Accepted Manuscript

Architecture of lacustrine mass-transport complexes in the Mesozoic Songliao Basin,

China

Chenchen Zhang, Wei Wei, Shun Zhang, Chaodong Wu, Xiuli Fu, Kunning Cui

PII: S0264-8172(16)30227-6
DOI: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2016.07.001
Reference: JMPG 2608

To appear in: Marine and Petroleum Geology

Received Date: 7 May 2014

Revised Date: 1 June 2016
Accepted Date: 1 July 2016

Please cite this article as: Zhang, C., Wei, W., Zhang, S., Wu, C., Fu, X., Cui, K., Architecture of
lacustrine mass-transport complexes in the Mesozoic Songliao Basin, China, Marine and Petroleum
Geology (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2016.07.001.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Architecture of lacustrine mass-transport complexes in the Mesozoic Songliao Basin, China

Chenchen Zhanga, c,*, Wei Weia, c, Shun Zhangb, Chaodong Wua, c, Xiuli Fub, Kunning Cuib

a
School of Earth and Space Science, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
b
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina Daqing Oil Field Company, Daqing

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163712, China
c
Institute of Oil and Gas, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China

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Foundation item: Subsidized by the research project of national priority (number 2006CB701404 2009CB219308)

Chenchen Zhang (1989), female, doctor, major in Petroleum Geology.

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Corresponding author: Room 3612, YiFu Building-2, Peking University, No.5 Yiheyuan Road Haidian District,

Beijing 100871, China. Tel.: +86 15810926608

E-mail address: zhangchenchen3@pku.edu.cn (C.C. Zhang)

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Abstract

3-D seismic data and wireline log profiles of the Central Depression in the Songliao Basin exhibit four lacustrine
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mass-transport complexes (MTCs) in the second and the third members of the Upper Cretaceous Nenjiang Formation.
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The mass-transport complex named MTC-A lies in the north of the Daqing Anticline with an area of approximately

95 km2 and a maximum thickness of 62 m. It consists of five laterally and vertically stacked blocks striking E-W and
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has a convex-downslope front. The mass-transport complex named MTC-C is located in the south of the Daqing

Anticline consisting of seven blocks. This MTC strikes NNE-SSW and has an area of approximately 61.5 km2 and a
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maximum thickness of 55 m. MTC-B, the mass-transport complex lying in the middle of the Daqing Anticline,
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consists of three vertically stacked blocks and has a semi-circular outline striking E-W. MTC-B has an area of
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approximately 24 km2 and a maximum thickness of 92 m. Along the Daqing Anticline from north to south, the three

MTCs distribute in lacustrine facies in the NNE direction. The mass-transport complex named MTC-D located in the

southeast of the Daqing Anticline has an area of approximately 150 km2 with a maximum thickness of 135 m striking

E-W, which is rich in mudstones. MTC-D is characterized by the three-layer architecture vertically consisting of a

dragged layer at the bottom, a slumped layer in the middle, and a stable layer at the top. Besides, in the plane view,

MTC-D can be divided into three parts according to the sliding distance and stacking pattern of the slip blocks: the

detaching area, the stacking area and the drifting area. The MTCs are characterized by thickening upslope and thin-out

downslope. Siltstones and very fine sandstones occur in 2 to 4 beds that are cumulatively 0.8 to 7 m thick in the upslope and
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central parts of the MTCs. The edges of the blocks are composed of mudstone. Seismic amplitude slices reveal arcuate or straight

ridges on the block surfaces with a spacing density of 4 to 10 per kilometer and a height ranging from 25 to 40 m. The arcuate

ridge paleo-morphology on the MTC surfaces suggests that blocks are slump bodies. The estimated minimum water depth at the

time of the MTC emplacement is 30 to 70 m, and the sliding distance is 2 to 10 km. From 3-D seismic amplitude slices, no

feeding channel connected to the mass-transport complexes is found. Besides, coupled with the continuous ridges on blocks and

the clear and flat lateral edges suggest that mass-transport complexes belong to the prodelta slump bodies. Thus, the triggering

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mechanism of the MTCs may be closely related to earthquakes caused by volcanic activities with the evidence of three cinerite

layers shown in the well cores.

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Key words: Songliao Basin, Nenjiang Formation, lacustrine facies, mass-transport complexes

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1. Introduction

During the past two decades, mass-transport complexes (MTCs) have been widely described and discussed by

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using seismic data, outcrops, wireline log, core data and numerical models (e.g., Artoni et al., 2010; Belen et al., 1995;
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Bouma and Charles, 2000; Evans et al., 2005; Haflidason et al., 2004; Moscardelli and Wood, 2006, 2008, 2012;

Posamentier and Walker, 2006; Shanmugam, 2000; Stephen et al., 2011; Takeshi et al., 1998; Ven, 2007;Weimer and
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Link, 1991; Wolfram et al. 2004; Wong et al. 2003). Only a few articles refer to MTCs developed in lacustrine
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environments (e.g., Feng et al., 2006, 2010b; Lei et al., 1999; Li et al., 1997; Liu et al., 1998; Liu et al., 2005; Peng et

al., 2000; Wu et al., 1988). The term “mass-transport complex” includes all types of gravity-induced or downslope
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deposits, with the exception of turbidites (e.g., Elliott, 2000; Gamberi et al., 2011; Gao et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2006;

Olafiranye et al., 2013; Shanmuganm, 1997; Sun et al., 2002; Zang et al., 2002). In this research, slip blocks are
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considered to be portions of MTCs which can co-occur in the same event or depositional unit (e.g., Moscardelli et al.,
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2006, 2008).
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This article describes four sets of lacustrine mass-transport complexes from the second and the third members of

the Upper Cretaceous Nenjiang Fm. in the Central Depression of the Songliao Basin in northeastern China. These

MTCs were formed during the progradation, and the blocks were from slumps originating on the prodelta.

Mass-transport complexes developed when the second and the third member of Nengjiang Fm. deposited. During that

period, the lake shrank, and the sediment source from the eastern Songliao Basin formed the progradation delta with

the slump occurred in its front. The slump bodies we find in lacustrine facie through 3-D seismic data and wireline

log data are covered with mudstones. These types of the mass-transport complexes were studied via 2400 km2 of 3-D

seismic amplitude slices and wireline logs from 230 wells in the Central Depression. Those data were obtained by the
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program cooperating with Daqing Oil Field. Few mass-transport complexes like these kinds have been found in

lacustrine facies, especially in large-scale continental sag basin. The study of MTCs may enhance our understanding

of gravity flows or the mass movement of blocks and the tectonic history of the basin. These MTCs may also

represent a new exploration target in deep-water lacustrine basins.

2. Geological setting

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The Mesozoic and Cenozoic Songliao Basin in northeastern China with an area of approximately 26ⅹ104 km2 is

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categorized as a large-scale continental sag basin (e.g., Feng et al., 2006, 2010a; Zhang et al., 2011a, 2011b;

Zhang et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2015). The basement consists of Palaeozoic and older igneous, volcanic and

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metamorphic rocks. The basin is divided into six first-order tectonic units and thirty-one second-order tectonic units

(e.g., Feng et al., 2006, 2010a; Zhang et al., 2011a, 2011b; Zhang et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2015). Daqing

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Anticline as a second-order tectonic unit is located in the Central Depression of the Songliao Basin, striking NNE.
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The area of Daqing Anticline is 26×104 km2 with the length is 150 km and the width ranges from 10 to 30 km,

covering more than 50% proven oil and gas of the Songliao Basin (e.g., Feng et al., 2006, 2010a; Zhang et al.,
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2011a, 2011b; Zhang et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2015). The Songliao Basin went through three tectonic stages of
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rift, sag and structural inversion (e.g., Feng et al., 2006, 2010a; Zhang et al., 2011a, 2011b; Zhang et al., 2013;
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Zhang et al., 2015). During the rift stage, Huoshiling Fm., Shahezi Fm., Yingcheng Fm., and Denglouku Fm.

deposited. Then, Quantou Fm. and Qingshankou Fm. developed during the sag stage. Particularly, the first flooding
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period of the Songliao Basin occurred when Qingshankou Fm. deposied forming high-quality basin-scale source

rocks with the thickness of more than 100m. Then, the Songliao Basin uplifted leading to a discontinuity surface
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(SB11) which marked the beginning of inversion stage, and during this period, the Nenjiang Fm. deposited. The
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sequence of the inversion stage consists of Yaojia Fm., Nenjiang Fm., Sifangtai Fm., Mingshui Fm., Tertiary and

Quaternary. During the Nenjiang Fm. deposition, the Songliao Basin underwent another flooding period the Yaojia

Fm. was at the beginning of the sag stage in the second-order tectonic cycle (e.g., Feng et al., 2006, 2010a; Zhang

et al., 2011a, 2011b; Zhang et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2015) (Fig. 2). At the beginning of the first member of the

Nenjiang Fm., the lake expansion phase occupied an area of approximately 20ⅹ104 km2 (e.g., Feng et al., 2006,

2010a; Zhang et al., 2011a, 2011b; Zhang et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2015). 10 m thick oil shale were deposited

extensively across the lake floor during the retrogradation (Fig. 2). A large number of turbidite channels are observed
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in the first member of Nenjiang Fm. Uplift of the eastern part in the basin began from the second member of

Nenjiang Fm. and continued through the third member of the Nenjiang Fm. (Hou et al., 2009). The uplift caused

large-scale westward progradation of delta systems that were sourced by the uplifted eastern basin margin.

Mass-transport complexes developed when the second and the third member of Nengjiang Fm. deposited. During that

period, the lake shrank, and the westbound sediment source from the eastern Songliao Basin formed the progradation

delta with the slump occurred in its front. In the lacustrine facie, slump bodies we found through 3-D seismic

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volumes and wireline log data were covered with mudstones (Fig. 2,3,4,5,6). At the end of Nengjiang Fm. deposition,

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syndepositional tectonics led to multiple surfaces of sub-discontinuity, and the Daqing Anticline which finalized

when Sifangtai Fm. deposited began to develop in the Central Depression (e.g., Feng et al., 2006, 2010a; Zhang et

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al., 2011a, 2011b; Zhang et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2015).

3. Data and methods

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The 3-D seismic data of the four MTCs were supplied by the Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and

Development of Daqing Oil Field Company. The seismic data were acquired in 2007 and 2008 with a bin size of 20
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m × 20 m, which covered a total area of 2400 km2. The data sets are characterized by vertical sampling rate of 1 ms
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and a predominant frequency of approximating 25 Hz. To get better seismic data quality and higher frequency

contents, we processed the seismic data with seismic trace migration, stack and deconvolution, and the predominant
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frequency increased to 35 Hz. The seismic interpretation of strata slices generation and stereoscopic sculpture were

accomplished by the VisualVoxAt software. Strata slices referred to interpretive seismic data processing that
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resamples seismic traces by applying linear interpolation functions between geologic time-equivalent seismic events.
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The strata slices are closely follow geologic time surfaces which suggests that 3-D seismic interpretation permits a
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realistic representation of paleomorphologies (e.g., Zeng et al., 2001). The procedure for generating a strata slice

volume from 3-D seismic volumes involves three steps: first, selecting the geologic time-parallel reference seismic

events; second, building a strata time model; and third, building a strata-slice volume (e.g., Zeng et al., 2001).

Extracting the amplitudes from the original 3-D seismic cube at each strata level in the strata time model leads to an

amplitude strata-slice volume. The strata slice improves the quality of horizontal analysis mainly by making slices

linearly between two geologic time-equivalent seismic reference events; the strata slice can provide a more effective

assistance for interpreters to get more information to gain an insight into the stratigraphic and depositional history,

tracing lithological variations and configuration of depositional unit in plane. The strata slice is becoming a widely
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used tool for seismic sedimentology and reservoir prediction. The dataset that we used to build the geological model

of the MTCs was calibrated using well-seismic ties.

4. Architecture of lacustrine mass-transport complexes

The mass-transport complex called MTC-A lies in the north of the Daqing Anticline (Fig. 1), and is composed of

five slide blocks (labeled I-V) that are laterally and vertically stacked. The largest block I lies at the bottom of the

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MTC-A which was an early MTC. The serration reflection of the block I on the section shows the characteristic of

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ribbon pattern with high and low amplitude in plane revealing a process of extrusion, meanwhile, the flat edge in

plane can also explain a fixed channel and the following fans stacked on the top of the block I along the same channel.

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The block I turned to be thin due to the overburden pressure. In the seismic profile, the clear imbricate arrangement

can be recognized in blocks II-V (Fig. 3c). Nine wells penetrated this MTC, but the block was not cored. The MTC-A

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scale extends slightly beyond the 3-D seismic survey. The MTC-A has a convex-downslope arcuate front, linear
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upslope back and trends E-W. The area of MTC-A is approximately 95 km2. Seismic images from the seismic

amplitude strata slice reveal arcuate ridges on the surfaces of some blocks which could be used to recognize distal
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and lateral edges of the mass-transport complex. These ridges are irregular in the upslope part of the MTC; however,

they become more organized, regular and uniform downslope. The ridge spacing density is 4 to 6 per kilometer, and
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the ridge height is 25m to 40 m. The surface of the MTC is not channelized, and no channel is imaged upslope of the
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blocks. Thus, the blocks were not formed directly by sediments transported through channels, and they were detached

from their original sediment source. The lithology was estimated from wireline geophysical logs and logging core
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analysis. The MTC-A samples are mud rich and have an average sand% of 3.3%. The basinward facies change from

coarsest sediments (siltstone and very fine sandstone) to fine sandstones along the MTC edges. Sandstones have
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blocky-shape natural potential curve (SP) and resistivity curves (R2.5). However, sandstones have higher resistivity
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values than the lacustrine mudstones above and below the MTC (Fig. 3b). Block IV (30 m thick) and block II contain

2-m-thick sandstones layers in their upper and upslope parts. Block III contains two thin sandstones layers in both its

upper and upslope part and near its toe. Blocks I and V apparently lack sandstones. MTC-A is characterized by

thickening upslope and thin-out downslope, the maximum and minimum thickness are 62 m and 23 m respectively,

and its average thickness is 31.6 m. Blocks I and V are thicker upslope. Blocks III, II and IV are thickest in the

central parts and pinching-out both upslope and downslope. The maximum thickness of the MTC-A sandstone is 5.5

m, and the average thickness of the five blocks is 1.6 m (Table 1).

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The mass-transport complex named MTC-B is located in the middle of the Daqing Anticline composed of three

vertically stacked blocks (Fig. 1). In seismic amplitude slices, only parallel discontinuous reflections display which

makes it difficult to identify the architecture of the MTC. However, the SP curves and the deep lateral log curves

(LLD) of GU203 well are characterized by three small amplitude range and thin cycles that help identify the MTC

(Fig. 4). MTC-B strikes E-W and has a semi-circular plan outline with an area of approximately 24 km2, thickness

range from 10 m to 92 m with an average thickness of 49 m (Table. 1). MTC-B is also characterized by thicken

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upslope and thin-out downslope. Eight wells penetrated this MTC, but the blocks were not cored. The MTC has high

mud content with an average sand% of 3.8%. The sandstones are characterized by peak-shape SP curves and LLD

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curves, and have higher resistivity values than the lacustrine mudstones above and below the MTC. The maximum

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thickness of sandstones is 6 m, and the average thickness is 1.8 m (Table 1). Arcuate ridges on the MTC surface are

displayed in the seismic amplitude slice. The ridge spacing density is 7 to 10 per kilometer, and the ridge height is

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25m to 40 m. The N-S oriented ridges are continuous, parallel and regular along the upslope edge. The ridges along
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the downslope edge are irregular and arcuate, and they are divergent along the distal edge. The surface of the MTC is

not channelized, and channels were not imaged upslope of the blocks. Besides, the clear and flat lateral boundaries
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suggest that the blocks were detached from their original sediment source. In the connected wells profile,

time-equivalent sandstones occur in the upslope of the blocks, but the seismic images indicate that these are
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disconnected from the blocks.

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The mass-transport complex called MTC-C lies in the south of the Daqing Anticline (Fig. 1) is composed of

seven blocks (labeled C1-C7) aligned approximately north to northeast that are mostly separated from each other.
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The area of MTC-B is approximately 61.5 km2. Its maximum thickness is 55 m with the average thickness of 39 m.

The areas of the blocks range from 5 km2 to 12 km2. C5 and C7 slid farther and separated from each other. The other
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five blocks were edge contact or partly overlapping (Fig. 5). Seven wells penetrated this MTC, but conventional cores
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were not obtained. However, sidewall cores were collected from the GU605 well. The effective porosity values of

cores measured by the laboratory analysis are around 10%. With the analysis of seven wells logging data, the average

thickness of the sandstone in MTC-C is 3.8m, and the maximum value is 7m. The sand% averages 9.7% (Table 1).

The sandstones within the blocks have a maximum thickness of 7 m and an average thickness of 3.8 m. Effective

porosity of sandstones obtained from the sidewall cores is 10%. The average sand% is 10.8% (Table. 1). Like the

other MTCs, arcuate ridges are visible on the block surfaces. Ridge spacing density on these blocks is 4 to 6 per

kilometer. Ridges are not clearly identified by the seismic data on blocks C4 and C5. Ridges on blocks C1, C2 and

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C3 are arcuate, block C2 developed convex upslope and blocks C1, C3 and C7 developed convex downslope. Ridges

on blocks C1 are irregular, discontinuous, and block C6 shows fingerprint-shaped ridges. Besides, C6 and C4 have

low-and high-amplitude reflections geometrically arranged as though showing evidences of internal shear planes. The

changes of ridges shape indicate that the blocks rotated during the slippage. The rotation was formed in horizontal

direction due to the difference of the friction force at the bottom of the block during the sliding process. The

generation mechanism is different from existing pattern (Massimo Rossi, et al., 2015). Channels are not imaged either

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on the block surface or upslope of the blocks. Thus, the blocks were not deposited as splays at the end of channels,

and they are detached from their original sediment source. In connected wells profile, time-equivalent sands occur in

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wells upslope from the blocks, but the seismic images indicate that these are disconnected from the blocks.

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The largest mass-transport complex called MTC-D is located in the southeast of the Central Depression (Fig. 1).

And it is a monoclinal structure dipping nearly E-W. The area of MTC-D is approximately 150 km2, approximately

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120 km2 of which is distributed in 3-D seismic survey. The thickness of MTC-D was estimated from seismic data and
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wireline logs. Eight wells penetrated this MTC, according to SP curves, R2.5 curves, natural gamma-ray log curves

(GR), and double shallow lateral resistivity log curves (RS), the average thickness of MTC-D is 90 m, the maximum
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thickness(135 m) occurs in the central part of the MTC (Fig. 6e). Two funnel-shape peak appearing in R2.5 curves

and RS curves indicate two oil shale layers. The wells that penetrated the MTC were not cored. MTC-D is entirely
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consisting of mud. The three-layer vertical architecture could be identified via the seismic profile. The lower layer
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corresponds with high-amplitude reflection, however, seismic events become discontinuous regularly on the upslope

(Fig. 6d). In contrast, the middle layer is characterized by weak-amplitude and discontinuous reflection coupled with
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double seismic events. And the chaotic reflection occurs at the toe-of slope. The upper layer represents on the seismic

profile by high-amplitude and very continuous reflection. Fan-shaped and arcuate ridges ornament the MTC surfaces
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(Fig. 6a), the ridge spacing density is 4 per kilometer (Fig. 6b,c). Channels have not been identified either on the
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block surfaces or upslope of the blocks.

5. Genesis of the Architecture in MTCs

Arcuate, wavy divergent and irregular ridges are the only ornamentation on the block surfaces. The amplitude,

wavelength, continuity and parallelism of many of the ridges indicate that they are regular. Most continuous, parallel

ridge groups, even the arcuate ones, are approximately perpendicular to the maximum dip of the slope. It is most

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likely that the ridges are compressional ridges formed during the downslope mass-transport process, or they might be

imbricated blocks generated by shear planes.

In 3-D seismic amplitude slices, no feeding channel connected to the MTC bodies has been found, nor are any

channels contained inside any of the slumped bodies. Furthermore, the continuous ridges on the MTC bodies and the

clear and flat distal and lateral edges suggest that the MTC bodies belong to prodelta slump sediments (e.g.,

Galloway et al., 1998; Elliott 2000 Shanmugam et al., 1997; 2000). Ridges resulted from the squeeze deformation

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caused by the forward squeeze of the rear material when blocks slid. The ridges may be similar to the waves imaged

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in the seismic reflection profiles from the Gulf of Valencia, Mediterranean Sea and in the central and south of the

Okinawa trough (e.g., Francis, 1987; Rossi and Rogledi, 1988; Liu et al., 2005). The ridges may also be similar to

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those imaged by 3D seismic amplitude strata slices of the Porcupine Basin, offshore western Ireland (e.g., Ryan et al.,

2009), and Grand Banks (e.g., Shanmuganm, 1997). The blocks may be categorized as prodelta slumps, debris-flow

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blocks, or autochthonous slope aprons in the terminology of Galloway (1998) or simply as mass-transport deposits in
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the terminology of Shanmugam (2000).

The convex ridges at the toe of MTC-B distributed in fan-like. The small-scale gullies developed in the MTC-B
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may be caused by liquefaction at the front during the slippage (Fig. 4). By contrast, MTC-A and MTC-C slid as a

whole block-shaped body. The paleo-slope gradient was calculated via the formula tanθ= d1 /s (e.g., Zhao et al.,
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2001). In this formula,‘s’ stands for the horizontal distance from the mass-transport complex to the delta, and ‘d1’
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stands for the original thickness of the mass-transport complex. We flattened the bottom boundary of the second

member of Nenjiang Fm. (T07) in the seismic profile. On this basis we measured the vertical distance between the
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MTC and the delta. After the decompaction correction of the mudstones, we obtained the paleo-slope gradient value

via formula mentioned above. The paleo-water depth (d) was calculated via the formula that d=Φ1×d2 /Φ2 (e.g., Zhao
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et al., 2001). In the formula, Φ1 stands for the primary porosity which is 0.657 acquired by the fitting of the interval
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transit time. The porosity Φ2 is 0.093. And ‘d2’ means the current thickness of the mass-transport complex. The

results calculated via the formula are just relative values reflecting the minimum of the paleo-lope gradient and the

paleo-water depth. The minimum distance from the root of the mass-transport complex to the relative delta is also

considered as the minimum slip distance. Calculating results of MTCs have been summarized in Table 1.

The vertical stacking of the blocks and the straight lateral boundaries in MTC-A and MTC-B suggest that the

slump blocks originated from approximately the same positions in the prodelta and flowed down the same grooves.

The unusually straight upslope edge of MTC-B may reflect a marked gradient change in the depositional slope. The

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MTC-A is characterized by the imbricate beddings which might be caused by the steep paleo-slope that resulted in

the plastic slippage of mud sediments in the prodelta. The progradation of the delta caused blocks

superimposing forward on block successively. And then, blocks deposited in the slope-break zone (The inflection

point of gradient) due to the squeezing action of gravity which leaded to thick toes of these slump bodies. Seven

slump bodies of the MTC-C are in separated or mosaic contact with each other due to different distances or the

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rotation of slid bodies.

MTC-D has a typical three-layer and three-part spatial architecture (Fig. 6, Fig. 7). MTC-D has three layers: the

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dragged layer at the bottom part, the slumped layer in the middle part, and the stable layer at the top part. The

slumped layer is the main component element of MTC-D. The slumped layer is composed of three different types of

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sediments, namely drifted slide blocks, stacked slide blocks, and detached slide blocks, and the Songliao Basin

dataset shows some differences with respect to the Marr et al. analogic model (e.g. Marr et al., 2001). MTC-D has

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different divisions in the horizontal direction, drifting area, stacking area, and detaching area. The drifting area
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distributed in the front part, and slide blocks slid farthest due to a minimum slope of the clinoform similar to drifting

on the surface of the clinoform like MTC-C. Furthermore, the sediments surrounding MTC-D were liquefied and
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have the characteristics of MTC-B. The stacking area, formed by stacked slide blocks, lies in the slope-break zone;
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the drifting area is in the toe-of-stacking area, and the area behind it is the detaching area. However, the stacking area

is not as wide as the other two areas above. Because of the low gradient slope in the front part, slide blocks without
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more energy stopped sliding and then subsequent sediments were imbricated until they developed into stacked slide

blocks; thus, compressive ridges are generated. The ridges have the similar imbricated architecture to MTC-A. In the
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imbricated area, the sediments are obviously superimposed and have a larger thickness than the other two areas. The
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detaching area, formed by blocks slippage lying in the back part of MTC-D, where the blocks had a shorter sliding
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distance and formed an extensional stress; thus, the sediments were detached due to the large amount of space

between the sediments. In seismic profile, the reflection of the bottom topography is distinguished by poor lateral

continuity of the seismic facies. The partition of blocks and the difference in part-scale are controlled by the gradient

of the bottom topography, and by the slope of the clinoform. Generally speaking, the drifting area developed in the

gentle-slope zones, the stacking area developed in the slope-break zones, and the detaching area developed in the

steep-slope zones. During the slippage of blocks, the drag features developed in the dragged layer which was

characterized with tearing lines and small-scale deformation. Seismic profile indicates the presence of these poor

lateral continuous, arcuate and stair-step shape scours, and their distributions correspond to the space between the
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slide blocks above, which is different from the results of analogic model (e.g. Marr et al., 2001). The clinoform is flat

or wavy in the Marr et al. analogic model. The stable layer is above the slumped layer with the wavy shape (Fig. 6).

MTC-D is a complete mass-transport complex, and MTC-A, MTC-B, or MTC-C is part of the architecture. The

deposits can appear in an entire MTC, or they can be formed separately, and It depends on the instability of the

slumping blocks, including the scale, mass, lithology, bottom configuration, maximum slope gradient, maximum

sediment supply, slope-break zone distribution, slip distance and other factors.

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6. Discussion

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6.1 Triggering Mechanisms of MTCs

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The triggering mechanisms of the MTCs is considered as the gravitational sliding of mass due to great topographic

gradient variation, the triggers can be generally earthquake, storm, flood and so on. But for the four MTCs in this

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region, we have not verified the trigger so far. The researches above show that these four MTCs do not have direct
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contact with channel systems, each MTC has clear distal and lateral edges and ridges, which reveals that the MTCs

were not scoured and reshaped by water flow and unlikely to be triggered by storm or flood. Considering that
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catastrophic flood can increase instability of delta-front and prodelta, which may form bypass estuary and

hyperpycnal flow at the bottom of the lake. Thus, catastrophic flood cannot be ruled out completely as trigger
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mechanism. The MTCs are most likely formed under the effect of earthquake caused by volcanic activities, because
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there are three volcanic ash layers with 5cm to 15cm thick developed at the same stratigraphic level (the second

member of Nenjiang Fm.) where the MTCs located in. It illustrates three stages of volcanic activity and induced
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earthquakes. During the period of the second member of Nenjiang Fm., the sediment source of the basin was from

east and the delta prograded to west, but the Daqing Anticline had not uplifted. The delta front and prodelta formed
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on the west dipping slope, the lacustrine mud and delta sand sediment slumped triggered by earthquake and moved
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forward to the lake bottom along the slope. The slumped bodies with lower sandstone content stacked on the

slope-break area, while the slumped bodies with higher sandstone content slid to relatively flat lower position and

formed separated arrangement basically not vertically superposed. The slumped bodies are characterized by thick

root and thin fore-end, containing typically mudstone at the fore-end and siltstone in the center and at the root. As

shown in Fig.7, a three-layer structure is relatively complete mass transport complex showing various types

containing the stacked blocks on the slope break area like MTC-A and MTC-B and the separated mass-transport

complex at distal end of the drifting area like MTC-C. It is worth noting that the rotated blocks described in the

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article was formed by the rotation in horizontal direction due to the difference of the friction force at the bottom

during the sliding process. This generation mechanism is different from the pattern Massimo suggested (2015). The

rotated blocks in the article (Massimo Rossi, et al., 2015) were located in upslope, the blocks rotated in vertical

direction under the obstruction from the slump bodies in front, which actually was tilting effect. No such kind of

rotated blocks can be found from the seismic section and horizon attribute slices in this research. The rotated blocks

in this article were part of the drifting body just rotated in horizontal direction to some extent. In the detaching area of

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the upslope region, the slide blocks are arc-shaped arranged horizontally and separated vertically, and the sliding

distance is much shorter than the former two types of slump bodies. Consequently, the dynamic mechanism of the

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four MTCs are most likely the gravitational sliding triggered by earthquake.

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6.2 Significance to Hydrocarbon Exploration

Seven drilling wells penetrated the MTC-C, the well data show that slump bodies have high shale content, the

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sand% is only 9.7%, and the thickness of individual sandstone bodies are large. For example, single sandstone layer
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thickness can be 3.5m in well GU684; the minimum thickness of single sandstone layer can be 0.8m in well GU694.

The lithologic traps were formed by lenticular sandstone bodies and siltstone reservoirs encased in massive mudstone.
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Meanwhile these blocks overlied mature source rock deposited in the first member of the Nenjiang Fm. There are
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favourable migration pathways from the underlying organic-rich mudstones. (Fig 2, Fig 3b, Fig 4b and Fig 5b). Low
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porosity and low permeability reservoirs are formed by sility-fine sandstone with 10% effective porosity. According

to the analysis of seven wells, well GU683 has oil-water layers, well GU686 and GU605 have poor oil layers. The
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test in well GU605 located in the low potential position (downdip direction) of the block C6 acquires yields of 4.18t

oil per day, which indicates that the accumulation has been formed. From the oil-water differentiation accumulation
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theory analysis, we can infer that oil and gas can be gathered in the high potential position (updip direction) of the
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block C6. To analyze the dry-layer formed in other blocks, the shale content is high in the reservoirs; meanwhile the

reservoirs are surrounded by large mudstones resulting in low resistivity oil layer. MTC-A and MTC-B also develop

sandstone layers, well LK13 penetrated 5.5m thick sand body in MTC-A, the maximum thickness of individual bed is

3.5m. Four wells penetrated sandstone bodies in MTC-B, the average thickness of the sandstone body is 1.8m and the

maximum thickness is 6m in well GU203. Although no well penetrated sandstone body in MTC-D, but the conditions

of the other MTCs testify that sandstones can develop in the drifting area and stacking area. The analysis results

indicate that the MTCs in the Songliao Basin have good exploration potential and should cause enough attention.

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7. Conclusion

By analyzing the 3-D seismic data and well data, four mass-transport complexes are found in the Center

Depression of the Songliao Basin in the second member of the Nenjiang Fm. MTC-A and MTC-B are respectively

composed of 3 to 5 stacked blocks and have clear distal and lateral edges. MTC-C is composed of 7 detached or

inlaid blocks. MTC-D has the largest scale and is located in the southeast of Center Depression. It has complete

internal three-layer architecture of dragged layer, slumped layer and stable layer. Arc-shape ridges can be seen in the

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stable layer. Different types of slide blocks can be divided into detached block, stacked block and drifted block

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distributing in the slumped layer. These MTCs commonly thicken upslope and thin-out downslope with sliding

distance range from 2 to 10 km, meanwhile squeezing ridges are visible on their surfaces with density of 4-10 per

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kilometer. The MTCs blocks slumped under certain trigger from the west dipping slope formed in the prodelta

located in eastern basin. Because the MTCs all have no closely contact with channel systems, so the trigger is

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unlikely to be the storm or the flood. The first possibility is earthquake caused by volcanic activities. As the three
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volcanic ash layers are recognized in the well core indicating three periods of volcanic activities. Except the MTC-D,

sandstones are recognized from drilling wells in the other three MTCs. Although the sandstone bodies belong to low-
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permeability or tight reservoirs, but the lithologic traps surrounded by mudstone are advantageous for accumulation.

Well GU605 meets industrial oil output standard and shows that MTCs have exploration value which is neglected
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before.
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8. Acknowledgements

This paper is a product of “973” items-major geological events related to the carbon cycle and greenhouse climate
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change of the Cretaceous and accumulation rule & formation mechanism of volcanic rocks (2006CB701400,
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2009CB219300). Many thanks go to Timothy A.C., an emeritus professor from Colorado School of Mines, who

carefully reviewed the manuscript and made numerous helpful suggestions for its improvement. We also appreciate

the help of Dr. Lorena M., Jackson School of Geosciences, who also reviewed and contributed significant

suggestions.

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Table 1 Architecture parameters of slide blocks in mass-transport complexes.

Ridge Minimum Minimum Buried depth of
MTC or block Sandstone Number of Sliding
Mass-transport Area density paleo-slope paleo-water structural bottom
thickness thickness sandstone Sand% distance
complex (km2) (strip/km gradient depth boundary
(m) (m) layer (km)
) (°) (m) (m)
22 4-6 LK7 25 0.0 0 0.0

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40 4 LK11 24 3.0 2 14.3
10 4-5 LK13 23 3.5 1 11.9
LK13 30 2.0 1 7.1

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MTC-A 5 30 2-10 880-600
95 4 L1 42 0.0 0 0.0
maximum 62.0 5.5 2 5.3

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mean 31.6 1.6 1 3.3
Gu921 40 0.0 0 0.0
Gu922 10 0.0 0 0.0

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Gu201 92 2.0 2 2.0

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Gu203 85 6.0 2 7.6
Gu204 70 5.0 3 7.7
MTC-B 24 3-6 12 70 >5 1500-550
Gu93 30 0.0 0 0.0
Gu2 60 2.0 1 3.4

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QS1 5 0.0 0 0.0
maximum 92 6.0 3 7.7
mean 49 1.8 1 3.8

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C1 12.0 5 GU684 30 3.5 1 13.2

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C2 12.5 4 AO903 47 6.0 2 14.6

Seismic
C3 6.0 5 40
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C4 6.5 6 GU683 55 7.0 4 14.6
MTC-C C5 7.5 NO GU682 50 1.5 1 3.1 6 30 2-10 1250-1170
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GU686 35 3.5 2 11.1

C6 12.0 4
GU605 27 2.0 1 8.0
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C7 5.0 5 GU694 26 0.8 1 3.2

max
mu 12.5 6 maximum 55 7.0 4 14.6
m
mean 8.8 5 mean 39 3.8 1.7 10.8
maximum 135
MTC-D 150 1-2 0.0 0.0 0.0 7 40 0-3 670—360
mean 90

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Fig. 1 A- Tectonic units of the Songliao Basin; B- Distribution of sedimentary facies in the second
and the third member of the Nenjiang Fm. in study area.

Fig. 2 Composite histogram of the Daqing Anticline in the Songliao Basin. Showing the
stratigraphy and tectonic evolution of the Daqing Anticline during Upper Cretaceous Period.

Fig. 3 a-MTC-A, drilling wells are marked as red circles, dashed line is used for slide block
boundary and yellow line for profile location, the seismic image is the seismic amplitude slicing of

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50ms below T1 horizon; b-Sedimentary facies section with the location shown in Fig 3a. GU75,
LK4, L1, LK7, LK11, LK13, DA13 are well names, SP and R2.5 represent spontaneous potential
logging curve and resistivity logging curve respectively, and the minimum paleo-slope gradient

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calculated is marked; C- The seismic time profile flatten by horizon T1 with the location shown in
Fig 3a, Ⅰ,Ⅱ,Ⅲ,Ⅳ,Ⅴ are the serial number of blocks.

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Fig. 4 a-MTC-B, drilling wells are marked as red circles, yellow line is used for profile location, the
seismic image is seismic amplitude slicing of 20ms above horizon T2; b-Sedimentary facies section,
location shown in Fig 4a, J43, GU93, GU203, SA66 are well names, SP, R2.5 and LLD represent

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spontaneous potential logging curve, resistivity logging curve and deep lateral logging curve
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respectively, and the minimum paleo-slope gradient calculated is marked; C- The seismic time
profile flatten by horizon T2, location shown in Fig 4a, GU922, GU201 are well names.
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Fig. 5 a-MTC-C, drilling wells are marked as red circles, yellow line is used for profile location, C1、
C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7 represent slide blocks, the seismic image is seismic amplitude slicing of
80ms above horizon T2; b-Sedimentary facies section, location shown in Fig 5a, GU671, GU605,
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GU683, AO901 are well names, SP, R2.5 and LLD represent spontaneous potential logging curve,
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resistivity logging curve and deep lateral logging curve respectively, and the minimum
paleo-slope gradient calculated is marked; C- The seismic time profile flatten by horizon T2,
location shown in Fig 5a.
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Fig 6 a-Stable layer shown as the 3-D seismic horizon amplitude slicing of T1 horizon; b- Slump
layer shown as the 3-D seismic horizon amplitude slicing of 20ms below T1 horizon; c-Dragging
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layer shown as the 3-D seismic horizon amplitude slicing of T2 horizon; d- Seismic profile, location
shown in Fig 6b in red line, the zone between white dashed line is MTC-D; e-Well-tie geologic
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cross-section, D1, D2, D3, D4 are well names, locations shown in Fig 6c.

Fig. 7 The model diagram showing the architecture of MTC-D.

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We exhibit four mass-transport complexes in lacustrine facies of continental basin.

We depict a three-layer structure of dragged layer, slumped layer and stable layer.

The MTCs are most likely to be triggered by earthquake caused by volcanic activity.

The sandstones in the MTCs are favourable to form accumulation and lithologic trap.

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