The Organization of the Elements

The four components of tone constitute the basic elements of music. These elements have been
organized in music in the following manner:

 The Organization of Pitch. There are many pitches that exist in nature but one really does not
hear distinct pitches. In Western Music from which we derive our pitch, the “pitch spectrum” is
limited to a total of 12 different pitches. Because of pitch, it is possible to construct musical
scales. A scale is a series of consecutive tones. These tones of different pitches may move in an
ascending order, from tones of lower pitch to higher ones, or in a descending order, from higher
to lower pitches in the same way that one goes up in a staircase. Without the scale, the
organization of sounds into what we call music would be impossible. Although there are many
different scale patterns to be found in music, the most commonly used are the major scale and
the minor scale. Every major and minor scale is a pattern of whole steps (alternate keys on the
piano, including the black keys) and half steps (adjacent keys on the piano). For example, the C
major scale has half steps between E and F and between B and the upper C, and all other scale
degrees are a whole step apart:

The minor scale in its natural form has the following pattern of half steps between the second
and third scale degrees and between the fifth and sixth scale degrees.

One can construct all the scales, major and minor, by using the key signature chart in the
appendix, or by beginning with any tone and applying the pattern of half and whole steps.

The words whole and half refer to the distance between the successive steps in the scale. Thus,
the fact that there is a whole step between the first and the second pitch indicates that one of
the 12 tones, a tone between these two pitches, is omitted from this scale. There are five such
whole steps, indicating that five pitches have been omitted. The two half steps (between the
third and fourth tones and the seventh and eighth tones), however, are adjacent pitches in the
total fund of 12 pitches, and thus, no pitches have been omitted between them. The eighth tone
 in the scale is not a new pitch, it is the same pitch as the first, but placed one octave higher. The
entire scale can now be repeated up through the next octave.

 Tonality. This is an element of music into which one should have a clear insight for a better
understanding of it. In almost any melody, one tone can be found that seems more important
more final, than any of the others used in making the melody. Tonality is the key or tonal center.
Here, one particular pitch receives more emphasis than the others. Most music is written in a
key. This means that all its harmony is related to a single tone known as the tonic. The central
pitch is the tonic. Thus, a composition which uses the C major scale and treats C as a tonic is said
to be in the tonality (or in the key) of C major; and a composition which used the C minor scale,
again treating C as a tonic, is said to be in C minor. The tonality or key of a musical composition
is indicated by a key signature, which as mentioned earlier, is placed at the beginning of the
piece. The key signature is determined by the scale which forms the basis of the piece being
studied.

Music in which two or more keys are combined simultaneously in a single composition is
polytonal. A practice of the 20th century composers is shifting rapidly from one key center to
another. This is referred to as multitonality or displaced tonality.

It should be noted that a scale is an abstract arrangement of the pitches in stepwise order
forming the basis of a composition (Dudley and Faricy, 1961). The first and last notes of a scale
are always the tonic, or central pitch. Thus, if one looks back at the example, (C major scale), it
will be noted that the tonic C is the first and last note.

 The Organization of Duration. Sounds can be made to last for a longer or shorter period of time
because sounds have duration. Thus, it is possible to organize sounds rhythmically. The aspect of
music which has to do with the organization of duration is referred to as rhythm, Rhythm is
usually considered the most basic musical element. Any combination of notes of different
duration produces rhythm: e.g. alternating long and short notes, two short note and a lone one,
or a long note and several short ones. Rhythm, in original Greek means flow. A movement that
surges and recedes in intensity. The flow or rhythm assumes many forms in music. Not only the
contrast of strong and weak impulses, but also that of long and short note values, and tones of
lower and higher pitch, as well as the flow of consonant and dissonant harmonies are
experienced as movement which gains or loses intensity.

 Meter. As the term implies, it is a way of measuring durations on a fixed, regular pattern, so that
the listener becomes aware of basic pulse or beat. It is by the yard stick that we judge rapid or
slow events, by the extent of their departure from the tempo.

Our music most commonly assigns the quarter note as the symbol of the metric unit. There are
also note values which are shorter than the metric pulse, and those which are longer. Our note
values are binary; each may be divided into two of the next smaller unit, and two together
comprise the length of the next larger unit.
If we wish to divide our notes into three units rather than two, we use dotted notes; a dot adds
one half of its value to a note. Thus, a dotted half note is equal in duration to three quarter
notes instead of two, and the dotted quarter note to three eighth notes instead of two, and so
on.

Meter, which may be defined as the pattern of strong and weak beats in a measure, is indicated
by a time signature which is placed at the beginning of the piece, just after the key signature.
The numerator tells us how many beats there are in each measure, and the denominator tells us
which kind of note (quarter, half, or whatever) will receive one beat. Thus, if the time signature
is 3/4, this means that there are three beats in one measure and every quarter note will receive
one beat. If the time signature is 4/4, there are four beats in one measure and every quarter
note will receive one beat.

Beats can be equated with the footsteps of a soldier marching. If we think of the command -
“Mark time, march!” given to CAT or CMT students and they react immediately by marching,
one-two, one-two note that the regularity of the steps is emphasized and that “one” is stressed
or accented whereas “two” is not, that is, unaccented or unstressed. Here, we can note a
pattern of two beats, the first accented, the second unaccented. This is called duple meter.
 Tempo. This is an Italian word which literally means time. In music it refers to speed. Music may
move at a fast, moderate or slow speed, and in varying degrees.

Customarily, tempo is indicated by such general terms as allegro (fast), vivace (lively), moderato
(moderate speed), andante (moderately slow), adagio (slower than andante), lento (slow), largo
(very slow), and so on. These terms are still employed but today, tempo is more accurately
indicated in musical scores by metronome designations, which show the number of beats per
minute. For example, = 60, which means that there are 60 quarter notes in a minute (thus each
quarter note would equal one second).

 Melody is that element of music which makes the most direct appeal. It is generally what we
remember and whistle or hum. By melody, we mean an orderly succession of tones or musical
sounds. It consists of a series of pitches and durations. It displays an overall balance between
ascending and descending motions. Leaps in a melody are generally filled in immediately after
the leap occurs. The most fundamental feature of melody is continuity. It appeals to the
emotion. Oftentimes we say that a melody is either sad or melancholy or gay and happy.

A melody may be compared to a spoken sentence in which words have been arranged in certain
relationships to one another, and then spoken with varying pauses and inflections. (Ortiz et al.,
1976).

We notice that the melody divides itself into two halves. Such symmetry is frequently found in
melodies dating from the 18th century. Each half is called a phrase. In music, as in language, a
phrase denotes a unit of meaning within a larger structure. Two phrases together form a
sentence, a musical period.

The smallest melodic unit is the motif which expands into a phrase, a succession of tones easily
encompassed in one breath. The phrase usually rises to a high point from which it falls to a point
of rest or cadence. A “cadence” in music means a closing phrase. An entire melody is formed out
of repeated and contrasting phrases.

Melody has four other characteristics or properties: dimension, progression, direction, and
register.

 Dimension. Melody has two dimensions: (1) length and (2) range. Some melodies are
characterized by being short and fragmentary. Such melodic fragments are called motives. Other
melodies are long and extended. Many melodies are neither extremely short nor unusually long.
The length of the melody is relative to the number of measures which compose it. Generally
speaking, popular songs consist of one, two, or more melodies which are repeated several
times. This means that the entire song is not only one melody from its beginning to its end. The
second dimension of melody is range. The range of a melody is the pitch distance from its lowest
to its highest tone. Some melodies are wide in range; other melodies may be narrow in range;
and many melodies have only a moderate range.

 Register. Register is the relative highness or lowness of the aggregate tones of a melody. A
melody may have a high, medium, or low register. In a given composition, the same melody may
shift from one register to another. In any case, register affects the quality of a melody.
  Direction. Melody moves in two directions of pitch: (1) upwards and (2) downwards. Either
direction may predominate in a melody. Moreover, a melody may move rapidly or gradually in
either direction: rapidly ascending, rapidly descending, gradually ascending, or gradually
descending. A melody which remains at a given pitch level, moving neither up nor down any
appreciable distance, is called a static melody. Usually, a melodic line moves towards a high
point which is the climax of the melody: A melodic climax may appear near the beginning, in the
middle, or at the end of the line. Observation of melodic contours will greatly increase your
perception and enjoyment of the world’s great melodies.

 Progression. Melodic progression refers to the intervals (pitch distance) between the tones as a
melody moves from one tone to the next. A melody may move mostly stepwise; that is, it
progresses to adjacent notes of the scale or adjacent keys of the piano.

 Function of Melody. Melody is the element of music that arouses interest. It is what most
listeners can easily identify. It is the musical idea around which a composition is constructed.
This melodic idea or basic tune of the composition is called a theme. The theme is of paramount
importance to a composition, and it provides one of the most important approaches to
intelligent listening. The ability to recognize one or more themes, when they recur in a
composition, is a clear indication that you are moving toward full appreciation.

Harmony
Another element of music is harmony. It is the simultaneous sounding of two or more tones. Harmony is
apparent when a singer accompanies his melody with chords on the guitar or when the pianist plays the
melody with his right hand while the left strikes the chords. We are jolted if the wrong chord is sounded,
for at that point, we become aware that the necessary unity of melody and harmony has been broken. A
chord is two or more notes or tones sounded at the same time and conceived as an entity.

The most common chord in our music is a certain combination of three tones known as triad. Such a
chord may be built by combining the first, third, and fifth degrees of the do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do scale:
do-mi-sol.

 Chord Progression. Chords are not only constructed in a variety of ways, but also progress from
one to another according to many different plans. The scheme by which chords change is called
chord progression.

Harmony, like melody, has rhythm; that is, chord changes may come at regular or irregular
intervals of time, thus producing a harmonic rhythm. Sometimes harmonic rhythm is
independent of melodic rhythm which means that it is not determined by melodic rhythm;
sometimes it is dependent on it. Harmonic rhythm is static when a given chord is maintained for
a number of measures, or chord changes may come frequently, producing a more energetic and
exciting effect.

 Consonance and Dissonance. The distinction between consonance and dissonance is necessary
in the discussion of harmony. Certain combinations of tones produce a quality of repose or
relaxation, called consonance. Certain other combinations of tones produce a quality of unrest
or tension which is called dissonance. The dissonant chord creates tension. The consonant chord
resolves it. What suspense and conflict are to drama, dissonance is to music. It creates the area
 of tension without which the areas of relaxation would have no meaning. Each complements the
other: both are a necessary part of the artistic whole.

One who hears much 20th century music will develop a greater tolerance for dissonance than he
who limits his exposure to Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven. Tone combinations regarded as
dissonant in their own time come to be accepted by later generations as consonant. One’s
capacity to tolerate novel chords has grown steadily. The leader in this development is always
the composer, whose imagination grasped the possibilities of new combinations while they
were still unacceptable to his fellows; who dared break the tradition, only to be roundly abused;
who by sheer force of will impose his vision on the world; and who, after having expanded the
artistic horizon of his time, became in his turn the venerated founder of a new tradition that had
a new set of rules set forth by disciples who would attack the next innovator as zealously as
once their idol had been attacked.

Diatonic and Chromatic Harmony. A diatonic harmony is one in which there are very few altered
tones (i.e. sharps, flats, and natural signs).

Tonality
One of the qualities of music which is closely related to and dependent upon harmony is tonality. It is an
element of music which is difficult to define but for our purposes, we shall define tonality as a musical
property which creates a sense of gravitation toward a key or tonal center. Here, one tone assumes
greater importance than the rest. Most music is written in a key. That means all its harmony is related to
a single tone known as the tonic. The key of C, for example, will have as its tonal center do (C) because
this is the first and last tone in the scale of C. When the tonic is F, the key is F, and so forth. Most music
is written in a single key, and this is the reason an accompanist a guitarist or a pianist usually asks the
soloist in what key he wishes to sing. Once a key is given, he can construct chords to provide harmonic
accompaniment to the song.

 Polytonality. Music in which two or more keys are combined simultaneously in a single
composition is polytonal. Polytonality is used to bring out the different levels or planes of the
harmony. Piano music especially lends itself to this usage, the right and left hands playing in
different keys. |

 Multitonality. This is sometimes called displaced tonality. Here the composer rapidly shifts from
one key center to another so that the entire key feeling is disturbed.

 Atonal music is an innovation of Schoenberg. It is music that rejects the framework of key. Here,
the composer avoids any feeling of key at all times. The technique is named as “the method of
composing with 12 tones.” Atonality and polytonality are characteristics of modern music, a
great contrast to the tonal music composed in previous centuries.

 Dynamics. When intensity is applied to a piece of music, rather than to a single tone, it is
referred to as dynamics. The term refers to force or percussive effects: degrees of loudness and
softness and the process involved in changing from one to the other.
 Certain Italian words are used to indicate dynamics. The most important are forte (loud), piano
(soft), fortissimo (very loud), pianissimo (very soft), mezzo forte (moderately loud), and messo
piano (moderately soft). As to the directions to change the dynamic, the most common are
crescendo (becoming louder), diminuendo (becoming softer), and sudden stress (sforzando)
accent on a single note or chord.

A number of terms embrace both tempo and dynamics. Andante maestoso (fairly slow and
majestic) implies a stately pace and full sonority. Morendo (dying away indicates that the music
is to become slower and softer). Scherzando (playful) requires a light tone and brisk movement.
Conbrio (with vigor) suggests an energetic pace and vibrant sonority.

 Tempo refers to the rate of speed, the pace of the music. It determines the speed of the beats in
the measure, their duration in actual time.

There is a close connection between tempo and mood; tempo markings indicate the character
of the music as well as the pace. Like dynamics, the terms used to indicate tempo and those that
indicate changes in it, from fast to slow and vice versa, are generally in Italian. Most frequently
encountered are the following:

Very slow: Largo (broad)

Grave (solemn)

Slow: Lento
Adagio (gently, leisurely, slowly)

Moderate: Andante (going at a walking pace)

Andantino (a little andante, somewhat faster than andante)
Moderato (moderate speed)

Fairly fast: Allegretto (a little lively not as fast as allegro)

Fast: Allegro (happy, cheerful, lively)

Very fast: Allegro molto (very lively)

Vivace (vivacious, lively)
Presto (very quick)
Prestissimo (as quick as possible)

Music does not always move along at an even, regular pace. It may speed up or slow down
gradually or abruptly. Gradual increase of speed is called accelerando; gradual decrease of
tempo is called ritardando. When tempo becomes faster, the music is in general more tense and
exciting; when the music slows down, relaxation usually takes place. A ritardando is often
employed in the concluding measures of a composition.

 Timbre is tone quality. Every musical medium has its own distinctive quality of tone. The tone
quality of each of the following instruments a piano, an organ, an orchestra, a band, a voice, and
the like can be easily identified by anyone who has heard these instruments.
 The same can be stated of the human voice. The human voice can produce a variety of tone
qualities. These qualities are evident in the different vowel sounds of a song. Each human voice
has its own characteristic quality, so that it is easy to distinguish between the voices of different
singers even when they sing at the same pitch. The composer has at his disposal the selection of
the medium that will best express the quality and the meaning of his ideas. Like harmony and
rhythm, tone color is part and parcel of the composer’s idea.

Texture
In music, texture refers to the melodic and harmonic relationship of musical factors.

Types of Texture
The relations between melodic and harmonic factors exist solely as a single melody; it is without either a
harmonic accompaniment or other vocal lines. Any instrument or voice performing a melody without an
accompaniment is effecting a monophonic texture.

 Homophonic texture. Here, we have a single-melody-with-chords. We hear homophonic texture

when the pianist plays the melody with his right hand while the left sounds the chords, or when
the singer carries the tune against a harmonic accompaniment on the piano. A folk song with
guitar accompaniment is homophonic music.

 Polyphonic texture or many-voiced texture. This is a combination of two or more melodies of

more or less equal prominence. The terms “polyphonic” and “contrapuntal” are nearly
synonymous. To create polyphonic texture, there should at least be two melodies sounded
simultaneously. Here, the composer would consider how the rhythmic, melodic and harmonic
elements relate to one another.

 Nonmelodic texture is created for special effects in which harmonic sounds obscure or partly
exclude the melodic content of a composition. This occurs in contemporary and modern music.

 Sonority is an attribute of texture which is based more on harmonic than melodic consideration.
This refers to quality of richness or thinness of texture. It is determined by: (1) the number of
parts, (2) spacing of tones, (3) register of tones, and (4) timbre.

The number of parts refers to the number of voices involved, whether all or only some of them are to be
sung or played by different instruments. Spacing of tones refers to the musical intervals between the
parts, whether thirds, fourths, or any other interval. The register of tones refers to whether the tones
are high, medium or low, and timbre refers to the tone quality or qualities of the mediums which will
play the music.

A polyphonic composition that consists of six parts has a far richer sonority than one consisting of only
two parts. Likewise, a homophonic composition which is accompanied by full chords has a richer sound
than one having an accompaniment of only a few tones.

When the tones of a chord or voice parts are closely spaced, the result is a thick texture; when tones are
widely spaced, the texture is thin.