INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS

 History and evolution of mobile radio systems

 Types of mobile wireless services/systems –

 Cellular
 WLL
 Paging
 Satellite systems

 Standard

 Future trends in personal wireless systems.

INDEX

UNIT – I

1
 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS

Question
Question Page no
number
1 What is the footprint area of the satellite? 5
2 What are geostationary satellites? 5
3 What is sidereal time? 5
4 What is sidereal day? 5
5 What is direct orbit? 5
6 What is retrograde orbit? 5
7 What is equatorial orbit? 5
8 What is polar orbit? 5
9 What are classification orbit depend on attitude? 6
10 What are the benefits of Paging? 6
11 Write in short about the World’s first Cellular System. 6
12 What are the principles of Cellular Architecture? 6
13 What are the advantages of Digital techniques in cellular Systems? 6
14 What are the characteristics of PCS? 6
15 What is the Technology used by PCS? 7
16 What are the advantages of cellular systems with small cells? 7
17 What are the limitations of conventional mobile telephone system? 7
18 What are the disadvantages of cellular systems with small cells? 7
19 Define BCA. 7
20 What is breathe? 7
21 Why 800 MHz frequency is selected for mobiles? 7
22 What is the Marketing name of narrowband IS-95 CDMA network? 8
23 What are the three segments of paging? 8
24 Write in short about ERMES 8
25 What are the advantages of APOC standard? 8
26 What is CPP? 8
27 What are the advantages of Data Paging Signage System? 8
28 What are the different types of Hand over? 8
29 What is the necessity of Standards? 8
30 What are the applications of a satellite system? 9
31 Give the benefits of paging systems? 9
32 What is a page? 9
33 What are the channels used in mobile communication systems? 9
34 What are the basic units of a Cellular system? 9
35 What are the classifications of Wireless technologies and systems? 9
Question Page
DESCRIPTIVE ANSWERS
number number

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1 Explain the development history of mobile radio systems. 10
Describe in detail about the history of development of Paging and
2 11
the future trends of paging systems.
3 Explain in detail about the Standards adopted for Paging Systems. 13
4 Discuss in detail about the Recent Developments in Paging Systems. 15
5 Explain in detail about the Mobile radio standards around the world. 16
Discuss in detail about the Future trends of Personal Wireless
6 18
Systems.
7 Describe in detail about the Wireless Local loop and LMDS. 20
8 Explain about the basic cellular system. 22
9 Discuss in detail about the satellite mobile systems. 24
10 Discuss in detail about the general satellite systems. 25

UNIT – I

3
 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS

SHORT ANSWERS
1. What is the footprint area of the satellite?

The satellite antenna transmit signal towards the earth in a particular Patten called its foot print.
The signal is stronger at the center and decrease to father level towards outer edge of the footprint.

2. What are geostationary satellites?

The satellites that rotate the same speed of the earth are called geostationary satellites.

3. What is sidereal time?

The sidereal time is measured relative to the fixed stars. One complete rotation of the earth
relative to the fixed stars is not a complete rotation relative to the sun the reason for this is because the
earth moves in its orbit around the sun.

4. What is sidereal day?

The sidereal day can be defined as one complete rotation of the earth relative to the fixed stars.
One sidereal day has 23 hours, 4.1 sec, 56 min.
At an attitude of 35,786 the orbital period becomes 23 hours, 4.1 sec, 56 min, which the time the
earth to rotate 360 around the axis this period is called a sidereal day.

5. What is direct orbit?

An orbit in which a satellite moves in same direction as the earth is called direct orbit.

6. What is retrograde orbit?

An orbit in which a satellite moves in opposite direction as the earth is called retrograde orbit.

7. What is equatorial orbit?

An orbit with an inclination is 0 the satellite is said to be equatorial orbit.

8. What is polar orbit?

An orbit with an inclination is 90 the satellite is said to be polar orbit.

9. What are classification orbit depend on attitude?

1. Low Earth Orbit

2. Medium Earth Orbit
3. Intermediate Circular Orbit

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 4. Geostationary Orbit

10. What are the benefits of Paging?

1. Low cost message delivery

2. Extended battery life
3. Strong in-building penetration
4. Reliable and expanded coverage
5. Efficient messaging
6. Controlled accessibility
7. Broadcasting capability

11. Write in short about the World’s first Cellular System.

The world’s first cellular system was implemented by the Nippon Telephone and Telegraph
Company (NTT) in Japan. The system deployed in 1979, uses 6—FM Duplex channels (25 KHz for
each one way link) in the 800 MHz band.

12. What are the principles of Cellular Architecture?

 Low power Transmitters and Coverage Zones.

 Frequency Reuse.
 Cell splitting to increase Capacity.
 Hand off and Central Control.

13. What are the advantages of Digital techniques in cellular Systems?

 Improved Spectral Utilization.

 Lower Bit rate Voice Coding
 Reduction of Overhead for Signaling.
 Robust Source and Channel Coding Techniques.
 More Robust Interference.
 Flexible Bandwidth.
 Inclusion of New services
 Improved Efficiency.

14. What are the characteristics of PCS?

 Mass market applications

 Can be customized by individual users
 Coverage: in-building, outdoor stationary and outdoor on-the-move
 Additional services include: universal access ID, less in weight, longer battery life, etc

15. What is the Technology used by PCS?

PCS is not based on any single technology but uses a number of standards including:

 GSM900/1800/1900 (European and North American GSM standards)

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  DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephony)
 PHS (Personal Handyphone System)
 IS-95 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
 IS-136 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

16. What are the advantages of cellular systems with small cells?

 Higher capacity
 Less transmission power
 Local interference only
 Robustness

17. What are the limitations of conventional mobile telephone system?

 Limited service capability

 Poor service performance
 Inefficient frequency spectrum utilization

18. What are the disadvantages of cellular systems with small cells?

 Requires complex infrastructure

 Requires frequent hand-over
 Involves complicated frequency planning

19. Define BCA.

Borrowing Channel Allocation is a method by which more frequencies are allotted dynamically
for high traffic cells.

20. What is breathe?

The cells in which the frequency allocation is based on CDMA technique are called as
breathe.

21. Why 800 MHz frequency is selected for mobiles?

Fixed Station Services - 30 MHz to 100 MHz

Television Broadcasting - 41 MHz to 960 MHz
FM Broadcasting - 100 MHz
Air to Ground system - 118 MHz to 136 MHz
Maritime mobile services - 160 MHz
Military Aircraft use - 225 MHz to 400 MHz
Frequency bands between 30 MHz to 400 MHz is crowded with large number of services and
above 10 GHz is not used due to propagation path loss, multipath fading and improper medium due to
rain activity. So 800 MHz is chosen for mobile communication.

22. What is the Marketing name of narrowband IS-95 CDMA network?

The Marketing name of narrowband IS-95 CDMA networks is cdmaOne.

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23. What are the three segments of paging?

 One-way paging
 Two-way paging
 Telemetry paging services.

24. Write in short about ERMES.

ERMES (Enhanced Radio Messaging System) was developed in the late 1980's by a group of
paging manufacturers and European Paging Operators. It was designed to provide a high speed Pan-
European system for standard tone, numeric and alphanumeric messages in a multi-network
environment, enabling users to roam throughout any region in which an ERMES operates.

25. What are the advantages of APOC standard?

 Greater subscriber capacity and longer messages per radio channel

 Minimum service costs per subscriber
 Minimum upgrading and network investment costs
 Improved completed-call performance
 Competitive pager design with smaller and longer life batteries
 More user facilities
 Compatibility with POCSAG pagers and networks

26. What is CPP?

In Caller Pays Paging (CPP) systems there are no ongoing fees or contractual obligations for
subscribers. The owner only pays for the initial purchase of a paging device.

27. What are the advantages of Data Paging Signage System?

The flexibility of this paging facility enables remote management of a wide-range of systems, such
as those used by travel agents, water irrigation and power controllers, etc.

28. What are the different types of Hand over?

 Intra-satellite hand over

 Inter-satellite hand over
 Gateway hand over
 Inter-system hand over

29. What is the necessity of Standards?

Standards help to ensure or promote the following;

 Wide variety of products and services to customers

 Interoperability between products and services made by different vendors.
 Easier introduction of PCS products into the national market.
 Healthy competitiveness among vendors, which in turn may lead to reduced cost and improved
product quality.
 Development and innovation according to common guidelines.

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  More accessible services to customers

30. What are the applications of a satellite system?

 Weather forecasting.
 Radio and TV broadcast satellites.
 Military services.
 Navigation.

31. Give the benefits of paging systems?

 Wide spread coverage

 Long battery life
 Small light weight sets
 Economical

32. What is a page?

It is a brief message which is broadcast over the entire service area, usually in a simulcast fashion
by many base stations at the same time.

33. What are the channels used in mobile communication systems?

1. Forward voice channels (FVC)

2. Reverse voice channels (RVC)
3. Forward control channels (FCC)
4. Reverse Control channels (RCC)

34. What are the basic units of a Cellular system?

 Mobile stations
 Base stations
 Mobile Switching Center (MSC) or Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO).

35. What are the classifications of Wireless technologies and systems?

 Cellular mobile radio systems

 Cordless telephones
 Wide-area wireless data systems
 High-speed WLANs
 Paging/messaging systems
 Satellite-based mobile systems

DESCRIPTIVE ANSWERS

8
1. Explain the development history of mobile radio systems.

1921 - Detroit Michigan Police Dept. made the earliest significant use of Mobile radio in a vehicle
in the United States. The system operated at a frequency close to 2 MHz. The channels soon
became overcrowded.

1940 - New frequencies between 30 and 40 MHz were made available. Increasing the available
channels encouraged a substantial buildup of police systems. Shortly thereafter other users found a
need for this form of communication. Private individuals, companies, and public agencies
purchased and operated their own mobile units.

1945 - First public mobile telephone system in the U.S. was inaugurated in St. Louis, Missouri
with three channels at 150 MHz. Six channels spaced 60 kHz apart were allocated for this service
by the FCC, but the mobile equipment was not sophisticated enough to prevent interference.

1947 - A Public mobile system using frequencies in the 35 to 44 MHz band began operations
along the highway between New York and Boston. These frequencies were thought to carry
greater distances however a problem with skip-distance propagation carried interfering
conversations for long distances. These early mobile telephone systems used push-to-talk
operation.

1949 - FCC authorized separate radio channels to common carrier entities known as "Radio
Common Carriers" (ROC). These companies do not provide public telephone service, but
interconnect to the public telephone network to provide mobile telephone services equivalent to
the wire line common carriers.

1955 - Number of wire line channels available at 150 MHz was expanded from 5 to 11 by the
creation of new channels between the old ones (channel spacing of 30 kHz).

1956 - 12 wire line channels were added near 450 MHz. All systems operated in a manual mode,
with each call to or from a mobile unit being handled by a special mobile telephone operator.

1964 - A new system (150 MHz) was developed providing automatic channel selection for each
call, eliminated the need to push-to-talk operation, and allowed customers to do their own dialing.

1969 - Automatic capability was extended to the 450 MHz band and the so called "Improved
Mobile Telephone System" (IMTS) became the standard for mobile telephone service in the U.S.

Advanced Systems (Cellular Concept)

As early as 1947, it was realized that small cells with frequency reuse could increase traffic
capacity substantially and the basic cellular concept was developed. However, the technology did
not exist.

1953 - AT&T proposed to the FCC a broadband mobile telephone system to operate in the 800
MHz region.

1970 - FCC announced a tentative allocation of 75 MHz in the 800 MHz region and invited
industry to submit proposals for achieving communication objectives and demonstrating
feasibility.

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 1971 - AT&T responds with a technical report asserting feasibility by detailing how a "cellular
system" might be composed. No other proposed systems were submitted to the FCC.

1974 - FCC makes a firm allocation of 40 MHz for mobile telephone service and solicited
applications for developmental Systems to prove the feasibility of so-called "Cellular Systems" but
because of the beginnings of Bell Systems divestiture proceedings, ruled that Western Electric
could not manufacture cellular terminal equipment. This was because Western Electric makes the
network equipment and the restriction from selling both terminal and network products were to
prevent further monopolization.

1975 - AT&T applied for authorization to operate a developmental cellular system in Chicago.

1977 - License granted in March of 1977. Illinois Bell Telephone constructs and operates a
developmental cellular system.

1978 - Mid 1978 the Equipment Test phase commenced. The Service Test-phase started in late
1978. Twenty-one hundred mobile sets were procured from three suppliers for the test and the
system served over 2000 trial customers.

1981 - FCC issues standard rules and due to the direction already taken, In the Bell System
divestiture proceedings, now rules that Western Electric is permitted to manufacture cellular
terminals as well as the network equipment.

In the years between 1974 and 1981, AT&T Bell Labs worked with all other cellular terminal vendors to
develop their cellular phones so that consumers would have quality products available to use on the
cellular network.

2. Describe in detail about the history of development of Paging and the future
trends of paging systems.

Historical Information

Paging is considered an important component of the growing wireless market. It was the first
mobile communication service for many as citywide paging systems were operating as early as
1963 in the USA and Europe. Subscriber growth rate was around 15-20% per annum until 1997,
reaching approximately 144 million subscribers worldwide. However, there was a dramatic
slowdown in 1998 attributed to the financial crisis in the Asia-Pacific region where most new
subscribers had been coming from. Despite the huge success of SMS (Short Messaging Services),
the paging market continues to be profitable in some areas due to the introduction of advanced
messaging technologies and sheer number in developing countries like China. However, even
China and other similar nations have suffered from large losses in subscriber numbers due to the
advent of cellular mobile phones.

In the early 70's, growth was relatively slow due to the limited applications of tone pagers offered
at the time. For example, customers could not identify a caller's number when they received a
message. To retrieve a message, the customer had to call an answering service. Consumers were
offered much-improved tone and voice pagers when the private sector was given access to
telecommunication markets. Voice pagers spared customers the inconvenience of searching for
telephones since messages were audible on small speakers. However, problems included
difficulties in noisy environments and lack of privacy. These voice systems are now limited to
hospitals and homes.

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In the early 1980s, further improvements to paging technology led to increase demand. Digital
displays, introduced in 1982, allowed callers to transmit numeric messages and recall any message
that had been stored. The new technology soon made pagers popular with workers in service
industries requiring constant contact with their organizations, such as real estate agents, sales
people, hotel employees and public servants.

New Challenges

The introduction of cellular mobile networks in the mid 1980s also presented new opportunities
for companies in the paging industry. Initially many outside observers felt cellular mobile phones
would make pagers obsolete. However, pagers have continued to survive particularly in countries
where telecommunications infrastructure is still developing, but markets worldwide are having to
battle against the steady drop in subscriber numbers. According to Yankee Group, the number of
worldwide subscribers is expected to reach 260 million by 2003.Personalized answering service is
a key growth area. For example, a businessman utilizes a unique after-hours telephone number that
direct calls to an answering service center. When a customer calls the number, an operator answers
the phone in the businessman's name, takes the message and relays it to the businessman's pager.

Today, the world trends indicate demand for smaller and more flexible communication units.
Credit card size devices and wristwatch-pagers are no longer science fiction. Applications in
finance, news and sports announcements have also begun in recent times. Most paging licenses
give operators the right to cover a whole nation. Therefore nation-wide office suppliers and/or
computer super-stores are often used to distribute pagers, making them readily accessible to all.

Future Trends

Communication services are converging. Paging has been incorporated into cellular and
cordless telephony as a cost effective way to receive messages, possibly limiting the future of
pager-only devices.

The paging services market is divided into three segments. One-way paging, two-way paging and
telemetry paging services. Traditionally, one-way paging dominated the market; however, it is
being replaced by both two-way and telemetry services, particularly in developed nations.
According to study undertaken in 1999 by Frost & Sullivan, the US has experienced an increase in
the overall market growth rate due to two-way paging and telemetry services. These services are
quickly advancing and will account for close to half of market revenues within five years. One-
way paging has diminished rapidly as profits have been eroded by the impact of newer
technologies. Telemetry service is an area that may experience some growth. Many see potential
for the service in a variety of business applications ranging from vending machines to utility
meters.

Paging carriers will have to focus on marketing issues and concentrate on particular segments such
as youth, especially as competition increases from Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs). Paging
carriers must use advanced two-way paging services capable of sending and receiving substantial
amounts of data if they are to remain competitive. At the same time, they must also retain their low
cost advantage over cellular mobile phones if they are to survive.

The industry's growth rate has fallen during last 2-3 years. However, manufacturers and paging
operators will not simply disregard the massive investment they have made in paging technology

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 and infrastructure over the years. The gloomy view of a cellular dominated world is not shared by
all analysts. According to Global Wireless, there are still many developing countries that will drive
the paging market. Thailand, for example, had 1.4 million paging users in 1999 and ranked 11th in
a list of the top 20 international paging markets. At the end of September 2000, Thailand had
moved to number nine on the list with 1.64 million subscribers. Mexico is another positive paging
market growing from 585,000 subscribers in 1999 to 825,000 in 2000.

Developed countries are now concentrating on particular market segments. For example, Japanese
paging carriers are targeting corporate users. Some US carriers are targeting users between ages
18-24 by merging Internet applications with messaging, such as wireless chat sessions. According
to Yankee Group, several companies, including Apple and Hewlett-Packard, are planning to
aggressively promote two-way pagers to the mass market.

Paging and SMS Services

The major advantage of paging over SMS is when sending a message to multiple recipients. While
it is capable with both, it is much cheaper to use paging technology and the messages can be sent
much more rapidly. Paging operators have offered applications to exploit this advantage. One
example is for companies to use it as direct marketing tool. That is, shops, cinemas and restaurants
could use a multiple messaging service to broadcast detail of special sales, screenings or menus to
regular or potential customers. This allows them to target information to a specific audience.

SMS will dominate the messaging market; however some users will prefer a device that allows
them to prioritize their messages. There are also network capacity issues with SMS not relevant to
paging networks. While SMS messages can take several minutes to arrive, paging messages are
delivered in seconds. Due to rapid growth in SMS, there is clear evidence that consumers want
messaging services. Paging operators are often advised to direct their efforts to penetrate various
niche markets such as youth, doctors and engineers.

Mobile communication is rapidly growing worldwide and users are coming from a broader
professional and social spectrum. As consumers become more knowledgeable about the market,
they often realize the advantages and facilities available with paging, be it on-site or wide-area
paging. Profitable growth will be possible if paging equipment manufacturers and operators
continue to foster technological development and transfer knowledge into new products and
services.

3. Explain in detail about the Standards adopted for Paging Systems.

POCSAG

One of the early developments in the paging industry was the creation of POCSAG, a high-speed
paging protocol for its time. It was named after the Post Office Standardization Advisory Group
who first published the code in the UK in1978. Initially POCSAG supported a simple beep-only
pager but later incorporated numeric and alpha text messaging. The original POCSAG protocol
operated at 512b/s, but was later upgraded to 1.2kb/s and then again to 2.4kb/s. At 2.4kb/s, the
duration of a numeric page transmission was reduced to 13-milliseconds; increasing the
throughput of data by approximately 150 times compared to that of POCSAG 512. Although 80%
of existing pagers receive numeric messages of less than 10-digits, the growth in longer paging
messages is increasing.

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Today, POCSAG is on the verge of becoming obsolete as much improved codes take over. In fact,
three different codes are now vying for the leadership: European Enhanced Radio Messaging
Service (ERMES), Advanced Paging Operators Code (APOC) and Flexible (FLEX). Each code
achieves greater capacity and longer battery life than POCSAG.

ERMES

ERMES (Enhanced Radio Messaging System) was developed in the late 1980's by a group of
paging manufacturers and European Paging Operators. It was designed to provide a high speed
Pan-European system for standard tone, numeric and alphanumeric messages in a multi-network
environment, enabling users to roam throughout any region in which an ERMES operates.

ETSI approved ERMES standard, ETS 300-1331, in 1992 and the first commercial service was
launched in France in September 1994. ETSI had the following service related objectives in mind:

 Give users all the basic services that existing paging systems offer coupled with transparent
data service.
 Support a wide range of supplementary services and facilities, which may be offered by
various operators.
 Enable subscribers to use receivers for international roaming.

The committee also had the following performance related objectives in mind:
 Permit high level of spectrum efficiency at a reasonable cost.
 Flexibility in allocating spectrum.
 Optimize the size and power consumption of receivers.
 Compatibility with ISDN and future standardized messaging devices.

ERMES operates with sixteen frequencies in one frequency band, 169.4125- 169.8125MHz. Long
messages can be up to 9000 characters and transparent data (up to 64 Kb/s) can be accepted and
handled in a very efficient way. The ERMES MoU Group has merged with the European Public
Paging Association comprises 45 members across 26 countries as of July 2000.

ETSI is currently developing a two-way version of ERMES intended to improve usage of paging
networks. It has stated that two-way paging should be achieved without increasing paging
infrastructure costs and prices for pagers by more than 25%.

APOC
APOC was developed in 1993 to "serve the common requirements of paging operators in every
country". It has been designed to offer:

 greater subscriber capacity and longer messages per radio channel

 minimum service costs per subscriber
 minimum upgrading and network investment costs
 improved completed-call performance
 competitive pager design with smaller and longer life batteries
 more user facilities
 compatibility with POCSAG pagers and networks

The Radio Access Mail Protocol (RAMP) is a recent upgrade to APOC offering direct two-way
access to the Internet. RAMP provides a high capacity message service through downlinks from a
fixed network and user generated uplink messages from a pocket terminal.

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 FLEX

Another protocol called FLEX¿ was introduced in 1993. The standard led to a range of products
known as FLEXsuite¿ including:

 FLEX- 16~64kb/s one way paging protocol

 ReFLEX - enables throughput of 44~192kb/s with acknowledgment paging and interactive
messaging
 InFLEXion Voice - digitally compressed voice for voice messaging applications
 InFLEXion Data - intended for high-speed data applications supporting speeds of
28~112kb/s

This protocol has become the defacto standard for high-speed paging. It has been adopted by 18 of
the top 20 US service providers as well as by other market leaders in Canada, Latin America, Asia,
Africa, the Middle East and Europe. The FLEX protocol has even become the national standard for
high-speed paging in Japan, Korea, China, India and Russia. Motorola also claims there are
over160 FLEX technology-based systems in commercial operation in more than 30 countries.

4. Discuss in detail about the Recent Developments in Paging Systems.

New Developments in Paging

Paging might soon gain a boost in demand by capitalizing on potential Internet applications,
becoming a platform for a variety of wireless information services. E-mail is possibly the 'killer'
application. Wireless e-mail utilizes automatic screening and can handle an array of incoming calls
and messages.

Intelligent pagers can also automatically retrieve information for callers from databases, enter
changes to schedules in a calendar and use dial-up facilities for delayed two-way communications.
One example of a new application is the delivery of news to subscribers where topics of interest
are pre-selected. A range of such publications can be broadcast to many different users at one time.

Two-Way Paging

A number of PCS-based two-way paging devices have begun commercial operation in the U.S.
This technology has enabled users to notify someone who has sent a message that it has been
received. Likewise it also enables subscribers to transmit certain pre-set messages. Similar
techniques have been merged with mobile data technologies such as Short Messaging Service
(SMS).

This sort of paging services are reported to be competitive with real-time cellular and PCS voice
services due to advantages in price, power, enhanced capabilities and market penetration. In the
USA, the average cellular telephone bill costs much more than today's paging service.

One of the obstacles affecting the paging industry has been the lack of two-way messaging
networks. According to one researcher, there are still only two companies currently offering two-
way paging infrastructure equipment.

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 The absence of more equipment providers has given these two companies significant
power over paging infrastructure equipment price and distribution. Another technology developed
by INC Communications, stores codes in modified pagers. This will enable pagers to be used in
tracking vehicles via GPS and in remote meter readings.

Caller Pays Paging

In Caller Pays Paging (CPP) systems there are no ongoing fees or contractual obligations for
subscribers. The owner only pays for the initial purchase of a paging device. CPP was first
introduced in Sweden in 1994 and is now used in many other countries. Much of the success has
been attributed to the numeric message format and the low cost of ownership. Many users develop
their own unique number codes to relay messages to friends or family.

Data Paging Signage System

In Australia, data-paging signage was developed as an advanced system to provide multiple and
immediate data updating on signs. The technology uses radio transmitted paging signals to provide
an immediate update capability from one source to a network of information signs.

It was initially developed for financial markets signage as an easy to use and cost/labor efficient
nation-wide service. Information is updated by placing just one call to the paging center. All signs
attached to the network are then automatically updated when receiving the information requested.
Alternatively, any individual sign (within a group of signs) can be updated with a special message.

The flexibility of this paging facility enables remote management of a wide-range of systems, such
as those used by travel agents, water irrigation and power controllers, etc. The applications of the
paging signage system are numerous.

5. Explain in detail about the Mobile radio standards around the world.

Many mobile radio standards have been developed for Wireless systems throughout the
world, and more standards are likely to emerge. Some of the standards prevalent throughout the
world are listed below.

The world’s first cellular system was implemented by the Nippon Telephone and Telegraph
Company (NTT) in Japan. The system deployed in 1979, uses 6—FM Duplex channels (25 KHz
for each one way link) in the 800 MHz band.

MOBILE RADIO STANDARDS IN NORTH AMERICA

Standard Type Year of Multiple Frequency Modulation Channel

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 Introduction Access band Bandwidth
AMPS cellular 1983 FDMA 824-894 MHz FM 30 KHz
NAMPS cellular 1992 FDMA 824-894 MHz FM 10 KHz
π/4-
USDC cellular 1991 TDMA 824-894 MHz 30KHz
DQPSK
FH/
CDPD cellular 1993 824-894 MHz GMSK 30 KHz
packet
824-894
Cellular/ QPSK/
IS-95 1993 CDMA MHz/ 1.25 MHz
PCS BPSK
1.8-2.0 GHz
GSC paging 1970S Simplex several FSK 1.25 KHz
POCSAG Paging 1970S Simplex several FSK 1.25 KHz
FLEX Paging 1993 Simplex several 4-FSK 15 KHz
DCS-900 1.85-1.99
PCS 1994 TDMA GMSK 200 KHz
(GSM) GHz
Cordless/ FDMA/ 1.85-1.99 π/4-
PACS 1994 300 KHz
PCS TDMA GHz DQPSK
MIRS SMR/PCS 1994 TDMA several 16-QAM 25 KHz
iDen SMR/PCS 1995 TDMA several 16-QAM 25 KHz
MOBILE RADIO STANDARDS IN EUROPE
Year of Multiple Frequency Channel
Standard Type Modulation
Introduction Access band Bandwidth
ETACS Cellular 1985 FDMA 900MHz FM 25 KHz
NMT- 450-470
Cellular 1981 FDMA FM 25 KHz
450 MHz
NMT- 890-960
Cellular 1986 FDMA FM 12.5 KHz
900 MHz
Cellular/ 890-960
GSM 1990 TDMA GMSK 200 KHz
PCS MHz
450-465 20 KHz/
C-450 Cellular 1985 FDMA FM
MHz 10 KHz
ERMES Paging 1993 FDMA Several 4-FSK 25 KHz
864-868
CT2 Cordless 1989 FDMA GFSK 100 KHz
MHz
1880-1900
DECT Cordless 1993 TDMA GFSK 1.728 MHz
MHz
DCS- Cordless/ 1710-1880
1993 TDMA GFSK 200 KHz
1800 PCS MHz
The first generation European cellular systems are generally incompatible with one another because of the
different frequencies and communication protocols used.

MOBILE RADIO STANDARDS IN JAPAN

Year of Multiple Frequency Channel

Standard Type Modulation
Introduction Access band Bandwidth
JTACS Cellular 1988 FDMA 860-925 MHz FM 25 KHz

16
 π/4-
PDC Cellular 1993 TDMA 810-1501 MHz 25 KHz
DQPSK
NTT Cellular 1979 FDMA 400/800 MHz FM 25 KHz
NTACS Cellular 1993 FDMA 843-925 MHz FM 12.5 KHz
NTT Paging 1979 FDMA 280 MHz FSK 12.5 KHz
NEC Paging 1979 FDMA Several FSK 10 KHz
1895-1907 π/4-
PHS Cordless 1993 TDMA 300 KHz
MHZ DQPSK

6. Discuss in detail about the Future trends of Personal Wireless Systems.

Trends in Personal wireless system

Personal Communications Networks (PCNs), also called Personal Communication Services (PCS),
are defined as offering personal communications at a cost level that is sufficiently low as to attract
a mass subscriber audience. These are poised for a mass market breakthrough towards the end of
the decade and they may challenge the role of the fixed network. PCN was originally envisaged as
a public service offering a range of functions, at a range of tariffs covering home zone or limited
mobility operation, pedestrian speed mobility, and low speed vehicle mobility.

The term personal communications is generally considered to have come into being as a result of
an initiative launched in 1989 by the UK DTI (Department of Trade and Industry), which is the
government body responsible for licensing public telecommunications services networks in
Britain. Publication by the DTI of Phones on the Move was intended to stimulate discussion about
what types of mobile services could be offered if sufficient frequency spectrum could be found, the
viability of targeting the pocket radiotelephone and how the market for mobile communications
might develop.

Subsequently, another very important category of usage, the corporate PCN, spread over wider
areas and integrating the fixed network with the mobile through a common numbering scheme.

PCS is not based on any single technology but uses a number of standards including:

 GSM900/1800/1900 (European and North American GSM standards)

 DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephony)
 PHS (Personal Handyphone System)
 IS-95 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
 IS-136 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

In that sense PCS is less a new technology enabler but rather a business focused on capturing the
mass consumer market.

DECT was developed as a cordless adjunct to a PABX especially for high density business
environments typical of multistory office buildings. However recent enhancements to the GSM
standard has seen many vendors swing around to the idea that DECT may be unnecessary with
many functions supplanted by GSM 1800. The latter standard has the advantage of seamless
integration with GSM 900 networks and ready availability of dual band handsets.

17
 PCS networks in the United States have been based on an up-banded version of GSM operating in
the North American-specific 1.9 GHz band as well as 1.9 GHz variants of cdmaOne (the
marketing name for narrowband IS-95 CDMA networks) and the IS-136 standard. Dual mode
GSM/DECT phones have been extensively trialed in the market since the first prototype phone
was exhibited by Ericsson at the Telecom 95 in Geneva. British Telecom became the first
organization to actually announce the launch of a commercial service most existing cellular
operators have concluded that a dual mode service is not viable considering problems like
numbering plans and lack of handoff between GSM 900 and DECT.

DECT continues to do well as a standalone cordless product for the home and office. The
equivalent DECT technology in Japan is PHS however it was developed at the outset as a public
access product not as a home and business cordless system. The PHS market in Japan expanded
rapidly at first but now appears to have plateaued at around 7 million users due to pressure from
cellular competitors. The initial rapid expansion had a lot to do with the unique regulatory and
pricing environment of mobile communications in Japan.

Internationally, the PCS market has become one of the big growth markets of this decade. In the
United States hundreds of new carriers have been licensed as a result of spectrum auctions causing
tariffs to drop by as much as 30 per cent in the last year. In Hong Kong, new PCS operators have
captured almost twenty per cent of the mobile phone market with their share doubling in the last
year. In Korea new PCS operators have been responsible for a sharp lift in the number of mobile
customers despite the economic recession.

As the market expands, it will draw in a growing number of low-end residential users, driving
basic voice services up from half the PCS market. PCNs will use both existing and future wireline
and wireless networks and feature three key elements: an easy-to-use, high-functionality handset; a
single personal number that can reach the subscriber anywhere; and an individualized feature
profile maintained in real time to customize the end-user's service. By 2005 wireless phones will
account for 20 per cent of worldwide telephone traffic up from 4 per cent in 1997 say telecom
researchers at The Yankee Group.

PCNs will not be a single all-encompassing wireless solution but a combination of standards,
networks and products that meet a range of user requirements at a reasonable price with a high
level of support, filling gaps left by other modes of wireless and wireline telephony. In the long
run, microcellular and macro cellular services are likely to merge, allowing seamless hand-off and
roaming between network types.

Major data-based players like IBM, Apple, HP and DEC may enter the market with their large
leading-edge R&D departments, strong economic bases, name recognition and skill at creating
alliances, integrating their data products with voice products and suddenly posing strong new
competition to telecommunications manufacturers and carriers. In the past year there have been a
number of announcements from major industry players on collaborative initiatives such as
Bluetooth (a new wireless standard interconnecting mobile phones with other devices such as
laptops), Symbian (a new operating system for wireless personal digital assistants) and the
Wireless Application Forum (developing the standard by which mobile phones will connect with
the Internet).

7. Describe in detail about the Wireless Local loop and LMDS.

The rapid growth of Internet has created a concurrent demand for Broadband Internet and
computer access from business and homes throughout the world. Particularly in developing nations
where there is inadequate telecommunication backbone infrastructure, there is a tremendous need

18
for inexpensive, reliable, rapidly deployable broadband connectivity that can bring individuals and
enterprises into the information age. Infact, as voice over Internet protocols (VoIP) become
prevalent, it is quite conceivable that a single broadband Internet connection could someday
provide all of the needed telecommunication services, including telephone service, television,
radio, fax, and internet, for a home or Business customer. Fixed wireless equipment is extremely
well suited for rapidly deploying a broadband connection in many instances, and this approach is
steadily becoming more popular for providing “last mile” broadband local loop access, as well as
for emergency or redundant point-to-point or Point-to-Multipoint private networks.

Unlike Mobile Cellular telephone systems, fixed wireless communication systems are able to take
advantage of the very well defined, time-invariant nature of the propagation channel between the
fixed transmitter and fixed receiver. Furthermore, modern fixed wireless systems are usually
assigned microwave or millimeter radio frequencies in the 28 GHz band and higher, which is
greater than ten times the carrier frequency of 3G terrestrial cellular telephone networks. At these
higher frequencies, the wavelengths are extremely small, which in turn allows very high gain
directional antennas to be fabricated in small physical form factors. At Higher frequencies, too,
more bandwidth can be easily used. High gain antennas have spatial filter properties that can reject
multipath signals that arrive from directions other than the desired line of sight, and this in turn
support the transmission of very wide bandwidth signals without distortion. Also, since the carrier
frequencies of these fixed wireless access terminals are so high, the radio channel behaves much
like optical channels. Thus, fixed wireless network at very high microwave frequencies are only
viable where there are no obstructions, such as in a relatively flat sub-urban or rural setting.
Microwave wireless links can be used to create a wireless local loop (WLL) such as the one shown
in the figure below.

Large
Fiber Business in
Central
Office high density
Wireless areas

Central Mid market

Office business outside
the urban core
Copper/
Backbone xDSL
Small business
Network
DAX

ISP Cable

Residences

Example of the emerging applications and markets for broadband services

19
The local loop can be thought of as the “last mile” of the telecommunication network that resides
between the central office (CO) and the individual homes and businesses in close proximity to the
CO. In developed countries, copper or fiber optic cable has been installed to residences and
businesses. However in many developing nations, cable is too expensive or can take months or
years to install. Wireless equipment, on the other hand, can easily be deployed in just in couple of
hours.

An additional benefit of WLL technology is that once the wireless equipment is paid for, there are
no additional costs for transport between the CO and the customer premises Equipment (CPE),
whereas buried cables often must be leased from a service provider or utility company on a
monthly basis. It s possible that WLL systems could compete copper wire based Digital Subscriber
loops (DSL) technologies that are rapidly proliferating.

The concept of LMDS (Local Multipoint Distribution Service) is used for the WLL applications
which provide broadband telecommunications access in the local exchange.

Most LMDS allocations share frequencies with the teledesic band which was approved by the ITU
World Radio Conference for Broadband Satellite Systems. The Teledesic band was originally
established by the Motorola Iridium System, whose spectrum was later merged into the Teledesic
system. The figure below gives the allocation of frequency for Broadband wireless services
throughout the world.

20
The US LMDS band is 27.5-28.35 GHz, 29.1-29.5 GHz and 31.075-31.225 GHz. The IEEE
802.16 Standards committee is developing interoperability standards for fixed broadband wireless
access. In Europe, a similar standard, HIPERACCESS, is being developed by a standardization
committee for Broadband Radio Access Networks (BRAN) for operation in the 40.5-43.5 GHz
band. Also, HIPERLINK is a very high speed short range interconnection for HIPERLANs and
HIPERACCESS, up to 155 Mbps within150 meters, and is planned to operate in the 17GHz band
in Europe.

In the given figure, each rectangle has an area proportional to the amount of radio spectrum
allocated to the specified service. The US cellular service was first issued spectrum in 1983 and
currently occupies 50 MHz of total Bandwidth. The PCS service occupies 150 MHz of Bandwidth.
LMDS was allocated 1300 MHz of bandwidth to provide over 200 broadcast quality television
channels or 65000 full duplex voice channels.

21
 One of the promising applications of LMDS is in a local exchange carrier (LEC) network. The
figure given above shows a typical network configuration where the LEC owns a wide bandwidth
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) or Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)backbone switch,
capable of connecting hundreds of Mbps of traffic with the Internet, the PSTN, or its own private
network. As long as the LOS path exists, LMDS will allow LECs to install wireless equipment on
the premises of customers for rapid broadband connectivity without having to lease or install its
own cables to the customers.

8. Explain about the basic cellular system.

A basic cellular system consists of three parts:

A Mobile Unit (MU)
A Cell Site (CS)
A Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO)
And has a connection to link the three subsystems.

Mobile Unit (MU):

It contains
A Control Unit
A Transceiver
An Antenna System

Cell Site (CS):

It provides the interface between the MTSO and the mobile units. It has
A Control Unit
Radio cabinets
Antennas
A Power Plant &
Data terminals

MTSO:
It contains
Cellular processor Land telephone network
Cellular switch
Voice
It functions as circuits
Switching office –central coordinating element for all cell sites
Interfaces with telephone company zone offices
Controls call processing Switches and
Mobile telephone switching
Handles billing activities processor
office

Connections:
Dedicated voice
The radio and high-speed data links connect the three subsystems. Each mobile unit can
graded circuits
only use one channel at a time for its communication link. But the channel is not fixed; it can be
any one in the entire band assigned by the serving area, with each site having multichannel
capabilities that can connect simultaneously to many mobile units.

22

Cell #1 Cell #2
 The MTSO is the heart of the cellular mobile system. Its processor provides the central
coordination and cellular administration.

The cellular switch, which can be either analog or digital, switches calls to connect mobile
subscribers to other mobile subscribers and to the nationwide telephone network. It uses voice
trunks similar to telephone company interoffice voice trunks. It also contains data links providing
supervision links between the processor and the switch and between the cell sites and the
processor. The radio link carries voice and signaling between the mobile unit and the cell site. The
high-speed data links cannot be transmitted over the standard telephone trunks and therefore must
use either microwave links or T-carriers (wire lines). Microwave radio links or T-carriers carry
both voice and data between the cell site and the MTSO.

9. Discuss in detail about the satellite mobile systems.

Mobile satellite communications are particularly significant to long-distance travelers over parts of
the world that cannot be covered by conventional land-based communications systems. For aircraft
and ships, mobile satellite links greatly improve air traffic control, navigation and rescue
requirements for transoceanic crossings that were served by unreliable high-frequency (HF)
communications.

Experiments in mobile satellite communications were conducted in the 1960s and the early 1970s,
but not until 1979 was the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) formed to
provide the first mobile satellite service. Technical feasibility of mobile satellite communications
for aeronautical systems was proved during the early 1970s using the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) ATS-6 satellite. In 1983the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) set up a committee to study potential air navigation and communications
systems. By the early 1990s standards for land mobile satellite communications were far less
developed than those for either aeronautical or maritime systems.

Services in aeronautical mobile satellite communications include data services for the aircraft
crew, cockpit voice communications, and passenger telephony. INMARSAT is a leader in the
development of a worldwide aeronautical satellite communications system.

23
 The INMARSAT maritime communications system, Standard-A, provides telephone and telex
services. Standard-A is primarily an analog FM system, although a 56-kb/s data service is also
available. The size and cost of Standard-A terminal equipment is large, and the cost is high, so it is
installed only on large ships. A low-rate data service that provides telex and broadcast facilities,
known as Standard-C, will be introduced in the future; its smaller size and reduced cost enable it to
be installed on smaller ships. A fully digital system, Standard-B, was developed during the early
1990s to allow for additional services and connection into the ISDN.

Geostar’s Radio Determination Satellite System (RDDS) began initial operations in 1988 and was
the first domestic satellite system to provide regular service to mobile users within the United
States. This system integrates radio navigation, radio location, and messaging within a single
satellite system. Direct-Sequence Spread-Spectrum Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) signals
over RF bandwidth of 16MHz are transmitted via this system.

The OmniTracs system operated by Qualcomm, Inc., a two-way mobile satellite communications
and vehicle position reporting system in the United States and Europe, began operations in 1989.
Direct-sequence spread-spectrum techniques are used in this system. The signal occupies a 1-MHz
bandwidth.
The Australian MOBILESAT system provides circuit-switched voice and data services and
packet-switched data services for land, aeronautical, and maritime users. The system supports
digital voice modulation at 4.8 kb/s in 5-kHz channels.

Telesat Mobile, Inc. (TMI) and the American Mobile Satellite Corporation (AMSC) are authorized
to provide mobile satellites in Canada and the United States. Operational systems using trellis-
coded 16 quadrature amplitude modulation (16-QAM) QAM, also for 4.8 kb/s voice modulation in
5 kHz channels, are available.

10. Discuss in detail about the general satellite systems.

Satellite Technology

A satellite is made up of two main elements, the payload and the bus. The payload includes all the
equipment that helps the satellite perform its work, including antennas, cameras, radar and
electronics. The bus is the part of the satellite that carries the payload into space. The bus also
provides electrical power, computers and propulsion for the spacecraft and helps the satellite
communicate with earth.

The US Department of Defense has been using satellites for quite some time. Their GPS (Global
Positioning System) is an example of one satellite installation. The GPS, which was built for $12
billion, is a worldwide radio-navigation system based on a constellation of 24 satellites, orbiting at
10,900 miles above the earth (classified as Medium-earth orbit or MEO satellites).

Ground stations, located in Hawaii, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein and Colorado
Springs, monitor the satellites. Receiver units use the signals from these satellites to calculate the
position of objects or people anywhere on Earth.

There are several types of satellites; geostationary, low-earth and medium-earth, characterized by
their elevation above earth. 

Geostationary satellites

24
Geostationary satellites are positioned at about 22,300 miles above the earth's surface, directly
over the equator. The satellites rotate at the same speed as the earth (24 hours)- and therefore
appear to remain stationary with respect to the equator. Due to this factor, they are often used as
communication satellites and for remote imaging, as they can scan the same points on the earth's
surface repeatedly.

Applications

Geostationary satellites are often used for meteorological purposes as well. For example, a set of
satellites called the GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites) produce imagery
used to watch severe weather conditions and to estimate rainfall. DIRECTV is an example of
another successful geostationary satellite system. DirecTV uses five high-power satellites (orbital
locations are 101, 110 and 119 degrees West Longitude) to broadcast content to 18-inch satellite
dishes on the consumer's rooftop. A digital integrated receiver/decoder separates each channel and
decompresses/translates the digital signal so the television can show it. Voice communications are
not yet an option for geostationary satellites due to the long round trip from earth to the satellite,
which produces a half-second delay.

 LEO and MEO

LEOs (low-earth-orbit) which orbit from 400 to 1600 miles above earth. LEO satellite systems
have been developed to provide global real-time voice communications, but due to the complexity,
cost of the systems and widespread growth of cellular technology, they have not been very
successful. Two examples are Iridium and Globalstar. Both systems are still in partial operation.

MEOs (medium-earth-orbit) usually orbit at about 6,000 miles above the earth (but orbits can
range between 1,000 miles and 22,300 miles). MEOs are mainly used for GPS-style surface
navigation systems but have also been proposed for global communication systems.

25
 MODULATION AND SIGNAL PROCESSING

 Analog modulation techniques

 Digital modulation techniques

 Performance of various modulation techniques –

 Spectral efficiency
 Error rate
 Power Amplification

 Equalization/Rake receiver concepts

 Diversity and Space-time processing

 Speech coding

 Channel coding

26
 UNIT – IV

MODULATION AND SIGNAL PROCESSING

1. Define modulation.
It is the process of encoding information from a message source in a manner suitable for transmission.

2. State the different analog modulation schemes.

Amplitude and frequency modulation.

3. State the different modulation schemes.

Amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, phase shift keying.

4. Define amplitude modulation.

The amplitude of the high frequency carried is varied in accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.

5. State the techniques used for SSB generation.

Filter method and balanced modulator method.

6. State the advantages of digital modulation schemes.

Power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency.

7. Define bandwidth efficiency.

It describes the ability of the modulation scheme to accommodate data within a limited bandwidth.

8. Define Power efficiency.

It describes the ability of the modulation scheme to preserve the fidelity of the digital message at low power levels.

9. State the different types of line coding.

Return to zero, non-return to zero and Manchester.

10. State the types of modulation schemes used in mobile communication.

GMSK, GFSK and DQPSK.

11. Give the equation used to represent a BPSK signal.

SBPSK (t) = m (t) 2 √ Eb cos (2πfct + θc)

12. What is coherent detector? Tb
If the receiver has prior knowledge of the transmitted signal then the receiver is known as coherent detector.

13. State the advantage of using GMSK rather than MSK.

The bandwidth occupied by GMSK modulated signal is less in comparison to MSK modulated signal.

14. What is CPFSK ?

Continuous phase frequency shift keying. It is another name for MSK.

15. What is QAM ?

27
 Quadrature amplitude modulation.

16. State the difference between MSK and GMSK.

GMSK uses a Gaussian pulse shaping filter prior to MSK.

17. What is a diversity receiver?

Diversity receiver is the diversity scheme applied at the receiver end of the antenna in all effective technique for reducing
interference, where selective combiner is used to combine two-correlated signal.

18. Expand PCS, PLMR, NLOS and DECT.

PCS - Personal Communication Systems.
PLMR – Public Land Mobile Radio
NLOS – Non Line Of Sight
DECT – Digital Equipment Cordless Telephone

19. Mention the three partially separable effects of radio propagation.

The three partially separable effects of radio propagation are,
 Multi path fading
 Shadowing
 Path loss

20. What is known as Quadrature Modulation?

In digital modulations, instead of transmitting one bit at a time, we transmit two or more bits simultaneously. This is known as M-ary
transmission. This type of transmission results reduced channel BW. However sometimes the use two quadrature carriers for
modulation. This process of transmitting 2 quadrature carrier for modulation is known as quadrature modulation.

21. What are the design characteristics of digital modulation scheme?

 Maximum data rate,

 Minimum transmitted power,
 Maximum channel BW,
 Maximum resistance to interfering signals,
 Minimum circuit complexity.

22. What are coherent digital modulation techniques?

Coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques which employ coherent detection. In coherent detection, the local carrier
generated at the receiver is phase locked with the carrier at the transmitter. Thus, the detection is done by correlating received noisy
signal and locally generated carrier. The coherent detections a synchronous detection.

23. What are the non-coherent digital modulation techniques?

Non-coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques in which the detection process does not need receiver carrier to be
phase locked with transmitter carrier. The advantage of such type of system is that the system becomes simple. But the drawback of
such a system is that the error probability increases.

28
24. Give some advantage of QPSK:

 For the same bit error rate, the BKJ required by QPSK is reduced to half as compared to BPSK.
 Because of reduced BW, the information transmission rate of QPSK is higher
 Carrier power almost remains constant.

25. Drawbacks of MSK as compared to QPSK:

1. The BW requirement of MSK is 1.5 fb, whereas it is fb in QPSK. Actually this cannot be said series drawback of MSK.
Because power to BW ratio of MSK is more 99% of signal.
2. Power can be transmitted within the BW of 1.2 fb in MSK. While QPSK needs around 8fb to transmit the same power.

26. Bring out the difference between coherent and noncoherent binary modulation schemes

Coherent binary modulation Non-coherent binary modulation

1. Here the local carrier generated at the 1. Here the detection process does not
receiver is phase locked with the carrier at the need receiver carrier to be phase locked with
transmitter. Thus detection is done by correlating transmitter carrier.
received noisy signal and locally generated carrier. 2. Here error probability increases.
2. The coherent detection is a synchronous
detection. Here the error probability does not
decreases

27. What is the error probability of MSK and DPSK?

1  Eb 
The error probability of MSK is given by Pe  erfc 
2  No 

1  Eb 
The error probability of DPSK is given by Pe  exp  
2  No 
28. In minimum shift keying what is the relation between the signal frequencies and bit rate? The bit rate is given by

1  Eb 
Pe  erfc 
2  No 
Where
Eb >>>>> Transmitted signal energy per bit;
No >>>>> Noise density

29. What is maximum likelihood decoder?

Set f x  x / mk  is always non-negative and since the logarithmic function is a monotonically increasing function of its
argument we may restate the decision rule in terms of metric as follows

  
Set m  m i , if ln f x X / mk is maximum for k = i
Where ‘ln’ denotes the a natural log. This decision rate is referred to as maximum likelihood rule and device for its
implementation is referred to as maximum likelihood decoder.

30. What is DPSK?

Differential phase –shift keying is the non-coherent version of PSK. It is differentially coherent modulation method. It does
not need a synchronous carrier at the demodulator. The input sequence of binary bits is modified such that the next bit depends upon
the previous bit. Therefore in the receiver bits are used ot detect the present bit.

31. What are the advantages of DPSK?

 DPSK does not need carrier at its receiver. This means that the complicated circuitry for generation of local carrier is
avoided.
 The bandwidth requirement of DPSK is reduced compared to that of BPSK

32. What is capture effect?

The capture-effect is a direct result of the rapid nonlinear improvement in received quality for an increase in the received power. If
two signals in the same frequency band are available at an FM receiver, the one appearing at the higher received signal level is
accepted and demodulated, while the weaker one is rejected. This inherent ability to pick-up the strongest signal and reject the rest

29
makes FM systems very resistant to co-channel interference and provides excellent subjective received quality. This effect is called as
capture-effect.

Descriptive answers:

1. Describe in detail about the Analog Amplitude Modulation techniques used in mobile radio.

Modulation is the process of encoding information from a message source in a manner suitable for transmission. Modulation may be
done by varying the amplitude, phase or frequency of a high carrier in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal.

Types of Modulation
1. Analog modulation
- Amplitude modulation
- Angle modulation (PM, FM)

2. Digital modulation
- Linear modulation
- Non-linear modulation

Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of a high frequency carrier signal is varied in accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating message signal.
If Accos(2ƒct) is the carrier signal and m(t) is the modulating signal, the AM signal can be represented as
sAM (t) = Ac [1+ m(t)] cos(2ƒct) …………..(1)
Where,

m(t) = (Am ∕ Ac) cos(2ƒmt)

The modulation index k of an AM signal is defined as the ratio of the peak message signal amplitude to the speak carrier
amplitude.

Am
k = 
Ac
Equation (1) may be expressed as

sAM (t) = Re{g(t)exp(j2ƒct)}

where g(t) is the complex envelope of the AM signal is given by

g(t) = Ac [1+ m(t)]

The spectrum of an AM signal is

sAM () = ½ Ac [(ƒc ) + M(ƒc ) + (ƒc ) + M(ƒc )]

where ()  unit | M() | impulse function

M()  message signal spectrum

|s () |
AM

Spectrum of a message signal

-ƒm ƒm 

upper lower lower upper

sideband sideband sideband sideband
30

-ƒc-ƒm -ƒc -ƒc+ƒm ƒc-ƒm ƒc ƒc+ƒm

 Spectrum of the corresponding AM signal

The AM spectrum consists of an impulse at the carrier frequency, and two sidebands which replicate the message spectrum. The
sidebands above and below the carrier frequency are called the upper and lower sidebands.
The RF bandwidth of an AM signal is
BAM = 2ƒm
where
ƒm  maximum frequency of modulating message signal

The total power in an AM signal is

P AM = ½ Ac2 [1 + 2‹m(t)› + ‹m2(t)›] ……….…(2)

Where,
‹•›  average value
If the modulating signal is m(t) = k cos(2ƒmt) eqn (2) is expressed as

P AM = ½ Ac2 [1 + Pm ] = Pc [1+ k2 ∕ 2]
2
Where Pc = Ac / 2  carrier signal power
Pm = ‹m2(t)› modulating signal power
k modulation index
Single Sideband AM

SSB-AM systems transmit only one of the sidebands (either upper or lower) about the carrier, and hence occupy only half the
bandwidth of conventional AM systems.
An SSB signal can be expressed as

ˆ sin(2ƒ t) ] ………..(3)
Where
SSSB (t) = Ac [m(t)cos(2ƒct)  m(t) c
(-)  upper sideband SSB
(+)  lower sideband SSB

31
 ˆ
m(t)  Hilbert transform of m(t)

ˆ
m(t) = m(t)  h HT(t) = m(t)  1

t
HHT(ƒ)  Fourier transform of h HT
(t), corresponds to a 90 phase shift
network

j ƒ  0
H(ƒ) = { j ƒ0

The two common techniques used for generating an SSB signal are the filter method and the balanced modulator method.
In the filter method, SSB signals are generated by passing a double sideband AM signal through a bandpass filter which removes one
of the sidebands. Excellent sideband suppression can be obtained using crystal filters at an Intermediate frequency (IF).

Bandpass Filter
m(t)  (filters out one of
the sidebands)
SSSB (t)

Accos(2ƒct)
In balanced modulator the
modulating signal is split into two identical signals, one which modulates the in-phase carrier and the other which is passed through a
90 phase shifter before modulating a quadrature carrier. The sign used for the quadrature component determines whether USSB or
LSSB is transmitted.

32
 m(t)


Carrier Accos(2ƒct) 
m(t) Oscillator SSSB (t)
ƒc 

90

90 ˆ
m(t)
Phase Shift 

Pilot Tone SSB

SSB systems have the advantage of being very bandwidth efficient, their performance in fading channels is very poor. In
conventional SSB receivers, it is difficult to electronically tune the local oscillator frequency to the identical frequency of the
incoming carrier. Doppler spreading and Rayleigh fading can shift the signal spectrum causing pitch and amplitude variations in the
received signal. These problems may be overcome by transmitting a low level pilot tone along with the SSB signal. A phase locked
loop at the receiver can detect this pilot tone and use it to lock the frequency and amplitude of the local oscillator. If the pilot tone and
the information bearing signal undergo correlated fading, it is possible at the receiver to counteract the effects of fading through signal
processing based on tracking the pilot tone. This process is called feed forward signal regeneration (FFSR). By tracking the pilot
tone, the phase and amplitude of the transmitted signal can be reestablished. Keeping the phase and amplitude of the received pilot
tone as a reference, the phase and amplitude distortions in the received sidebands caused by Rayleigh fading can be corrected.

Three different types of pilot tone SSB systems are [Gos 78], [Lus 78] and [Wel78]. Three systems transmit a low level pilot tone,
-7.5 dB, to -15 dB below the peak envelope power of the single sideband signal. They essentially differ in the spectral positioning of
the low level pilot tone. One system transmits a low level carrier along with the sideband signal (tone-in-band), while the other two
place a pilot tone above or within the SSB band.

In tone-in-band SSB system a small portion of the audio spectrum is removed from the central region of the audio band using a notch
filter, and a low level pilot tone is inserted in its place. This has the advantage of maintaining the low bandwidth property pf the SSB
signal, and also provides good adjacent channel protection. For proper operation of tone-in-band SSB, the tone must be transparent to
data and be spaced across the band to avoid spectral overlap with audio frequencies called Transparent Tone-in-band (TTIB).

Demodulation of AM Signals
Demodulation is the process of extracting the baseband message signal from the carrier so that it may be processed and interpreted by
the intended receiver (sink).

Types of Demodulation
- Coherent demodulation
- non coherent demodulation
Coherent demodulation requires knowledge of the transmitted carrier frequency and phase at the receiver, whereas non coherent
detection requires no phase information. In practical AM receivers, the received signal is filtered and amplified at the carrier
frequency and then converted to an intermediate frequency (IF) using a super heterodyne receiver.

Product detector

A product detector (or phase detector) is a down converter circuit which converts the input bandpass signal to a baseband signal. If the
input to the product detector is an AM signal of the form R(t)cos(2ƒct + r), the multiplier output is

v1(t) = R(t)cos(2ƒct + r)A0cos(2ƒct + 0) ……….(4)

where
ƒc  oscillator carrier frequency
r  receiver signal phase

33
 0  oscillator signal phase
Using trigonometric identities in eqn (4)

vout (t) = 1 A R(t)cos( ) LPF

v1(t) = 1 A R(t)cos( ) + 1 A R(t)cos(2ƒ 
R(t)cos(2ƒct +  ) 0 r  0  0 c
t +2r 00) r  0 removes the


2r v1(t) 2 double
LPF carrier
frequency,
the output is

vout (t) = 1 A R(t)cos( ) = KR(t)

 0 Where
 r  0

K 
A0cos(2ƒct + 0) gain constant
Non
coherent envelope detectors which are easy and cheap to build. An ideal envelope detector is a circuit that has an output proportional
to the real envelope of the input signal.
If the input to the envelope detector is R(t)cos(2ƒct + r), the output is

vout (t) = K R(t)

This is useful when the input signal power is atleast 10 dB > noise power.

2. Describe in detail about the Angle Modulation techniques used in mobile radio.

Angle modulation varies a sinusoidal carrier signal in such a way that the angle of the carrier is varied according to the
amplitude of the modulating baseband signal.
This is a form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous frequency of the carrier signal is varied linearly with the baseband
message signal m(t)

t
SFM(t) = Accos[2ƒct + (t)] = Accos2ƒct + 2kƒ  m()d ..(a)

where
Ac  carrier amplitude
ƒc  carrier frequency
kƒ  frequency deviation constant(Hz/V)

If the modulating signal is a sinusoid of amplitude a Am and frequency ƒm

The frequency modulation index ƒ defines the

relationship between message amplitude and the
bandwidth of the SFM(t) = Accos2ƒct + kƒAm sin(2ƒmt)  ….(b) transmitted signal,

ƒm
ƒ = kƒAm = ƒ …………(c)
 
where W W
Am  modulating signal peak value
ƒ  Transmitter peak frequency deviation
W  modulating signal maximum bandwidth
Phase Modulation

This is a form of angle modulation in which the angle (t) of the carrier signal is varied linearly with the baseband message
signal m(t)

SPM(t) = Accos[2ƒct + km(t)]

where

34
 k  phase deviation constant(rad/volt)

An FM signal can be generated by first integrating m(t) and then using the result as the input to the phase modulator .
Conversely, a PM wave can be generated by first differentiating m(t) and using the result as the input to frequency modulator.

The phase modulation index p

p = kAm = 
where
  Transmitter peak phase deviation
FM Modulation Methods

There are two methods:

- Direct Method
The carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the input modulating signal.
- Indirect Method
A narrow band FM signal is generated using a balance modulator, and frequency multiplication is used to increase both the frequency
deviation and the carrier frequency to the required level.

Direct Method:

In this method voltage controlled oscillators (VCOs) are used to vary the frequency of the carrier signal in accordance with the
baseband signal amplitude variations. These oscillators use variable reactance device, voltage variable capacitor called a Varactor.
This Varactor is obtained by using a reverse biased p-n junction diode. The larger the reverse voltage applied, the smaller will be the
transition capacitance of the diode. Incorporating this into a standard Hartley or Colpitts Oscillator, FM signals can be generated. In
wideband FM generation, the stability of the center frequency of VCO can be improved by using a PLL.

Indirect Method

Narrowband FM signal is obtained by the sum of a carrier signal and a SSB signal where the sideband is 90 out of phase with
the carrier.
Using Taylor series for small values of (t), eqn (a) becomes

SFM(t)  Accos(2ƒct)  Ac(t)sin(2ƒct)

A narrowband FM signal is generated using a balanced modulator. The maximum
frequency deviation is kept   constant and small, to maintain the validity of above eqn,
providing a narrowband FM
carrier sideband output signal.

A wideband FM signal is then produced using frequency multipliers.

Disadvantage: phase noise in the system increases with the frequency multiplying factor N.

3. Describe in detail about the demodulation techniques for FM waves used in mobile radio.
FM Detection Techniques

A frequency-to-amplitude converted circuit is a frequency demodulator. Various techniques are slope detection, zero-
crossing detection, phase locked discrimination, and quadrature detection is used to demodulate FM. Devices which perform FM
demodulation are often called frequency discriminators. In practical receivers, the RF signal is received, amplified, and filtered at the
carrier, and then converted to an intermediate frequency (IF) which contains the same spectrum as the original received signal.

Slope Detector

The FM signal is passed through an amplitude limiter which removes in amplitude perturbations which the signal might have
undergone due to fading in the channel, and produces a constant envelope signal.

signal at the voutput

Using eqn (a), theLimiter (t) of limiter is v2 (t) Envelope
1
Differentiator
Detector vout (t)
.
Eqn
vin (t) (A) can be
t differentiated by passing the
signal v1 (t) = V1cos[2ƒct + (t)] = V1 cos2ƒct + 2kƒ  m()d ..(A) through a filter with the


35
transfer function that has gain that increases linearly with frequency. Such a filer is called a slope filter. (Slope detector).The output
of differentiator is

sin[2ƒct + (t)]
v2 (t) =  V1 2ƒct + d

dt
And the envelope detector output is

vout (t) = V1 2ƒct + d



 (t)
dt

= V12ƒct + V12kƒ m(t)

The output of the envelope detector contains a dc term proportional to the carrier frequency and a time varying term
proportional to the original message signal m(t). The dc term can be filtered out using a capacitor to obtain the desired demodulated
signal.

Zero-crossing detector (pulse-averaging discriminator)

When linearity is required over a broad range of frequencies, such as for data communications, a zero-crossing detector is used
to perform frequency-to-amplitude conversion by directly counting the number of zero crossings in the input FM signal.
The rationale behind this technique is to use the output of the zero-crossing detector to generate a pulse train with an average value
that is proportional to the frequency of the input signal.

v1 (t) v2 (t) Monostable v (t)

3

vin (t) Limiter Differentiator Multivibrator LPF vout (t)

The input FM signal is first passed through a limiter circuit which converts the input signal to a frequency modulated pulse train. This
pulse train v1 (t) is then passed through a differentiator whose output triggers a monostable multivibrator (one-shot). The one -shot
output consists of a pulse train with average duration proportional to the desired message signal. LPF is used to perform the averaging
operation by extracting the slowly varying dc component of the output signal of one –shot. The output of LPF is the desired
demodulated signal.

PLL For FM Detection

The PLL is a closed loop control system that can track the variations in the received signal phase and frequency.

36
 SFM(t) m(t)
input FM Phase Loop Amplifier demodulated
signal Detector and LPF output signal

Voltage
Controlled
Oscillator (VCO)

It consists of a VCO H(s) with an output frequency varied in accordance with the demodulated output voltage level. The output of the
VCO is compared with the input signal using a phase comparator, which produces an output voltage proportion to the phase
difference. The phase difference signal is then fed back to the VCO to control the output frequency. The feedback loop functions in
the locking of VCO frequency to the input signal. Once the VCO frequency is locked to the input frequency, the VCO continues to
track the variations in the input frequency. Once this tracking is achieved, the control voltage to the VCO is the demodulated FM
signal.

Quadrature Detection

This technique can be easily implemented on an integrated circuit at a very low cost. The detector consists of a network which
shifts the phase of the incoming FM signal by an amount proportional to its instantaneous frequency, and uses a product (phase)
detector to deduct the phase difference between the original FM signal and the output signal of phase-shift network. Since the phase
shift introduced by the phase-shift network is proportional to instantaneous frequency of FM signal, the output voltage of phase
detector will also be proportional to the input FM signal instantaneous frequency. Thus a frequency-to-amplitude conversion is
achieved, and the FM signal is demodulated.

SFM(t)
vout (t)
input FM
signal  LPF demodulated
output signal
V(t)

Phase-shift network
Z(ƒ)
with 90 shift at fc

To achieve optimum performance, a very small (< 5) phase shift is to be introduced across the modulated signal bandwidth. The
phase-shift network should have a constant amplitude response and a linear phase response over the occupied FM signal spectrum.
Further, the network should have a nominal 90 phase shift at the carrier frequency.

The phase response function of the phase-shift network is

(ƒ) =  + 2K(ƒ-ƒc)

2
where
KProportionality constant

37
When an FM signal is passed through the phase-shift network, the output is

νΦ(t) = ρAc cos[2Пfct + 2Пkf ∫m(η)dη + Φ(fi(t)) ]

The output of the product detector is proportional to the cosine of the phase difference between and νΦ(t) and Sfm(t).

ν0(t) = ρ2 Ac2cos (Φ(fi(t)))

ν0(t) = ρ2 Ac2cos (-П/2 + 2ПK[fi(t) – fc] )
ν0(t) = ρ2 Ac2 sin(2ПK.kf. m(t))

If the phase shift varies only over a small angle, the above expression becomes as
ν0(t) = ρ2 Ac22ПK.kf. m(t) = C m(t).

Hence the quadrature detector output is the desired message signal multiplied by a constant.

4. Describe in detail about the Digital modulation schemes BPSK.

Modern mobile communication systems use digital modulation techniques.

ADVANTAGES

 Greater noise immunity

 Robustness to channel impairments
 Easier multiplexing of various forms of information
 Greater security

Factors That Influence the Choice of Digital Modulation

Several factors influence the choice of a digital modulation scheme. A desirable modulation scheme provides low bit error rates
at low received signal-to-noise ratios.
The performance of a modulation scheme is measured in terms of power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency.

Power (energy) efficiency

This describes the ability of a modulation technique to preserve the fidelity of the digital message at low power levels. In digital
communication system, to increase noise immunity, it is necessary to increase the signal power.

It is defined as the ratio of the signal energy per bit to noise power spectral density (Eb/ N0). It is denoted as p.
Bandwidth efficiency
This describes the ability of a modulation scheme to accommodate data within a limited bandwidth.
It is defined as the ratio of the throughput data rate per Hertz in a given bandwidth.
If R is the data rate in bits per second, and B is the bandwidth occupied by the modulated RF signal, then bandwidth efficiency
B is expressed as

The system capacity

of a B = R digital mobile
 bps/Hz communication
B ……….1.1 system is directly
related to the
bandwidth efficiency of the modulation scheme, for > B transmit more data in a given spectrum allocation.
Shannon’s channel coding theorem states that for an arbitrarily small probability of error, the maximum possible bandwidth
efficiency is limited by the noise in the channel and the channel capacity formula is
Where
C  channel capacity

B 
Bmax = C

= log2 1 + S/N

 (bps)
RF bandwidth
S/N B …………….1.2  signal-to-noise
ratio

Bandwidth and Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals

38
The definition of signal bandwidth is based on the power spectral density (PSD) of the signal. The PSD of a random signal w(t ) is
defined as


Pw () = lim  WT () 2

T
T ………..1.3

Where the bar denotes ensemble average

WT ()  Fourier transform of WT (t) is the truncated version of the signal w(t )

WT (t) = {
w(t ) -T/2<t<T/2
The PSD of a modulated (bandpass) signal is related to
0 elsewhere the PSD of its baseband complex envelope.
If a bandpass signal s(t) is represented as

s(t) = Re { g(t)exp(j2ƒct) ………..1.4

where
g(t)  complex baseband envelope

The PSD of the bandpass signal is

where
Pg()  PSD of g(t)
Ps() = 1 [P (ƒ ) + P (ƒ )]
The
 g c g c absolute bandwidth
of a
4 …………1.5 signal is defined as
the range of frequencies
over which the signal has a non-zero power spectral density.

The null-to-null bandwidth is equal to the width of the main spectral lobe.
The dispersion of the spectrum is measured using the half-power bandwidth (3 dB bandwidth). It is defined as the interval between
frequencies at which the PSD has dropped to half power, or 3 dB below the peak value.

FCC defines that 99% of the signal power is contained within the occupied bandwidth i.e., bandwidth leaves exactly .5% above &
below upper & lower band limit.

Linear Modulation Techniques

In linear modulation techniques, the amplitude of the transmitted signal s(t) varies linearly with the modulating signal m(t).
Linear modulation techniques are bandwidth efficient and hence are used in wireless communication systems.

The most popular techniques include pulse-shaped QPSK, OQPSK, and BPSK.

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

In BPSK , the phase of a constant amplitude carrier signal is switched between two values according to the two possible signals
m1 and m2 corresponding to binary 1 and 0. The two phases are separated by 180. If the sinusoidal carrier has an amplitude A c , and
energy per bit Eb = ½ Ac2 Tb ,then the transmitted BPSK signal is either

2 Eb
SBPSK (t)  cos(2 f c t ) 0  t  Tb ( binary 1 )
Tb
Or

39
 2 Eb
SBPSK (t)  cos( 2 f c t     c )
Tb

2 Eb 0  t  T b (binary 1)
 cos( 2 f c t   c )
Tb

generalize m1 and m2 as a binary data signal m(t) , the transmitted signal is

2 Eb
SBPSK (t)  m(t) cos(2 f c t   c )
Tb

The BPSK signal is equivalent to a double sideband suppressed carrier amplitude modulated waveform. Hence a BPSK signal
can be generated using a balance modulator.

Spectrum and Bandwidth of BPSK

The BPSK in complex envelope form as
SBPSK (t )  Re gBPSK(t)exp(j2 fc t
Where
gBPSK (t)  complex envelope of the signal
m(t) e c
2 Eb j
gBPSK (t ) 
Tb
The PSD of the complex envelope is

 sin  f Tb 2
Pg (t )  2 Eb
  fT 

BPSK
 b 
The PSD for the BPSK signal at RF can be evaluated by translating the baseband spectrum to the carrier frequency using the
relation given in equation (1.5)
Hence, the PSD of a BPSK signal at RF is given by

E  sin  ( f  f c)Tb 2  sin  (  f  f c)Tb 2 

PBPSK (t )  b      
2   ( f  f c)Tb    (  f  f c)Tb  

The null–to–null bandwidth is found to be equal to twice the bit rate (BW=2Rb = 2/Tb).

BPSK Receiver
If no multipath impairments are induced by the channel, the received BPSK signal can be expressed as
2 Eb
SBPSK (t)  m(t) cos( 2 fc t  c  ch )
Tb

 m(t) 2 Eb
cos( 2 f c t   )
Tb
BPSK uses coherent or synchronous demodulation. If a low level pilot carrier signal is transmitted along with the BPSK signal, then
the carrier phase and frequency may be recovered at the receiver using a phase locked loop (PLL). If no pilot carrier is transmitted, a
Costas loop or squaring loop may be used to synthesize the carrier phase and frequency from the received BPSK signal.

40
 Cos2(2ƒct+) cos(4ƒct+2)
Square Bandpass Frequency cos(2ƒct+)
m(t)cos(2ƒct+)
Law Filter Divider
Device 2c /2

m(t) Cos2(2ƒct+)

Integrate
Demodulated output
and Dump
m(t)
Circuit

Bit Synchronizer

The multiplier output is

2Eb 2Eb  1 1 cos 
m(t) cos 2 ( 2 fc t   )  m(t)   2(2 fc t   )
Tb Tb  2 2 

This signal is applied to an integrate and dump circuit which forms the low pass filter segment of a BPSK detector. If the transmitter
and receiver pulse shapes are matched, then the detection will be optimum. A bit synchronizer is used at the end of each bit period.
Here the switch at the output of the integrator closes to dump the output signal to the decision circuit. Depending on whether the
integrator output us above or below a certain threshold, the decision circuit decides that the received signal corresponds to a binary 1
or 0. The threshold is set at an optimum level such that the probability of error is minimized. If binary 1 or 0 is transmitted, then the
voltage level corresponding to the midpoint between the detector output voltage levels of binary 1 and 0 is used as the optimum
threshold.

The probability of bit error in an AWGN channel is found using the Q-function of the distance between the signal points.
 2Eb 
Pe, BPSK = Q 

 Tb 

5. Describe in detail about the Digital modulation schemes DPSK and QPSK.

Differential phase shift keying (DPSK)

Differential PSK is a noncoherent form of phase shift keying which avoids the need for a coherent reference signal at the
receiver. Noncoherent receivers are easy and cheap to build, and hence are widely used in wireless communications. In DPSK
systems, the input binary sequence is first differentially encoded and then modulated using a BPSK modulator. The differentially
encoded sequence {dk } is generated from the input binary {mk } by d k  m k  dk  1 . The symbol dk is unchanged if the incoming
binary symbol mk is 1 and to toggle dk if mk is 0.

{mk } 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
{ dk-1 } 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

{dk } 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1

41
 Input data Logic {dk } Product DPSK
Circuit Modulator Signal
{mk }

{ dk-1 } cos(2ƒct)

Delay
Tb
DPSK TRANSMITTER

It consists of a one bit delay element and a logic circuit to generate the differentially encoded sequence from the input binary
sequency. The output is passed through a product modulator to obtain the DPSK signal. At the receiver a complementary process
is done. Advantage: reduced receiver complexity. The average probability of error for DPSK in AWGN is given by

1  E 
Pe, DPSK = exp  b 
2  N0 

DPSK Bandpass Integrate Threshold

Logic Demodulated
Filter Circuit and Dump Device
Signal Signal

Delay
Tb

DPSK RECEIVER

QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING (QPSK)

Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) has twice the bandwidth efficiency of BPSK, since two bits are transmitted in a single
modulation symbol. The carrier phase takes on one of four equally spaced values, such as 0, /2, and 3/2 corresponds to a unique
pair of message bits. The QPSK signal is defined as

2 Es  
SQPSK (t) = cos2 fc t  (i  1)  0  t  Ts i  1,2,3,4
Ts  2
Where
Ts  symbol duration equals twice the bit period

Using trigonometric identities

2 Es  
cos (i  1)  cos 2fc t 
Ts  2
SQPSK (t) =
2 Es  
 sin (i  1)  sin  2fc t 
Ts  2
If basis functions 1(t) = 2 Ts cos 2fc t  , and 2(t) = 2 Ts sin  2fct  in the interval
0 t  Ts then
     
SQPSK (t) =  Es cos(i  1) 1 (t )  Es sin (i  1) 2 (t )  i  1,2,3,4
  2   2  

42
 QPSK Constellation
Q
Q
Es

I
I
2 Es

Carrier Phases 0,/2,,3/2 Carrier Phases /4,3/4,5/4,7/4

From the constellation diagram the distance between adjacent points in the constellation is 2 Es . Since each symbol
corresponds to two bits, then Es = 2Eb, thus the distance between two neighboring points is equal to 2 E b , the average probability
of bit error in (AGWN) channel is
 2 Eb 
Per, QPSK = Q  
 N0 
The bit error probability of QPSK is identical to that of BPSK. QPSK provides twice the spectral efficiency with exactly the same
energy efficiency.

Spectrum and Bandwidth of QPSK Signals

The PSD of a QPSK signal using rectangular pulses is expressed as
2 2
Es  sin  ( f  fc )Ts   sin  ( f  fc)Ts  
PQPSK () =   
  (  f  f )Ts  
2   ( f  fc)Ts   c 
2 2
 sin 2 ( f  fc )Tb   sin 2 (  f  fc )Tb  
= Eb   
 2 ( f  f )Tb  
 2 ( f  fc )Tb   c  
Where
Ts = Tb/2  symbol period
The null–to–null RF bandwidth is equal to the bit rate Rb, which is half that of a BPSK signal.

QPSK Transmission and Detection Techniques

The unipolar binary message stream has bit rate R b and is first converted into a bipolar non-return-to-zero (NRZ) sequence
using a unipolar to bipolar converter. The bit stream m(t) is then split into two bit streams m I(t) and mQ(t) a bit rate of Rs = Rb/2.
The two binary sequences are separately modulated by two carriers 1(t) and 2(t), are summed to produce a QPSK signal. The filter
at the output confines the power spectrum within the allocated band.

43
 Rb/2 QPSK TRANSMITTER
LPF

Serial to QPSK
Input Data Parallel
Local
Oscillator  BPF Signal
converter
Rb

-90

Rb/2
The bandpass filter removes the out-of-band noise and adjacent channel interference. The filtered output is split into two parts and
each part is coherently demodulated using the in-phase and quadrature carriers. The coherent carriers used for demodulation are
recovered from the received signal using carrier recovery circuits. The outputs of the demodulators are passed through decision
circuits the in-phase and quadrature binary streams. The two components are then multiplexed to reproduce the original binary
sequence.

OFFSET QPSK

A modified form of QPSK, called offset QPSK (OQPSK) or staggered QPSK is less susceptible to these deleterious effects. In
QPSK signaling, the bit transitions of the even and odd bit streams occur at the same time instants, but in OQPSK signaling , the even
and odd bit streams mI(t) and mQ(t) are offset in their relative alignment by one bit period (half-symbol) period.
The spectrum is identical to that of a QPSK signal; hence both signals occupy the same bandwidth.

6. Describe in detail about the Space diversity techniques.

Space diversity also known as antenna diversity, is one of the most popular forms of diversity used in wireless systems. Conventional
wireless systems consist of an elevated base station antenna and a mobile antenna close to the ground. The existence of a direct path
between the transmitter and the receiver is not guaranteed and the possibility of a number of scatterers in the vicinity of the mobile
suggests a Rayleigh fading signal. From this model, Jakes deduced that the signals received from spatially separated antennas on the
mobile would have essentially uncorrelated envelops for antenna separations of one-half wavelength or more.

The concept of antenna space diversity is also used in base station design. At each cell site, multiple base station receiving antennas
are used to provide diversity reception. However, since the important scatterers are generally on the ground in the vicinity of the
mobile, the base station antennas must be spaced considerably far apart to achieve decorrelation. Separations on the order of several
tens of wavelengths are required at the base station. Space diversity can thus be used at either the mobile or base station, or both.
Space diversity reception method can be classified into four categories.
Selection diversity
Feedback Diversity
Maximal Ratio Combining
Equal Gain Diversity

Selection diversity:
A block diagram of the method is similar to that shown in figure. Where m demodulators are used to provide m diversity
branches whose gains are adjusted to provide the same average SNR for each branch. The receiver branch having the highest
instantaneous SNR is connected to the demodulator.

The antenna signals themselves could be sampled and the best one sends to a signal demodulator. In practice, the branch with the
largest (S+N)/N is used, since it is difficult to measure SNR alone. A practical selection diversity system cannot function on a truly
instantaneous basis. But must be designed so that the internal time constants of the selection circuitry are shorter than the reciprocal of
the signal fading rate.

Feedback Diversity or scanning diversity

44
Scanning diversity is very similar to selection diversity except that instead of always using the best of M signals, the M signals are
scanned in a fixed sequence until one is found to be a above predetermined threshold. This signal is then received until it falls below
threshold and the scanning process is again initiated. The resulting fading statistics are somewhat inferior to those obtained by the
other methods, but the advantage with this method is that it is very simple to implement – only one receiver is required. A block
diagram of this method is shown if figure

Maximal Ratio Combining

In this method first proposed by Kahn, the signals from all of the M branches are weighted according to their individual signal voltage
to noise power ratios and summed. Figure shows a block diagram of the technique. Here, the individual signals must be co phased
before being summed which generally requires an receiver and phasing circuit for each antenna element. Maximal Ratio Combining
produces an output SNR equal to the sum of the individual SNRs. Thus, it has the advantage of producing an output with an
acceptable SNR even when none of the individual signals are themselves acceptable. This technique gives the best statistical reduction
of fading of any known linear diversity combiner. Modern DSP techniques and digital receiver are now making this optimal form of
diversity practical.

Equal Gain combining:

In certain cases it is not convenient to provide for the variable weighting capability required for true maximal ratio combining.

In such cases, the branch weights are all set to unity, but the signals from each branch are co phased to provide the equal gain
combining diversity. This allows the receiver to exploit signals that are simultaneously received on each branch. The possibility of
producing an acceptable signal from a number of unacceptable inputs is still retained, and performance is only marginally inferior to
maximal ratio combining and superior to selection diversity.

7. Explain in detail about the polarization, time and Frequency diversity techniques.

Polarization diversity:
At the base station, space diversity is considerably less practical than at the mobile because the narrow angle of incident fields requires
large antenna spacing. The comparatively high cost of using space diversity at the base station prompts the consideration of the using
orthogonal polarization to exploit polarization diversity. While this only provides two diversity branches, it does allow the antenna
elements to the co-located. In the early days of cellular radio, all subscriber units were mounted in vehicles and used vertical whip
antennas. Today, however, over half the subscriber units are portable. This means that most of subscribers are no longer using vertical
polarization due to hand-tilting when the portable cellular phone is used. This recent phenomenon has sparked interest in polarization
diversity at the base station.

Measured horizontal and vertical polarization paths between a mobile and a base station are reported to be uncorrelated by Lee and
Yeh. The decorrelation for the signals in each polarization is caused by multiple reflections in the channel between the base station
and antennas. The reflection coefficient for each polarization is different, which results in different amplitudes and phases for each, or
at least some, of the reflections. After sufficient random reflections, the polarization state of the signal will be independent of the
transmitted polarization. In practice, however, there is some dependence of the received polarization on the transmitted polarization.

Circular and linear polarization antennas have been used to characterize multipath inside buildings. When the path was obstructed,
polarization diversity was found to dramatically reduce the multipath delay spread without significantly decreasing the received
power.
While polarization diversity has been studied in the past, it has primarily been used for fixed radio links which vary slowly in time.
Line-of-sight microwave links, for example, typically use polarization diversity to support two simultaneous users on the same radio
channel. Since the channel does not change much in such a link, there is little likelihood of cross polarization interference. As portable
users proliferate, polarization diversity is likely to become more important for improving link margin and capacity. An outline of
theoretical model for the base station polarization diversity reception as suggested by Kozono is given below.

Theoretical model for Polarization Diversity

It is assumed that the signal is transmitted from a mobile with vertical (or horizontal) polarization. It is received at the base station by
a polarization Y
V diversity antenna with two
2 α V branches.
1

X
X
Multipath
α 45
Main beam
Mobile
Figure shows the theoretical model and the system coordinates. As seen in the figure, polarization diversity antenna is composed of
two antenna elements V1 and V2, which make + angle (polarization angle) with the Y axis. A mobile station is located in the
direction of offset angle from the main beam direction of the diversity antenna as seen in figure above.

Some of the vertically polarized signals transmitted are converted to the horizontal polarizatied signal because of multipath
propagation. The signal arriving at the base station can be expressed as

x = r1 cos (t + 1)

y = r2 cos (t + 2)

where x and y are signal levels which are received when =0. it is assumed that r 1 and r2 have independent Rayleigh distributions, and
1 and 2 have independent uniform distributions.

The received signal values at elements V1 and V2 can be written as:

V1 = (a r1 cos 1 + r2 b cos 2) cos t - (a r1 sin 1 + r2 b sin 2) sin t

V2 = (- a r1 cos 1 + r2 b cos 2) cos t - (- a r1 sin 1 + r2 b sin 2) sin t

a=sin  cos  and b=cos 

The correlation coefficient  can be written as

 = ( (tan 2 () cos 2 () -  ) / (tan 2 () cos 2 () +  ) ) 2

where,

X=  R 2 2  /  R 1 2 

And

R 1 = ( r12 a2 + r22 b2 + 2 r1 r2 ab cos(1 + 2) ) (1/2)

R 2 = ( r12 a2 + r22 b2 - 2 r1 r2 ab cos(1 + 2) ) (1/2)
Here, X is the cross polarization discrimination of the propagation path between a mobile and a base station.

The correlation coefficient is determined by three factors: Polarization angle, Offset angle from the main beam direction of the
diversity antenna, and the cross polarization discrimination. The correlation coefficient generally becomes higher as offset angle offset
angle  becomes larger. Also,  generally becomes lower as polarization angle  increases. This is because the horizontal
polarization component becomes larger as  increases.

Because antenna elements V 1 and V2 are polarized at + to the vertical, the received signal is lower than that received by a vertically
polarized antenna. The average value of signal loss L, relative to that received signal using vertical polarization is given by

L= a2 / X + b 2

The results of practical experiments carried out using polarization diversity show that polarization diversity is viable diversity
reception technique, and is exploited within wireless handsets as well as at base stations.

Frequency diversity:

Frequency diversity is implemented by transmitting information on more than one carrier frequency. The rationale behind this
technique is that frequencies separated by more than the coherence bandwidth of the channel will be uncorrelated and will thus not

46
experience the same fades. Theoretically, if the channels are uncorrelated, the probability of simultaneous fading will be the product
of the individual fading probabilities.

Frequency diversity is often employed in microwave line-of-sight links which carry several channels in a frequency division multiplex
mode (FDM). Due to tropospheric propagation and resulting refraction, deep fading sometimes occurs. In practice, 1:N protection
switching is provided by a radio licensee, wherein one frequency is nominally idle but is available on a stand-by basis to provide
frequency diversity switching for any one of the N other carriers (frequencies) being used on the same link, each carrying independent
traffic. When diversity is needed, the appropriate traffic is simply switched to the backup frequency. This technique has the
disadvantages that it is not only requires spare bandwidth but also requires that there be as many receivers as there are channels used
for the frequency diversity. However, for critical traffic, the expense may be justified. New OFDM modulation and access techniques
exploit frequency diversity by providing simultaneous modulation signals with error control coding across a large bandwidth, so that
if a particular frequency undergoes a fade, the composite signal will still be demodulated.

Time diversity

Time diversity repeatedly transmits information at time spacings that exceed the coherence time of the channel, so that multiple
repetitions of the signal will be received with independent fading conditions, thereby providing for diversity. One modern
implementation of time diversity involves the use of the RAKE receiver for spread spectrum CDMA, where the multipath channels
provide a redundancy in the transmitted message. By demodulating several replicas of the transmitted CDMA signal, where each
replica experience a particular multipath delay, the RAKE receiver is able to align the replicas so that a better estimate of the original
signal may be formed at the receiver.

8. Differentiate between Frequency Modulation and Analog Modulation

Char Frequency Modulation Amplitude Modulation

Advantages

Amplitude of the modulated carrier signal
is kept constant while its frequency is
varied by the modulating message signal
All their information in the phase or
frequency
Provides the non-linear and rapid
improvement in the reception quality
Better Noise immunity
Less susceptible to atmospheric and
impulse noise
Not affected by the burst noise
SNR improves 6dB for each doubling of
bandwidth occupancy
Not susceptible to fading
Due to constant envelop the transmitted
power of this modulation is constant
Class C power amplifiers (eff: 70%)
Battery life high twice the talk time that
of AM
Very resistant to co-channel interference
Disadvantages
Signals superimpose the exact relative amplitudes
of the modulating signal onto the carrier
All their information in the amplitude of the
carrier
Provides the linear relationship between the
quality of the received signal and the power of the
received signal
Noise immunity not better
Susceptible to atmospheric and impulse noise and
produce the fluctuations in the amplitude
Affected by the burst noise
No such improvement
Susceptibility to Fading is improved by using
pilot tones.
Not that much power efficient
Class A or AB amplifiers (eff: 30 - 40% )
Battery life low due to less efficiency
All of the interferers are received at once and
must be discriminated after the demodulation
process.

Wider frequency band Lesser frequency band

Transmitter and Receiver design complex
Frequency Discriminator or slope detector
is used
Weak signal conditions it should be
operated above threshold level
Transmitter and Receiver design is simple
Envelop detector is enough to demodulate the
signal
Product detector can be used at weak signal
condition

9. Discuss in detail about the Rake receiver concepts

In CDMA spread spectrum systems, the chip rate is typically much greater than the flat-fading bandwidth of the channel. Whereas
conventional modulation techniques require an equalizer to undo the intersymbol interference between adjacent symbols, CDMA

47
spreading codes are designed to provide very low correlation between successive chips. Thus, propagation delay spread in the radio
channel merely provides multiple versions of the transmitted signal at the receiver.

If these multipath components are delayed in time by more than chip duration, they appear like uncorrelated noise at a CDMA
receiver, and equalization is not required. The spread spectrum processing gain makes uncorrelated noise negligible after dispreading.

However, since there is useful information in the multipath components, CDMA receivers may combine the time delayed versions of
the original signal transmission in order to improve the SNR at the receiver. A RAKE receiver does just this-it attempts to collect the
time-shifted versions of the original signal by providing a separate correlation receiver for each of the multipath signals.

Each correlation receiver may be adjusted in time delay, so that a microprocessor controller can cause different correlation can cause
different correlation receivers to search in different time windows for significant multipath. The range of time delays that a particular
correlator can search is called a search window.

The RAKE receiver is essentially a diversity receiver designed specifically for CDMA, where the diversity is provided by the fact that
the multipath components are practically uncorrelated from one another when their relative propagation delays exceed a chip period.

Z1
CORRELATOR 1
IF or α1
baseband
CDMA
signal Z2 T < m’(t)
multipath CORRELATOR 2
α2
Σ ∫(.)dt
>
0

Z αM
CORRELATOR M M

A RAKE receiver utilizes multiple correlators to separately detect the M strongest multipath components. The outputs of each
correlator are then weighted to provide a better estimate of the transmitted signal than is provided by a single component.
Demodulation and bit decisions are then based on the weighted outputs of the M correlators.
The basic idea of a RAKE receiver was first proposed by Price and Green. In outdoor environments, the delay between multipath
components is usually large and, if the chip rate is properly selected, the low autocorrelation properties of a CDMA spreading
sequence can assure that multipath components will appear nearly uncorrelated with each other. However, the RAKE receiver in IS-95
CDMA has been found to perform poorly in indoor environments, which is to be expected since the multipath delay spreads in indoor
channels (approximately 100 ns) are much smaller than an IS-95 chip duration (approximately 800 ns). In such cases, a RAKE will
not work since multipath is unresolvable, the Rayleigh flat-fading typically occurs within a single chip period.

To explore the performance of the RAKE receiver, assume M correlators are used in a CDMA receiver to capture the M strongest
multipath components. A weighting network is used to provide a linear combination of the correlator output for bit detection.
Correlator 1 is synchronized to the strongest multipath m1. Multipath component m2 arrives 1 later than component m1 . Where 2 - 1
is assumed to be greater than chip duration. The second correlator is synchronized to m 2. It correlates strongly with m2, but has low
correlation with m1. Note that if only a single correlator is used in the receiver, once the output of the single correlator is corrupted by
fading, the receiver cannot correct the value. Bit decision based on only a single correlation may produce large bit error . in a RAKE
receiver, if the output from one from is corrupted by fading, the others may not be, and the corrupted signal may be discounted
through the weighting process. Decisions based on the combination of the M, separate decision statistics offered by the RAKE provide
a form of the diversity which can overcome fading and thereby improves CDMA reception.
The M decision statistics are weighted to form an overall decision statistics as shown in figure. The outputs of the M correlators are
denoted as Z1, Z2, …………ZM. They are weighted by 1, 2, 3 ……….M respectively. The weighting coefficients are based on the
power or the SNR from each correlator output. If the power or SNR is small out of a particular correlator, it will be assigned a small
weighting factor just as in the case of a maximal ratio combining diversity scheme, the overall signal Z ’ is given by

The weighting coefficients,M are M normalized to the output signal power of the correlator in such a
way the coefficients sum to unity, Z’ = Σ αM ZM2
m=1
ZM
αM = ---------
M
48
Σ ZM2
m=1
As in the case of adaptive equalizer and diversity combining there are many ways to generate the weighting coefficients. However,
due to multiple access interference, RAKE fingers with strong multipath amplitudes will not necessarily provide strong output after
correlation. Choosing weighting coefficients based on the actual outputs of the correlators yields better RAKE performance.

10. Write in detail about Line coding

 Base-Band transmission
 Method used for converting a binary information sequence into a digital signal
 Various Codes
 Encoding Issues
 DC component or not
 Power
 Frequency spectrum
 Timing recovery

49
There are many reasons for using line coding. Each of the line codes you will be examining offers one or more of the following
advantages:
Spectrum shaping and relocation without modulation or filtering. This is important in telephone line applications, for
example, where the transfer characteristic has heavy attenuation below 300 Hz.
Bit clock recovery can be simplified.
DC component can be eliminated; this allows AC (capacitor or transformer) coupling between stages (as in telephone
lines). Can control baseline wander (baseline wander shifts the position of the signal waveform relative to the detector threshold and
leads to severe erosion of noise margin).
Error detection capabilities.
Bandwidth usage; the possibility of transmitting at a higher rate than other schemes over the same bandwidth.

At the very least the LINE-CODE ENCODER serves as an interface between the TTL level signals of the transmitter and those of the
analog channel. Likewise, the LINE-CODE DECODER serves as an interface between the analog signals of the channel and the TTL
level signals required by the digital receiver.

Terminology

The
word mark, and its
converse space,
often appear in a
description of a
binary
waveform. This is
an historical

50
reference to the mark and space of the telegraphist. In modern day digital terminology these have become HI and LO, or ‘1’ and ‘0’,
as appropriate.
Unipolar signaling: where a ‘1’ is represented with a finite voltage V volts, and a ‘0’ with zero voltage. This seems to be a
generally agreed-to definition.
Those who treat polar and bipolar as identical define these as signaling where a ‘1’ is sent as +V, and ‘0’ as -V. They
append AMI when referring to three-level signals which use +V and -V alternately for a ‘1’, and zero for ‘0’ (an alternative name is
pseudo ternary). You will see the above usage in the TIMS Advanced Modules User Manual, as well as in this text. However, others
make a distinction. Thus:
Polar signaling: where a ‘1’ is represented with a finite voltage +V volts, and a ‘0’ with -V volts.
Bipolar signaling: where a ‘1’ is represented alternately by +V and -V, and a ‘0’ by zero voltage.
The term ‘RZ’ is an abbreviation of ‘return to zero’. This implies that the particular waveform will return to zero for a
finite part of each data ‘1’ (typically half the interval). The term ‘NRZ’ is an abbreviation for ‘non-return to zero’, and this waveform
will not return to zero during the bit interval representing a data ‘1’.
The use of ‘L’ and ‘M’ would seem to be somewhat illogical (or inconsistent) with each other. For example, see how your
text book justifies the use of the ‘L’ and the ‘M’ in NRZ-L and NRZ-M.
Two sinusoids are said to be antipodal if they are 1800 out of phase available line codes

For a TTL input signal the following output formats are available from the LINECODE ENCODER.

NRZ-L Non return to zero - level (bipolar): this is a simple scale and level shift of the input TTL waveform.
NRZ-M Non return to zero - mark (bipolar): there is a transition at the beginning of each ‘1’, and no change for a ‘0’. The
‘M’ refers to ‘inversion on mark’. This is a differential code. The decoder will give the correct output independently of the polarity of
the input.
UNI-RZ Uni-polar - return to zero (uni-polar): there is a half-width output pulse if the input is a ‘1’; no output if the input
is a ‘0’. This waveform has a significant DC component.
BIP-RZ Bipolar return to zero (3-level): there is a half-width +ve output pulse if the input is a ‘1’; or a half-width -ve
output pulse if the input is a ‘0’. There is a return-to-zero for the second half of each bit period.
RZ-AMI Return to zero - alternate mark inversion (3-level): there is a half-width output pulse if the input is a ‘1’; no
output if the input is a ‘0’. This would be the same as UNIRZ. But, in addition, there is a polarity inversion of every alternate output
pulse.
Bi-L Biphase - level (Manchester): bipolar ±V volts. For each input ‘1’ there is a transition from +V to -V in the middle
of the bit-period. For each input ‘0’ there is a transition from -V to +V in the middle of the bit period.
DICODE-NRZ Di-code non-return to zero (3-level): for each transition of the input there is an output pulse, of opposite
polarity from the preceding pulse. For no transition between input pulses there is no output. The codes offered by the line-code
encoder are illustrated in Figure 2 below. These have been copied from the Advanced Module Users Manual, where more detail is
provided.

11. Write in detail about Linear Predictive

Coders

51
LPC Vocoders:

Linear Predictive Coders (LPCs) belong to the time domain class of vocoders. This class of vocoders attempts to extract the
significant features if from the time waveform. Though LPC coders are computationally intensive, they are by far the most popular
among the class of low bit rate vocoders. With LPC, it is possible to transmit good quality voice at 4.8 kbps and poorer quality voice
at even lower rates.

The linear predictive coding system models the vocal tract as an all pole linear filter with a transfer function described by

G
M
H (z) = 1 
 bk z  k
k 1
Where
G → filter gain
z-1 → unit delay operation.

The excitation to this filter is either a pulse at the pitch frequency or random white noise depending on whether the speech segmented
is voiced or unvoiced. The coefficients of the all pole filter are obtained in the time domain using linear prediction techniques. The
prediction principles used are similar to those in ADPCM coders. The LPC system transmits only selected characteristics of the error
signal. The parameters include the gain factor, pitch information, and the voiced/unvoiced decision information, which allow
approximation of the correct error signal.

At the receiver, the received information about the error signal is used to determine the appropriate excitation for the synthesis filter.
That is, the error signal is the excitation to the decoder. The synthesis filter is designed at the receiver using the received predictor
coefficients. In practice, many LPC coders transmit the filter coefficients which already represent the error signal and can be directly
synthesized by the receiver.

Determination o f Predictor Coefficients –

the linear predictive coder uses a weighted sum of P past samples to estimate the present sample, where P is typically in the range of
10-15. Using this technique, the current sample Sn can be written as a linear sum of the immediately preceding samples Sn-k

P
 akS n - k  en
Sn = k 1
Where
en → prediction error (residual).

The predictor coefficients are calculated to minimize the average energy E in the error signal that represents the difference between
the predicted and actual speech amplitude

N 2
N  p 
E=  en2 = n 


 aksn  k 
n1 1 k  0 
Where
a0 = -1

Typically, the error is computed for a time window of 10ms, which corresponds to a value o f N = 80. To minimize E with respect to
am, it is required to set the partial derivatives equal to zero

E N P
  2 sn  m  aksn  k  0
am n1 k 0

P N
=   sn  msn  k ak 0
k  0n  1

The linear summation can be recognized as the correlation coefficient Crm and hence the above equation can be rewritten as

52
 P
 Cmk ak  0 ……………….[A]
k 0

After determining the correlation coefficients Crm. The above equation [A] can be used to determine the predictor coefficients.
Equation [a] is often expressed in matrix notation and the predictor coefficients calculated using matrix inversion. A number of
algorithms have been developed to speed up the calculation of predictor coefficients.

Normally, the predictor coefficients are not coded directly, as they would require 8 bits per coefficient for accurate representation. The
accuracy requirements are lessened by transmitting the reflection coefficients, which have a smaller dynamic range. These reflection
coefficients can be adequately represented by 6 bits per coefficient. Thus, for a 10 th order predictor, the total number of bits assigned
to the model parameters

12. Discuss briefly about tapped delay line equalizer or zero forcing filter :
A device well suited for the design of linear equalizer is tapped delay line filter. For
symmetry the total number of taps is chosen to be 2N+1 with the weights denoted by
W-N……W-1, Wo, W1…..WN. The impulse response of tapped delay line equalizer is
N
h(t) = ∑ Wk δ(t-kT)
k=-N
Where δ(t-kT) is the delta function and t is equal to symbol duration.

Suppose that the tapped delay line equalizer is connected in cascade with linear system whose impulse response is C(t). Let p(t)
denote the impulse response of the equalized system then p(t) is equal to the convolution of C(t) and h(t).
Therefore p(t) = C(t) Θ h(t).

Tapped delay line filter:-

P(t) = C(t) Θ h(t).

N
= C(t) Θ ∑ Wk δ(t-kT)
k=-N
Interchanging the order of summation and convolution.

N
P(t) = ∑ Wk C(t) Θ δ(t-kT)
k=-N

N
P(t) = ∑ Wk C(t-kT) [ shifting property of delta function]
k=-N
Equating the above equation at the sampling time t=nT we get the discrete convolution sum.

N
P(nT) = ∑ Wk C(nT-kT)
k=-N
N
P(nT) = ∑ Wk C(n-k)T
k=-N
To eliminate ISI completely the above equation p(nT) must satisfy the nyquist criterion for distortionless transmission.
i. e. P(nT) = 1, n=0
0, elsewhere

But here there are only 2N+1 adjustable coefficients,

.
P(nT) = 1, n=0
0, n=±1 , ±2……….±N
To simplify the above expression, we let the nth sample of impulse response.
C(nT) = Cn

C((n-k)T) = Cn-k

53
 N
∑ Wk Cn-k = 1, n=0
k=-N 0, n=±1, ±2,……….. ±N

Tapped delay line filter is also referred to as zero forcing equalizer.

Advantages:-

1. Minimizes the peak distortion.

2. It is simple to implement.
In theory the longer we make the equalizer, more closely will the equalized system approach the ideal condition.

13. Discuss briefly about adaptive equalization :

Adaptive Equalization ;-
The process of equalization is said to be adaptive when the equalizer adjusts itself continuously and automatically by operating on the
i/p signal.
Adaptive filter based on tapped delay line filter:-
Consider a tapped delay line equalizer when tap weights are adjustable. The i/p sequence {x(nT)} applied to this equalizer is produced
by the transmission of binary sequence through an unknown channel both dispersive and noisy.
It is assumed that some form of pulse shaping is included in the design of the transmission system. The requirement is to
correct the combined effects of residual distortion and noise in the system through the use of an adaptive equalizer. At time t=nT let
xn = x(nT) and yn = y(nT)
Where
N
yn = ∑ Wk xn-k
k=-N
Where Wk is weight at the kth tap and (2N+1) is the total no. of taps.

The adaptation may be achieved by observing the error between the desired pulse shape (an) and the actual pulse shape (yn) at the
filtered o/p measured at the sampling instants and then using this error to estimate the direction in which the tap weights of the filtered
should be changed. So as to approach an optimum set of values.
For adaptation, we may peak to distortion criterion that minimizes the peak distortion but it is optimum only when the peak distortion
at its i/p is less than 100%.
Alternatively we may use mean square error criterion which is more general in adaptive equalizer application.
Let an = desired response
En = error signal
Yn = actual response i. e. en = an-yn-------------------------------1
Mean square error is defined by
ξ = E[ en²]
Where E is expectation operator.
The gradient of mean square error with respect to kth tap weight Wk may be expressed as

∂ξ / ∂Wk= ∂ (E[ en²]) / ∂Wk

= 2E[ en . ∂en/Wk]
= 2E[ en . ∂(an-yn)/ ∂Wk]
= -2E[en . ∂yn/∂Wk]
= -2E[en . xn-k]
The expectation on the RHS is equal to cross correlation between the error signal en and the i/p signal xn for a lag of k samples.
i.e. Rex(k) = E[en xn-k]
∂ ξ / Wk = -2 Rex(k)---------------------------------------2
The optimality condition for the minimum mean square error may be expressed as
∂ξ / ∂Wk = 0 for k=0,±1, ±2……±N
This request that Rex(k) = 0 for k=0, ±1, ±2,……… ±N
i.e for minimum mean square error ,the cross correlation between the o/p error sequence and the i/p sequence must be zero for all
2N=1 components. This result is called Principle of Orthogonality.
To acheive minimum mean square error we are using steepest descent algorithm described by Wk(n+1) = Wk(n) – ½ μ ∂
ξ/∂Wk----------------------3 for k=0, ±1, ±2, ……±N.
Where μ = step size parameter and the factor ½ has been introduced to cancel the factor 1 in the equation 2
Index ‘n’ is the iteration no.

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Sub 2 in 3
Wk(n+1) = Wk(n) + ½ µ(-2Rex(k))
The us of the steepest descent algorithm requires the knowledge of the cross correlation function Rex(k). However this knowledge is
not available when operating is an unknown environment. To overcome this we may use instantaneous estimate for Rex(k)
i.e R^ex(k) = enxn-k, k=0, ±1, ±2,……… ±N
Here Wk(n) W^kn
It is an approximation to the steepest descent algorithm.
Therefore W^k(n+1) = W^k(n) + µenxn-k, k=0, ±1, ±2,……… ±N
This algorithm is known as least mean square algorithm, viewing ‘n’ as a index for the previous iteration, W^k(n) is the old value of
the kth tap weight and µenxn-k is the correction applied to it to complete the updated value W^k(n+1).

Operation of the equalizer:-

There are 2 modes of operation namely training mode and decision directed mode.

1. Training mode:-
During training mode, a known sequence is transmitted and the synchronized version of this signal is generated in the receiver where
it is applied to the adaptive equalizer as a desired response. The tap weights of the equalizer are thereby adjusted in accordance with
the LMS algorithm. A training sequence commonly used is pseudo noise sequence which consists of a deterministic sequence with
noise like characteristics.
2. Decision directed mode:-
When the training mode process is completed, the equalizer is switched to its 2nd mode of operation in decision directed mode. Here
the error signal is defined by
en = an^ – yn
Where yn is equalizer4 o/p at time t=nT,
an^ is final current estimate of the transmitted signal an.

In normal operation, the decisions made by the receiver are current with high probability. It is also able to track relatively slow
variations in channel characteristics. Larger step size parameter µ results in excess mean square error. Therefore suitable value for the
step size parameter is required.

14. Discuss the decision feedback equalizer.

Consider a base band channel with impulse response denoted by {hn} where
hn = h(nT)
The response of this channel to an i/p sequence {xn} in the absence of noise is
yn = ∑hkxn-k
k

yn = hoxn +∑ hkxn-k + ∑ hkxn-k

k<0 k>0

Decision feed back equalizer:-

The idea of decision feedback equalization is to use data decisions made on the basis of precursors of the channel impulse response to
care of the post cursors. A decision f/b equalizer consists of a feed forward section, a f/b section and decision device connected
together. The feed forward section consists of tap delay line filter, whose tap weights are spaced at symbol duration. The data
sequence is equalized is applied to this session.
The feedback section consists of another tapped delay line filter whose tap weights are spaced at symbol duration. The i/p to the f/b
section is the decisions made previously detected symbols.
The function of the f/b section is to subtract out that portion of the ISI produced by previously detected symbols from the estimates of
further samples. LMS algorithm can be used to jointly adapt both feed forward tap weights and f/b tap weights using a common error
signal. Let the argument vector Cn denotes the combinations of feed forward and f/b tap weights.

i.e Cn = Wn^(1)
Wn^(2)

Where Wn^(1) is tap weights of the feed forward section and Wn^(2) is tap weights of the f/b section. Let argument Vn denotes the
combination of the i/p samples for both sections.

Vn = Xn

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 an^

Where Xn is the vector of the tap i/ps in the forward session and an^ is vector of tap i/ps in the f/b section. The common error signal
is en = an - CnT Vn
The LMS algorithm for the decision f/b is described by
Wn+1^(1) = Wn^(1) + µ1enxn
Wn+1^(2) = Wn^(2) + µ2enan^
Where µ1, µ2 are step size parameters for feed forward and f/b sections respectively.

Advantage:-
A decision f/b equalizer yields good performance in the presence of moderate to severe ISI as experienced in a fading ratio channel.

15. Discuss about the general channel coding techniques?

Channel coding:
Protects digital data from errors
Error detection codes – only to detect errors
Error correction codes – to detect errors and correct errors
Shannon capacity formula
C= B log 2 (1 + (P/N 0 B)) = B log 2 (1 + S/N)
Where C is the channel capacity in bps
B is the transmission bandwidth in Hz
P is the received signal power in W
N 0 is the single-sided noise power density (W/Hz)
Received Power P = EbRb
Where Eb is the average bit energy
Rb is the transmission bit rate
C/ B= log 2 (1 + (EbRb /N 0 B))
Where, C/ B denote the bandwidth efficiency.
Purpose:
Error detection
Error correction
Improve wireless link performance
Increases the raw data used in the link
Reduces the bandwidth efficiency
Excellent BER performance at low SNR values
Basic types of error correction and detection codes:
Block codes
Convolutional codes
Turbo codes
Block codes:
Forward error correction
Enables a limited no. of errors to be detected & corrected without retransmission
Used to improve the performance of the communication systems.
Parity bits are added with blocks of message and forms code block or codeword
k information bits are encoded with n code bits and n-k redundant bits are used to detect and correct errors.
Rate of code is R c = k/n
Hamming distance dmin= Min { d(Ci,Cj)}
Weight of code w(Ci) = Ci,1 + Ci,2 +Ci,3 +……………………+ Ci,N
Properties are : Linear, systematic & cyclic
Example
Hamming codes
Hadamard codes
Golay codes
Cyclic codes
BCH codes
Reed-Solomon codes

Bose Chaudhuri Hocquenghem (BCH) codes

One of the most important and powerful classes of linear block codes are BCH codes, which are cyclic codes with a wide variety of
parameters. The most common binary BCH codes, known as primitive BCH codes, are characterized for any positive integer’s m
(equal to or greater than 3) and t [less than ( 2 m  1 )/2] by the following parameters:

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Block Length n = ( 2 m  1 )
No. of message bits k ≥n-mt
Minimum distance dmin ≥2t+1

Each BCH code is a ‘t’ error correcting code in that it can detect and correct upto ‘t’ random errors per code word. The Hamming
single error correcting codes can be described as BCH codes. The BCH codes offer flexibility in the choice of code Parameters,
namely, block length and code rate. Further more, for block lengths of a few hundred bits or less, the BCH codes are among the best
known codes of the same block length and code rate.

Hamming Codes:-
Hamming Codes are defined as the (n,k) linear block codes. These codes satisfy the following conditions,
No. of Check bits q≥3
Block Length n = 2 q  1
No. of message bits k = n-q
Minimum distance dmin = 3
Code rate ,r = k/n
r = 1-(q/ 2 q  1 )

Error Detection and Correction Capabilities of Hamming Codes:-

Because the minimum distance (dmin) of Hamming code is 3, it can be used to detect double errors or correct single errors.
For detecting errors,
dmin≥s+1
For Hamming codes, we can detect upto 2 errors
For correcting errors,
dmin≥2t+1
For Hamming codes, we correct upto single error.
The Parity bits and no. of bits in the code word can be related by
n = 2r  1
k = 2r  r 1
and r ≥ 3
For r = 3, we have (7,4) code
For r = 4, we have (15,11) code.
The parity check matrix has ‘r’ rows and ‘n’ columns.
No Column consists of all zeros.
Each column is unique and has r elements of 1’s and 0’s.
Cyclic codes form a subclass of linear block codes. They are important for 2 reasons.
Encoding and syndrome calculators can be easily implemented by using simple shift registers with feedback.
The mathematical structure of these codes is such that it is possible to design codes having useful error correcting
properties.
Cyclic code Generation theorem:-
If g(x) is polynomial of degree (n-k) and it is factor of x n  1 , then g(x) generates (n-k) cyclic code in which the code polynomial
V(x) for a data vector D = (d0,d1……..dk-1) is generated by
V(x) = D(x)g(x)
Convolution Codes
The Convolutional codes the message bit stream is encoded in a Convolutional fashion. Convolutional codes are easily generated with
help of Shift registers. Storage devices such as flip-flops connected in cascade form a shift register. Each flip-flop is capable of storing
1 bit. A 4 – bit Shift register is shown in figure M1, M2, M3, M4 are Memory devices. A stream of binary data is applied to M1 in
MSB first fashion. S1, S2, S3, S4 are o/ps taken from M1, M2, M3, M4 respectively.M1 stores the recent bit of i/p data stream and
indicates its states on the o/p line S1.
Therefore S1 = M1. After one bit interval, bit in M1 to M2. Thus S2 of M2 is same as S1. i.e. The i/p bit stream with one bit interval
delay.
Initially the shift register is cleared. A 5 bit i/p is applied (11001). MSB enters the content of each memory device are shifted into the
next device. At 9th bit interval, the register returns to its clear state after allowing the i/p data stream to pass through it.
Encoder of Convolutional codes:-
In this case k = no. of shift registers = 3
V = no. of modulo-2 adders
 = i/p data stream = 4
The o/ps V1 and V2 and V3 of the adders are
V1 = S1 Ө S2
V2 = S2 ӨS3

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V3 = S1 Ө S3
It is assumed that initially the shift register is clear. The operation of the encoder is explained for the i/p data stream of a 4- bit
sequence.
m = 1101
This is entered in the shift register from MSB. Thus at 1st bit interval S1 = 1, S2 = 0, S3 = 0 and V1 = 1 Ө 0 = 1
V2 = 0 Ө 0 = 0
V3 = 0 Ө 1 = 1
Hence the o/p at 1st bit interval is 101. Similarly at 2nd bit interval S1 = 1; S2=1; S3=0
Thus V1 = 0; V2=1; V3=1
Hence the o/p at 2nd bit interval is 011. In the same manner o/p as other bit intervals can be found out. Since  = 4 and k = 3. The
register resets at 7th (  +k) bit interval.
The o/p at each bit interval consist sof V bits = 3. Thus for each message, there are V(  +k) = 3*7 = 21 in the o/p code words.

Table gives the codes o/p bit stream for all i/p data stream for the encoder explained above. The MSB column of i/p data stream is
such that it is divided into 2 subsets (8 zeros and 8 ones). Resulting in 2 subsets of the first code block of 3 bits in the code do/p bit
stream. (Eight 000 and eight 101)

Each of these 2 success of the MSB column is further divided into 2 subsets of 2 nd code block of 3 bits in the coded o/p bit stream
(four 000,four101,four110 and four 011)

In the same way each subset is further divided into 2 subsets till there is only one code block of 3 bits in each subset. Thus it is
possible to construct code stream if the i/p data stream is entered from MSB in the Convolutional code encoder.

On the other hand it is not possible to construct such code stream if the i/p data stream is entered from the LSB. Hence in the
Convolutional encoder, the i/p data stream is entered from MSB and not from the LSB.

Table:-
I/p data streamCoded O/p bit stream
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
Decoding a convolutional code:-
Code Tree:-
The Code tree is derived from the table. The starting Point on the code tree is at the extreme left and corresponds to the situation
before the arrival of the first message bit. The first message bit may be either 0 or 1, when an i/p bit is ‘0’.The Upward path is taken
and when it is ‘1’ the downward path is taken. The same rule is followed at each junction or node. For example, the code for 1101 can
be found by reading the bits encountered from the entrance to exit of the tree along the dashed path. Thus the desired code
101,011,101,110,110,011,000. Any path trough the tree passes through only or many nodes as there are bits in the i/p message. The
node corresponds to the point where alternate paths are possible depending on the next message bit being one or zero.
Decoding in the absence of noise:-
Exhaustive search method:-
In the absence of noise, the code word will be received as transmitted. Hence it is easy to reconstruct the original message.
But due to noise, the word i.e received is one not transmitted.
Decoding in the presence of noise is done in the following manner. (The procedure is explained for k = 3, l = 4, and V = 3).
The first message bit has an effect on the first kV = 9 bits from code tree. It is clear that there are 8 possible combinations
of the first nine digits which are acceptable code words. All these combinations are compared with the first 9 bits of the received code
word and the path corresponding to the combination giving a maximumdicrepancy is acceptable as correct path.

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 If the path goes upwards at first node A, then the first message bit is taken as zero or else ‘1’ if the path is downward. Thus
it is concluded that the first message bit is one.
Now we are at node B. The 2nd message bit will have an effect on the next 9 bits for which again there are 8 possible ways.
Using the same procedure direction of the path at node B and hence the 2 nd message bit is decided. In the same way all message bits
are decoded and the received word is decoded. The probability of error decreasing with k. Hence k should be making as large as
possible. But on the other hand the decoding of each bit requires an examination of 2 k branch sections. Hence with a large k, the
decoding procedure becomes lengthy. Another method that overcomes this difficulty is sequential decoding.

It can be done by the following methods:

Viterbi algorithm
Fano’s sequential decoding
Stack algorithm
Feedback decoding
Trellis coded modulation :
Combines both coding and modulation without compromising bandwidth efficiency
Finite stare encoder generate the coded signal sequence
Signal set expansion used for redundancy for coding & to design coding & signal mapping functions
Receiver decodes the signal by soft decision maximum likelihood sequence decoder
Coding gain of greater than 6 dB can be achieved.
Turbo Codes:
Used in 3G wireless standards
Combination of Convolutional codes and channel estimation theory
Satisfies the Shannon capacity limits
Level of performance determined by the instantaneous SNR of the link

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