the upper note (or vice
versa).
Interval Vector Gives a rough approximation of the
quality of a sonority by listing the number of occur-
rences of each interval class in that sonority (can
also be referred to as interval-class vector).
Inversion In tonal music, the transfer of the lowest
note to any higher octave. In set theory, the com-
pound operation (Tn I): PC inversion followed by
transposition (Tn).
Inversion (of a Chord) The transfer of the lowest
note of a root-position chord to any higher octave.
Inversion Symbols Numbers used to indicate the
bass positions of chords.
Inversionally Symmetrical Sets Sets that map onto
themselves under TnI.
Inverted Pedal Point A pedal point that occurs in a
part or parts other than the bass.
Isorhythm In twentieth-century music, refers to a
rhythmic technique (associated with Medieval mo-
tets and masses) that typically consists of a repeated
rhythmic gure called the talea (a er Medieval the-
ory) in combination with a repeated pitch sequence
of a di erent length called the color.
Italian Augmented Sixth Chord Formed by adding
1̂ to the augmented sixth interval ( 6̂–1̂– 4̂). Symbol-
ized It+6.
J
Just Intonation A system of tuning in which the in-
tervals are represented using whole-number ratios.
K
Key The scale used in a piece (or some portion of
a piece), identified according to its most impor-
tant pitch—the scale’s first degree (e.g. the key of
D major).
Key Signature A pattern of sharps or flats corre-
sponding to a key that appears at the beginning of a
sta and indicates that certain notes are to be con-
sistently raised or lowered.
Klangfarbenmelodie Translates literally to “sound
color melody.” Refers to the technique of juxtapos-
ing minute melodic fragments of contrasting timbre
649
and register, resulting in a melody created by rapidly
shi ing tone colors.
L
Lead Sheet Symbols Used in jazz and most popular
music styles to indicate chords to be played under a
given melody.
Ledger Lines Used to extend the staff both above
and below the standard ve-line format.
Lydian-Mixolydian Scale A seven-note scale with 4̂
and 7̂.
M
Major Interval An interval modifier used only to
2nds, 3rds, 6ths, and 7ths, equivalent to the respec-
tive intervals between 1̂–2̂, 1̂–3̂, 1̂–6̂, and 1̂–7̂ from
the major scale.
Major Pentatonic Scale Pentatonic collection that
can be thought of as being built on 1̂–2̂–3̂–5̂–6̂ of a
major scale.
Major Scale A specific pattern of half steps and
whole steps (w-w-h-w-w-w-h) encompassing an
octave.
Major-Minor Seventh Chord (Mm7) Major triad
with a m7 above the root.
Major Seventh Chord (M7) Major triad with a M7
above the root.
Major Triad (M) A triad featuring a P5 divided into
a M3 (bottom) and m3 (top).
Measure A grouping of beats (abbreviated m. [sin-
gular] or mm. [plural]), the ending of which is indi-
cated with a bar line.
Mechanical Rhythm Rhythm that requires a ma-
chine for precise execution.
Melodic Interval e distance between two pitches
that are sounded successively.
Melodic Minor Scale A minor scale type with both
an ascending and descending form. e ascending
form can be thought of as a natural minor scale with
raised 6̂ and 7̂, or as a major scale with lowered 3̂. e
descending form is the same as the natural minor
scale.
Meter e pattern of strong and weak beats that un-
derlies the rhythmic activity of a musical passage.
Metric Accent e pattern of stresses usually found
in a meter type
Metronome A device that produces regularly recur-
ring pulses.
650 Glossary
Micropolyphony e use of dense chords in which
all of the voices move in independent chromatic
lines through the sound mass, giving the music a
complex, cluster-like surface.
Minimalism Music characterized by the use of
restricted pitch materials, static harmony, and
rhythmic devices such as repetition, ostinato, poly-
rhythm, a steady pulse, and phasing.
Minor Interval Formed when a major interval is
lowered by one half step without altering its numeri-
cal name.
Minor Pentachord e minor scale pattern w-h-w-w.
Minor Pentatonic Scale Pentatonic collection that
can be thought of as being built on 1̂– 3̂–4̂–5̂– 7̂ of a
natural minor scale.
Minor Seventh Chord (m7) Minor triad with a m7
above the root.
Minor Triad (m) A triad featuring a P5 divided into
a m3 (bottom) and M3 (top).
Mixed Meter The use of rapidly changing meter
signatures.
Mixed Planing Parallel voice motion that can be ex-
plained neither by consistency of chord type nor by
the limitations of a single scale.
Mode Mixture The use of tones from one mode
(mode here refers to the major and minor modes) in
a passage that is predominantly in the other mode.
Modi ed Sequence A sequence wherein the repeti-
tions of the pattern are neither tonal nor real.
Modulation A shi of tonal center that takes place
within an individual movement.
Modulation by Common Tone Use of a single tone
as the hinge between the two keys.
Monophonic Modulation Use of a single unharmo-
nized line to establish the new tonal center.
Motive e smallest identi able musical idea; it can
consist of a pitch pattern, a rhythmic pattern, or both.
MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface. Origi-
nally developed to allow the keyboard of one synthe-
sizer to drive the tone generator of another and allow a
single performer (or computer) to drive multiple tone
generators, audio processors, drum machines, and
so forth. rough the use of a sequencer (a so ware
application that stores sequences of MIDI data rather
than the sounds themselves) a composer can easily
change MIDI note, key velocity, tempo, or controller
information of a previously encoded performance.
Musical Score A notational tool used by a composer,
conductor, or analyst that shows all the parts of an
ensemble arranged one above the other.
Musique Concrète A technique wherein natural
sounds are recorded and then worked with directly,
being subjected to modi cations that fall into ve
broad categories: altered playback speed, reversed
tape direction, cutting and splicing of tape, creation
of a tape loop, and tape delay (other timbral manip-
ulations are also used).
N
Natural Minor Scale A speci c pattern of half steps
and whole steps (w-h-w-w-h-w-w) encompassing an
octave. e natural minor scale is like a major scale
with lowered 3̂, 6̂, and 7̂.
Neapolitan Chord A major triad constructed on
lowered 2̂.
Neapolitan Sixth Chord Another name for the Nea-
politan triad due to the fact that it is usually found
in rst inversion (N6).
Neighbor Group A pair of non-chord tones used to
embellish a single pitch: both an upper and lower
neighbor sound in succession in either order before
returning to the original pitch. A neighbor group
can be thought of as the combination of an escape
tone and an appoggiatura in succession.
Neighbor Motion Motion proceeding from a given
tone up or down one step followed by a return to the
rst tone.
Neighbor Tone Figure A melodic gure in which
the (chord-tone) 7th of a seventh chord is ap-
proached by ascending step, then resolves down by
step as expected into the next chord.
Neighboring Tone A non-chord tone that embel-
lishes a single tone; this tone is approached by mov-
ing either up or down by step and resolves by step in
the opposite direction to the original tone.
New Vocalism Refers to the use of non-traditional
or experimental vocal techniques (sometimes used
to refer to the techniques based on the talents of a
particular performer).
Non-Chord Tone (NCT) A tone, either diatonic or
chromatic, that is not a member of the prevailing
chord.
Nonessential Chromaticism e use of tones from
outside the key as non-chord tones.
Nonfunctional Harmonic Progressions Succes-
sions of chords that do not follow traditional or
functional patterns or progressions.
Nonretrogradable Rhythms Rhythms that are the
same whether played forward or backward.
 Glossary
Normal Order (Normal Form) e most compact
arrangement of the members of a pc set, listed from
left to right in ascending order within an octave
(notated using square brackets with intervening
commas).
O
Objectionable Parallels Occur when two parts that
are separated by a perfect 5th or 8ve, or by their oc-
tave equivalents, move to new pitch classes that are
separated by the same interval.
Oblique Motion A type of two-voice motion in
which only one voice moves.
Octatonic Scale An eight-note scale composed
of a repeated series of half-whole or whole-half
successions.
Octave e interval between any note and the next
highest or lowest note of the same letter name and
accidental.. is term is used instead of “8th,” and
can also be written as “8ve.”
Octave Register A collection of pitches from one C
up to, but not including, the next C (e.g. C4–B4).
Each such register is given a numerical label that
can be shown a er the letter name.
Omnibus A progression used to harmonize a chro-
matic bass line.
Open Structure A chord in a four-part texture
spanning an octave or more between soprano and
tenor.
Order Numbers Indicate the relative order position
of each pitch class within a particular series form.
Ostinato A musical pattern that is repeated many
times in succession.
P
Pandiatonicism e attempt to equalize the seven
tones of the diatonic scale so that no single pitch is
heard as a tone center. Some identifying character-
istics include use of a key signature, absence of ac-
cidentals, free use of the seven (or fewer, in some
cases) tones of the major scale associated with that
key signature, and the absence of functional har-
monic movement.
Parallel Keys Major and minor keys that share the
same starting note.
Parallel Motion A type of motion in which two voices
move in the same direction by the same interval.
Parallel Period A period in which the antecedent
and consequent both begin with similar or identical
651
material, even if that material is embellished. ( is
term can also apply to double periods.)
Passing Chord A chord inserted between two more
structurally important chords in a harmonic pro-
gression that serves to connect or prolong them,
typically by means of a prominent melodic passing
motion.
Passing Six-Four Chord A six-four chord that har-
monizes the middle note of a three-note scalar g-
ure (either ascending or descending) in the bass.
Passing Tone A non-chord tone that is approached
and resolved by step in the same direction, lling in
the space between two tones, which may belong to
the same or di erent chords.
Passing Tone Figure A melodic gure in which the
(chord-tone) 7th of a seventh chord is approached by
descending step, then resolves down by step as ex-
pected into the next chord.
PC Inversion In atonal theory, subtraction from 12
mod 12.
Pedal Point A stationary pitch that begins as a
chord tone, then becomes a non-chord tone as the
harmonies around it change, and nally ends up as a
chord tone again when the harmony is once more in
agreement with it.
Pedal Six-Four Chord A six-four chord that elabo-
rates the root position chord that precedes (and usu-
ally follows) it. It is created when the bass note of
the root position chord retains the same note while
the 3rd and 5th of the triad move up by step (and,
if returning to the same root position chord, back
down again).
Pentatonic Scale Literally denotes any five-note
scale, but typically refers to the major pentatonic:
C-D-E-G-A and its transpositions.
Perfect An interval modi er used only in connec-
tion with unisons, 4ths, 5ths, 8ves, and their com-
pounds (11ths, and so on).
Perfect Authentic Cadence (PAC) Consists of a V-I
(or V7-I) progression, with both the V and I in root
position and 1̂ in the melody over the I chord.
Period A multi-phrase unit that typically consists
of two phrases in an antecedent-consequent (or
question-answer) relationship, that relationship
being established by means of a stronger cadence at
the end of the second phrase.
Phasing Rhythmic process in which two or more
voices that have the same material begin in unison,
but a er a time begin to play at di erent tempos,
moving in and out of alignment with one another,