Journal of Consumer Marketing

GREEN consumption values and Indian consumers’ response to marketing communications

Ainsworth Anthony Bailey Aditya Mishra Mojisola F. Tiamiyu
Article information:
To cite this document:
Ainsworth Anthony Bailey Aditya Mishra Mojisola F. Tiamiyu , (2016),"GREEN consumption values and Indian consumers’
response to marketing communications", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 33 Iss 7 pp. -
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JCM-12-2015-1632
Downloaded on: 14 September 2016, At: 22:35 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 0 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:333301 []
For Authors
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service
information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please
visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of
more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online
products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

 GREEN consumption values and Indian consumers’ response to marketing
communications

Purpose: This paper reports on a study that assessed Indian consumers’ response to green
marketing communications, based on their GREEN consumption values. GREEN (Haws et al,
2014) refers to consumers’ tendency to express their environmental concern through their
consumption behaviors. This study applies this construct in a marketing communications
context.
Design/methodology/approach: Two conceptual models involving GREEN were developed,
and data to test the models were collected in a survey conducted among a convenience sample of
284 Indian consumers.
Findings: The results show that GREEN can enhance understanding of consumers’ green
attitudes and intentions. GREEN consumption values have an impact on how Indian consumers
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

respond to advertising and public relations stimuli, as GREEN influences perceptions of green
brand trust, attitudes toward green marketing communications, and green brand support and
purchase intentions.
Research limitations/implications: The research adds to the growing literature on green
marketing in emerging economies and extends the application of the GREEN construct from the
domain of consumer behavior to that of green marketing communications.
Practical implications: The results suggest that marketers should focus on developing green
marketing communications strategies, rather than just green advertising strategies; and they can
position their green products to appeal to consumers based on GREEN consumption values.
Originality/value: The study is the first to apply the GREEN construct in assessing consumer
response to brand’s green marketing communications; it also explores this issue in an emerging
economy.

Keywords: environmentalism, GREEN, green consumption values, green marketing

communications

Type of paper: Research paper

 2

1. Introduction

Across the globe, a growing number of companies and consumers have been focusing on

environmental issues and sustainable consumption, in light of various reports regarding the

negative impact that consumer behavior is having on the planet. Consequently, there has been an

increasing awareness of green marketing, and consumers have been responding to brands that

promote environmental responsibility, especially since companies’ environmental efforts are

Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

now being widely regarded as part of their corporate social responsibility (Olsen, Slotegraaf, and

Chandukala, 2014). This increasing awareness of environmental issues and green marketing is

not confined to developed economies, as there also have been moves to generate increased

awareness in emerging economies (Jain and Kaur, 2006; Carrete et al., 2012; Roy, 2013;

González et al., 2015). The focus on green marketing among consumers and businesses has been

matched by renewed academic research. There is increased academic investigation in this

domain, as researchers seek answers to a number of green marketing-related issues, including

identifying factors that influence consumers to behave in environmentally-responsible ways

(Haws, Winterich, and Naylor, 2014; Armstrong Soule and Reich, 2015).

As more researchers seek to understand green consumption behavior, the development of

new green-related constructs and measures has not escaped research attention. Among the new

constructs is GREEN consumption values, defined by Haws, Winterich, and Naylor (2014) as

“the tendency to explore the value of environmental protection through one’s purchases and

consumption behaviors” (p. 337). In a series of studies, these researchers developed and

validated a six-item scale, GREEN, to measure this construct. The scale, the developers argued,

can be used to understand green consumer behavior, including response to green marketing
 3

communications. The stated usefulness of this scale motivated this current study, the principal

aim of which was to assess the impact of GREEN (short name given by authors to the construct)

on consumer attitudes and intentions in response to green marketing communications. In

addition, the study was conducted in India, an emerging economy with the second largest

population in the world.

Given the increased global focus on environmental issues, an understanding of GREEN

Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

consumption values in India is warranted for a number of reasons. India is the world’s fastest

growing economy (Dhasmana, 2016) and is among the world’s ten largest economies, based on

absolute Gross Domestic Product (Sharma and Srinivasan, 2008); it is expected to become the

world’s third largest economy by 2050 (Pillania, 2008). The industrial growth to sustain a

growing population has resulted in growing environmental problems for the country (D’Souza

and Peretiatko, 2002), and attention has turned to increasing green marketing awareness in the

country (Khare et al., 2013; Singh, Ankur, and Singh 2014). In recent years, there have been

efforts to address environmental issues in India, in light of the potential impact that a country

with the second highest population on the planet could have on the environment (Nittala, 2014).

However, despite the recent growth in green marketing activities, which has led to enhanced

consumer awareness about green products and consumption, green purchase behavior in India

needs further exploration (Paul et al., 2016). Consumers and marketers in India can benefit from

information on the factors that guide consumers’ environment-related behaviors. Khare,

Mukerjee, and Goyal (2013), for example, argue that, in an emerging economy such as India,

research on green marketing can help marketers in their efforts to create awareness about green
 4

initiatives. Therefore, given the interest in understanding green behavior in emerging economies,

in particular India, this research seeks to add to this discourse.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. First, there is a brief introduction to the

construct of GREEN consumption values and the validation of its measurement. This is followed

by a presentation of the conceptual models in the study and the related hypotheses. Then there is

a description of the study that was conducted to assess the impact of GREEN on consumer
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

response to green marketing communications and its results. A discussion of the implications of

the study’s results precedes a conclusion regarding the limitations and future research avenues.

2. GREEN consumption values

The stream of research on green marketing has seen the exploration of a number of

different issues. For example, there have been investigations related to the use of different kinds

of green appeals, green cues, and product information, and the subsequent influence on consumer

response (Borin, Cerf, and Krishnan, 2011; Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2012; Atkinson and

Rosenthal, 2014; Matthes, Wonneberger, and Schmuck, 2014; Whitson, Ozkaya, and Roxas,

2014; Yang et al., 2015). Some researchers have focused on the cultural contexts in which green

consumption takes place (Abeliotis, Koniari, and Sardianou, 2010; Nittala, 2014). Others have

studied the link between green consumption behavior and personality variables (Cleveland,

Kalamas, and Laroche, 2005; Lu, Chang, and Chang, 2015); shopping behaviors of green

consumers (Atkinson, 2013; Fuentes, 2014); antecedents of green consumption behaviors

(Pagiaslis and Krontalis, 2014); the gap between green attitudes and green consumption

behaviors (Gupta and Ogden, 2009; Davari and Strutton, 2014; Gleim and Lawson, 2014);

factors motivating and inhibiting green behavior in emerging economies (Carrete et al., 2012;
 5

Roy, 2013); and classification of green consumers (Verain et al., 2012; González et al., 2015).

Added to these issues has been the development of scales to be used to better understand green

behavior, with one such scale being the GREEN consumption values scale.

Haws et al. (2014) proposed the construct of GREEN consumption values and developed

a six-item scale to measure it. They argued that it could be used to understand consumers’

environmental protection behaviors, as well as consumers’ conservation of personal and financial

Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

resources. GREEN is an individual difference factor, with consumers attaching different levels

of importance to conserving the environment in consumption settings. Its developers carried out

various studies to confirm the scale’s reliability and validity. They assessed GREEN’s ability to

predict consumers’ evaluations of the non-environmental attributes of an environmentally-

friendly product and preference for the product; and they tested the consistency of GREEN with

the effects of other consumer values such as social approval or acceptance on the attribute

evaluations and preference for a product that reflects green consumption values.

Validation of the GREEN construct

Haws et al. (2014) developed the six-item scale from an initial pool of 58 items, based on

data from a student and a non-student sample. In both samples, the Cronbach alpha (0.89; 0.95)

and composite reliability were high (0.90; 0.85). In subsequent studies, they established

GREEN’s discriminant validity; it differed from socially responsible consumption behavior

(SRCB), as well as other environmental variables such as Socially Responsible Purchase and

Disposal (SRPD); Ecologically Conscious Consumer Behavior (ECCB); and the connectedness

to nature scale (CNS). In terms of the relationship between GREEN and different demographic
 6

variables, gender had no impact on green consumption values, but they increased with age, level

of education, and level of income.

Investigation of the nomological validity of GREEN revealed significant correlation with

variables such as SRCB, frugality, consumer spending self-control, consumers’ price

consciousness, consumers’ value consciousness, product retention tendency, and voluntary

simplicity. These variables, according to Haws et al. (2014), reflected conservation tendencies
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

related to consumers’ personal financial and physical resources. The researchers also found a

strong correlation between the GREEN scale and consumers’ self-reported environmentally-

friendly consumption behaviors. In the case of predictive validity, GREEN significantly

predicted relative preference for an equally-priced environmentally-friendly product, willingness

to pay for such a product, and likelihood of buying such a product. While it was validated in the

context of green product preferences, it should also impact how consumers respond to green

activities such as green marketing communications. The aim of the current study, then, is to

extend GREEN assessment to the domain of green marketing communications, in particular in

the areas of public relations and advertising. Both promotional tools can be used in image

orientation, an important element of green marketing (Carlson, Grove, and Kangun, 1993).

3. Conceptual models and hypotheses

In essence, the current study assesses whether GREEN influences how consumers

respond to different green marketing communications activities such as advertising and public

relations. While there are a number of different elements of marketing communications,

advertising and public relations were selected given previous exploration of green advertising

and the fact that companies focus on green marketing as part of their corporate social
 7

responsibility efforts (Olsen, Slotegraaf, and Chandukala, 2014). The study looks at GREEN as

part of a conceptual framework in which it is an antecedent to green trust, green attitudes, and

green intentions (in a PR context), as well as part of a conceptual framework in which it impacts

consumers’ green ad attitudes and green brand attitudes (Ad context). While the PR model

focused on a more expansive framework, the advertising model sought to replicate work on

previous advertising models, with the difference being that GREEN was a part of this
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

framework. The study was conducted in India, an emerging economy that is different from the

United States, where development and validation of the GREEN construct took place (Khare,

Mukerjee, and Goyal, 2013).

Green consumption values and green PR

The public relations-related conceptual model in this study is depicted in Figure 1. This

conceptual model is similar to other models that have been proposed to assess links between

consumer environmental concern or green behavior and other outcome variables. For example,

Chan (2001) developed and tested a model of green behavior among Chinese consumers in

which he proposed that man-nature orientation had a direct impact on attitudes toward green

purchases. This, in turn, would impact green purchase intentions and ultimately green purchase

behavior. These hypothesized relationships were supported. Chen (2010) developed the

constructs of green brand image, green satisfaction, green trust, and green brand equity, and

investigated the extent to which green brand equity was driven by these other variables. Chen

found that green satisfaction, green trust, and green brand image were all antecedents of green

brand equity.
 8

Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2012) found that, in the case of increasing consumer

demand for green energy, environmental concern impacted consumers’ brand attitudes and

purchase intentions. Olsen, Slotegraaf, and Chandukala (2014) carried out an assessment of the

effects of the introduction of green products on consumers’ brand attitudes. They found that

green product introduction had the capacity to influence brand attitudes; and the number of green

messages, the product type, and their source credibility influenced the extent to which green new
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

products changed brand attitude. Matthes and Wonneberger (2014) also found that green

consumers were not skeptical of green advertising; in fact, they found that green consumers saw

more informational utility in green ads than did non-green consumers.

Konuk, Rahman, and Salo (2015) also assessed a model that proposed a link among green

satisfaction, green trust, green brand equity, and a number of consumer response: green purchase

intentions, word-of-mouth intentions, and willingness to pay for green products. They drew on

the definition of green satisfaction proposed by Chen (2010); and found that, across three

countries, consumers’ level of green satisfaction served as an antecedent to green intentions. This

variable impacted green trust and green brand equity, which in turn impacted green purchase

intentions, word-of-mouth intentions related to green products, and the willingness to pay a

premium for green products.

Regarding the link between GREEN and perceptions of a company that engages in green

marketing communications, this relationship can be viewed against the background of research

in domains such as corporate social responsibility (CSR) and consumer-company value

congruence. The stream of research on CSR highlights that, generally, companies are perceived

favorably when they engage in CSR activities. Hur, Kim, and Woo (2014), for example, found
 9

that a brand’s engagement in CSR positively impacted perceptions of the corporate credibility,

which subsequently affected brand reputation and brand equity. Studies of the impact of

consumer-brand value congruence on consumer-brand relationships (see, for example, Zhang

and Bloemer, 2008) and the similarity-attraction theory (Bryne, 1997) suggest that consumers

respond favorably to brands when they view the brands as having similar ideals as they have.

Therefore, we argue that GREEN consumers will perceive green companies as having similar
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

ideals as they have and will respond favorably to these companies.

Drawing on the above referenced works, the conceptual framework in Figure 1 predicts a

number of direct and mediating relationships based on consumers’ green consumption values. In

particular, in the case of consumer exposure to green marketing communications, consumer

green consumption values will directly impact trust in the information source, as well as attitude

toward the marketing communication. Trustworthiness and attitude in turn will impact green

brand support intentions and green brand purchase intentions. Specifically, the following

expectations should hold.

H1. Green consumption values (GREEN) will have a direct and positive impact on (a)

perceived trustworthiness of green marketing communications source (green trust) and

(b) attitude toward brand engaged in green marketing communications.

H2. Green trust will have a direct and positive impact on (a) attitude toward the brand

engaged in green marketing communications; (b) green brand support intentions; and (c)

green brand purchase intentions.

 10

H3. Attitude toward the brand engaged in green marketing communications will have a

direct and positive impact on (a) green brand support intentions and (b) green brand

purchase intentions.

In the case of mediation, green trust and green attitude should also mediate the

relationship between green consumption values and green intentions (green support

intentions and green purchase intentions). For example, Chen (2010), in a study of green
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

satisfaction, found that green satisfaction and green trust were partial mediators of the

relationship between green brand image and green brand equity. In the domain of

corporate social responsibility (of which green marketing is an element), Fatma, Rahman,

and Khan (2015) found that CSR activities directly impacted company reputation and

brand equity; they also led to consumer trust in a company. This trust mediated the

relationship between CSR and corporate reputation, as well as that between CSR and

brand equity. Given these findings, the following mediating relationships are proposed.

H4. Green trust will mediate (a) the relationship between GREEN and attitude

toward the brand; (b) the relationship between green consumption values and

green brand support intentions; and (c) the relationship between green

consumption values and green brand purchase intentions.

H5. Attitude toward the brand engaged in green marketing communication will

mediate (a) the relationship between GREEN and green brand support intentions;

(b) the relationship between GREEN and green purchase intentions; (c) the

relationship between green trust and green brand support intentions; and (d) the

relationship between green trust and green brand purchase intentions.

 11

----- Insert Figure 1 about here -----

Green values and green advertising

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no prior study has explored the link between

GREEN (Haws et al., 2014) and consumer response to green advertising. The conceptual model

in Figure 2 focuses on consumer attitudes and depicts the proposed relationships between

GREEN and green attitudes. The proposed relationships draw on prior research, particularly in
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

the area of consumer advertising and brand attitudes. For example, Bickart and Ruth (2012)

explored the impact of the use of eco-seals on consumer attitudes. They also investigated the

extent to which these responses were impacted by consumer environmental concern and brand

familiarity. They found that the use of eco-seals by brands in their marketing communications

had a positive impact on ad attitudes and brand attitudes, as well as purchase intentions. Brand

and ad attitudes also mediated the relationship between the use of eco-seals and purchase

intentions. Further, these effects were moderated by the level of consumer environmental

concern.

This advertising-related model in Figure 2 proposes that GREEN directly impacts attitude

toward green advertising (H6a) and is also expected to have a direct effect on attitude toward a

brand that uses green advertising (H6b). Green ad attitude in turn directly impacts attitude

toward the brand using a green ad . Based on prior research on the mediating role of ad attitudes

in other domains (MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch, 1986; Homer, 1990), the model suggests also

that attitude toward green advertising mediates the impact of GREEN on attitude toward a brand

that uses green advertising. This testing of direct and mediating role of ad attitudes has been a
 12

feature of previous research (MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch, 1986; Homer, 1990). The hypotheses

are stated as follows.

H6: GREEN consumption values will have (a) a significant direct impact on attitude

toward green advertising; and (b) a significant direct impact on attitude toward a brand

that uses green advertising.

H7: Attitude toward green advertising will have a significant direct impact on attitude
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

toward a brand that uses green advertising.

H8: Attitude toward green advertising mediates the impact of GREEN consumption

values on attitude toward a brand that uses green advertising.

----- Insert Figure 2 about here -----

4. Study

Questionnaire

This study assessed the impact of GREEN on Indian consumers’ response to green

marketing communications. The first part of the study questionnaire contained the items for the

GREEN scale, a proxy measure of ECCB (Roberts, 1995), a single-item measure of

environmental concern, and the REGRAD scale (Bailey, Mishra, and Tiamiyu, 2014). The

REGRAD scale assessed “the extent to which consumers pay attention to and are favorably

disposed and responsive to advertising that uses green messages in the marketing of products or

a company itself” (p. 8). Given its nature, REGRAD should correlate highly with GREEN. The

ECCB and REGRAD scales, and the single-item measure of environmental concern, were

included to assess the convergent validity of the GREEN construct. Participants were told that

the study was about consumer personality and responses to the questions were based purely on
 13

their thoughts and feelings. A distractor exercise (completion of scale on health consciousness)

was inserted between this first section and the next section of the questionnaire.

The next section of the questionnaire contained a fictional story regarding an Indian CPG

company that had launched an initiative to highlight its products’ “green credentials” (see

Appendix B). This story was based on actual policy that had been started by US CPG company

Procter & Gamble. After reading this article, participants responded to items that assessed their
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

perceptions of the trustworthiness of the company; attitude toward company; the likelihood of

supporting the company’s efforts; and the likelihood of purchasing products sold by this

company. The questionnaire also included an actual ad for the coffee chain Tim Hortons. The ad

appealed to consumers to go green by purchasing the company’s travel mugs instead of paper

cups and to take the Act of Green pledge and was actually running in US publications during the

time of the study. With the inclusion of this ad, participants would be able to respond to an actual

green advertising stimulus for a brand with which they were unfamiliar. Following exposure to

this ad, participants responded to items to measure their attitude toward the ad and attitude

toward the brand in the ad. This would enable assessment of the conceptual model depicted in

Figure 2. Choices of the stimuli were based on the need for some degree of realism while at the

same time preserving participant unfamiliarity with the stimuli. Data on participants’ age and

gender were also collected at the end of the questionnaire.

Participants

Data were collected in December 2014 by administering the questionnaire during regular

class time to post-graduate students in a university located in a metropolitan southern city in

India. These participants came from different regions of India. Although the participants are
 14

classified primarily as ‘post-graduate students’, they are considered an appropriate audience for

the exploration of issues related to green marketing communications in India, given prior

research findings that point to the impact of level of education on Indian consumers’ level of

awareness and response to green marketing (Saxena and Khandelwal, 2010; Nittala, 2014). No

incentive was given for participation. A total of 315 completed questionnaires were collected.

However, some were eliminated because of lack of completeness, leaving a usable sample of 283
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

(90%). The majority of participants were male (57%) and in the 23-28 years age group (59%).

Measures

GREEN

GREEN was measured using the four items listed in Table 1. Two of the items (indicated

in Appendix A) were dropped from the analysis, owing to low factor loadings. Coefficient alpha,

which improved, based on the dropping of the two items, was 0.78. Composite reliability (CR)

was 0.88.

----- Insert Table 1 about here -----

Dependent measures

Trustworthiness of the source of the green initiative (green trust) was measured using a 5-

item scale that was developed to measure celebrity endorser credibility (Ohanian, 1990). Given

its focus on credibility of information sources, the scale was considered appropriate to measure

green trust. Coefficient alpha for the scale was 0.88, and CR was 0.94. Attitude toward the

company that had embarked on the green initiative was measured on 4-item 7-point Likert scales

(see Table 1) that asked participants to rate their attitude toward the company that put out the

press release; these items represent standard attitude measures that have been used in extant
 15

consumer and advertising research (Yi, 1990; Lafferty, Goldsmith, and Newell, 2002).

Coefficient alpha for the green brand attitude scale was 0.85, while CR was 0.92. Both the

support intentions for the company and green purchase intentions measures consisted of 3-item

7-point Likert scales (Yi, 1990; Lafferty, Goldsmith, and Newell, 2002) that asked participants

about the likelihood that they would support the company that put out the press release

(Coefficient alpha = 0.89; CR = 0.94) and the likelihood that they would purchase the company’s
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

products (Coefficient alpha = 0.84; CR = 0.93). Table 1 contains information on the scales used

in the assessment of consumer response to the PR stimulus.

5. Results

The data to assess consumer response to the public relations stimulus were analyzed

using the two-step approach recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). First, using Mplus

7.3, we carried out CFA involving the 19-item five-factor model depicted in Figure 1. This stage

verified the construct validity, reliability, and discriminant validity of the constructs in the

model. The model fit was good, as evidenced by: CFI = .96; TLI = .95; SRMR = .04; and

RMSEA = .06; χ2(137) = 258.72, p<0.001 (Hu and Bentler, 1999). Factor loadings for all the

constructs in the model were positive and above 0.50 in all cases, with the exception of two

items in the GREEN scale. The average variance extracted for the variables exceeded the

recommended 0.50 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981), except for that of the GREEN scale, which was

0.42. However, in light of the model statistics, which show good fit of the data; and the

composite reliability and the coefficient alpha of the GREEN scale, these results indicate the

reliability of the constructs in the model (Fornell and Larcker 1981). Further, the convergent

validity of the GREEN construct was corroborated, as it correlated positively with the ECCB
 16

scale (coefficient alpha = 0.79) and the REGRAD scale (coefficient alpha = 0.90), as well as a

single item measure of environmental concern: ECCB: Pearson r2 = 0.61, p<0.001; REGRAD

scale: Pearson r2 = 0.56, p<0.001; and single item measure of environmental concern: Pearson r2

= 0.58, p< 0.001.

The discriminant validity of constructs can be established using the AVE method (Fornell

and Larcker 1981). Using this method, the discriminant validity of constructs is established if the
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

AVE of construct A and the AVE of construct B are both greater than the squared correlation of

A and B. Voorhees et al. (forthcoming) assessed the results sections of 621 survey-based

marketing articles published between 1996 and 2012 and concluded from their study that this

method should be one of the two mandated methods for assessing discriminant validity in

marketing studies. As can be seen from the data provided in the correlation matrix in Table 2, the

conditions for discriminant validity of all the constructs in the model were satisfied based on this

criterion. All the possible pairs of correlations satisfy the condition for discriminant validity of

the constructs. This includes the discriminant validity of the GREEN construct.

Results of test of hypotheses in conceptual model

The second stage in the data analysis involved assessment of the relationships depicted in

the conceptual model in Figure 1 using SEM with Mplus 7.3. Maximum likelihood estimation

was used, as all the variables in the model are continuous. The proposed structural model showed

good fit: CFI = .96; TLI = .95; RMSEA = .06; SRMR = .05, χ2(138) = 256.04, p<.001 (Browne

and Cudeck, 1993). Table 5 contains details on the outcome of the test of the hypotheses.

There was support for all the predictions relating to the links between GREEN and green

trust, including the predictions regarding the mediating role of green trust. GREEN impacted the
 17

green trust (H1a), which impacted green attitude (H2a); green support intentions (H2b); and

green purchase intentions (H2c). Consistent with prior research on attitudes and intentions, green

attitude impacted green support intentions (H3a) and green purchase intentions (H3b).

To assess the predictions regarding the mediating roles of green trust and green attitude,

indirect effects were tested using the bootstrapping procedure in Mplus 7.3 (Muthen and Muthen,

1998-2012). This method yields bootstrapped standard errors; 1,000 simulations corrected for
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

biases in estimating the standard errors (MacKinnon, 2008). Based on these analyses green trust

mediated the relationship between GREEN consumption values and green attitude (H4a: β = .12,

SE = .05, p <0.01), as well as the relationship between GREEN consumption values and green

support intentions (H4b: β = .12, SE = .05, p <0.01) and green purchase intentions (H4c: β = .11,

SE = .05, p <0.01). Besides, green attitude also mediated the relationship between green trust and

green support intentions (H5c: β = .23, SE = .06, p <0.001); and it also mediated the relationship

between green trust and green purchase intentions (H5d: β = .24, SE = .06, p <0.001). However,

green attitude did not mediate the relationship between GREEN consumption values and green

support intentions (H5a) nor that between GREEN consumption values and green purchase

intentions (H5b). This means that H5a and H5b were not supported.

Assessment of response to advertising stimulus

A revised version of Figure 1 was assessed, given an interest in testing response to green

marketing communications based on previous attitude models but with the introduction of

GREEN consumption values into the model. Figure reflects the

Measures
 18

In the case of the advertising stimulus, attitude toward the ad (Coefficient alpha = 0.89;

CR = 0.94; AVE = 0.65) and attitude toward the brand (Coefficient alpha = 0.90; CR = 0.95;

AVE = 0.69) were measured using the same attitude scale used to assess attitude toward brand in

the PR stimulus.

Results

The same two-stage data analysis process adopted to test the conceptual model depicted
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

in Figure 1 was also used to test the model in Figure 2. First, there was a CFA involving the 12-

item three-factor (GREEN, green ad attitude, green brand attitude) model. Table 3 contains

reliability statistics, while Table 4 provides a correlation matrix and AVE information that

supports the discriminant validity of the constructs in the model, based on the aforementioned

AVE method. Next, the relationships predicted in the conceptual model were tested using SEM

with Mplus. The proposed structural model showed good fit: CFI = .98; TLI = .97; RMSEA =

.05; SRMR = .03, χ2(44) = 80.93, p<.001. GREEN consumption values had a direct positive

impact on attitude toward the ad (supporting H6a); and attitude toward green advertising directly

impacted attitude toward the brand (supporting H7); GREEN consumption values, however, did

not have a direct significant effect on brand attitude (H6b not supported). The same mediation

analyses done above were used to assess the mediational role of attitude toward green

advertising. The results showed that attitude toward green advertising mediated the relationship

between GREEN consumption values and attitude toward the brand using green advertising (H8:

β = .21, SE = .08, p <0.01),

----- Insert Tables 3-5 about here -----

6. General Discussion
 19

This paper reports on a study that was conducted as part of an assessment of the impact

of GREEN consumption values (Haws et al, 2014) on consumer response to brands’ marketing

communication activities. The construct of GREEN consumption values was developed to

measure consumers’ tendency to express their environmental concern through their consumption

behaviors, and this study applied it to understanding response to green marketing

communications. Both a green PR stimulus and a green advertising stimulus were used to evoke
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

consumer response. The study is the first, to the authors’ knowledge, to apply the GREEN

construct in assessing consumer response to brand’s green marketing communications, including

public relations and advertising. In addition, the study also explores this issue in an emerging

economy, India, in light of the importance of understanding green consumption behaviors in this

context.

Overall, the study was driven by the fact that, even though consumer awareness of green

marketing and green products may be low in emerging economies, this awareness is rising, and it

behooves marketers in these economies to obtain information on what they can do to influence

green marketing awareness. In particular, this study used advertising and public relations stimuli

to determine whether consumers’ attitudes and intentions were impacted based on their green

consumption values. If so, a case could be made for brands to focus on green integrated

marketing communications, rather than simply on green advertising, if they want to build their

green reputation.

The overall results provide support for the usefulness of the GREEN construct in

understanding consumer response to green marketing communications. The results also provide

evidence that marketers who are interested in developing a green reputation need to take into
 20

account consumers’ green consumption values, given that the current study found positive links

between GREEN and consumer attitudes and perceptions. Based on the results of the testing of

the model in Figure 1, green consumption values influence consumer perceptions of the

trustworthiness of an entity transmitting green information. It also directly and indirectly

influences green attitudes and intentions; it indirectly affects attitudes and intentions through its

effects on green trust. The results from testing of the model in Figure 2 show that it also affects
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

advertising attitudes.

Research implications

The current study extends the stream of research on green advertising and green

marketing in emerging economies. In recent years, more research on environmentalism has been

focusing on emerging economies such as India and China, given the sheer sizes of their

populations and the importance of advancing green behaviors in these economies. This study

applied a recently-developed construct, GREEN, in an exploration of the impact of green

dispositions on consumers’ perceptions, attitudes, and intentions. The study’s results indicate that

GREEN is part of a nomological framework that includes consumers’ perceptions, attitudes, and

intentions. If we want to understand consumer response to green marketing communications, we

have to understand the nature of their green consumption values. However, the study does not

establish antecedents to green consumption values, so additional research could seek to identify

factors that contribute to the development of green consumption values.

In the case of the measurement of GREEN consumption values, two items used in the

original scale had to be dropped in this study. In addition, in both models, the AVEs for GREEN

was below the recommended 0.50 level. However, its coefficient alpha, its composite reliabilities
 21

from the two assessments, and demonstration of its discriminant validity in both assessments

show that the construct is a valid one that should be used in the exploration of consumer green

attitudes and intentions. Nonetheless, the scale may have to be adapted to the environment in

which it is being used. This means that different items may perform differently in different

contexts, and this has to be taken into account when assessing this construct in different settings.

In fact, future research could focus on item analysis of the scale used to measure GREEN.
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

The results from the assessment of GREEN and consumer response to advertising

showed that GREEN consumption values impact consumer green attitudes even in cultural

contexts where there may not be a heightened focus on green marketing, or a high level

awareness of green marketing. The results also support prior findings regarding the mediating

role of advertising attitudes in different domains. Green advertising attitudes mediated the

relationship between GREEN consumption values and green brand attitudes. So this study

contributes to the stream of research on green advertising attitudes by demonstrating this role of

attitude toward the ad in a green marketing communications context. In the same breath, green

attitudes impact green support and green purchase intentions, based on results from consumer

response to the PR stimulus.

Managerial implications

One of the factors driving green research in emerging economies is the possibility of

using information from research findings to guide segmentation, targeting, and brand positioning

decisions (González et al., 2015). Results from this current study can help marketers with the

development of their green marketing communications strategy. For example, the results from

the study indicate that GREEN consumers respond in favorable ways to different forms of
 22

marketing communication; therefore, brands should develop and implement green integrated

communications strategies, rather than just a green advertising strategy. This idea is consistent

with a perspective taken previously by Carlson et al. (1996) who argued that an integrated

communications strategy would be an effective part of a brand’s building of a “green posture.”

At the time of their study, they found that there was little integration in green advertising, and

this may well be the case currently; that is, green marketers do not have a comprehensive green
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

integrated marketing communications strategy. Carlson et al. (1996) contended that “the

marketing of green products would seem to be a prime candidate for 1MC due to the abundance

of plausible promotional tools that might reasonably be used (e.g., public relations, brand image

advertising, direct response advertising, etc.) to target the highly involved environmentally

concerned consumer segment” (p. 227).

The results from the studies reported in this paper highlight the importance of a green

integrated marketing communications strategy; such a strategy would involve such elements as

green advertising, green image orientation by way of green public relations, green sales

promotional activities (for example, contests based on consumer green behavior), and other

green initiatives (for example, product packaging). They underscore that even though the level of

green awareness in emerging economies may not be as high as it is in developed economies,

there are differences among consumers in emerging economies in the level of importance that

they attach to green behaviors. Marketers then need to target those consumers in these economies

who will respond more favorably to their green marketing activities. For example, Chan and Lau

(2000) conducted research in China and found at the time that even though green awareness was

low, Chinese consumers still expressed a positive ecological affect and green purchase intention.
 23

This justifies marketing focus on these consumers, especially by global brand marketers. Pickett-

Baker and Ozaki (2008) also advocated marketers’ focus on consumer groups that have pro-

environmental values, in order to exploit the market for green products.

In addition to the foregoing, marketers can advance the green image of their brands and

companies by incorporating other elements of marketing communications into their green

integrated marketing communications strategy. For example, sales training could incorporate
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

training sales representatives to focus on the green aspects of products and the brand when

making representations on behalf of the brand; and a brand website or social media site should

also clearly communicate this green image to consumers. It is important marketers position their

green products to appeal to consumers based on their GREEN consumption values, as GREEN

drives the response of consumers to marketing communications. This way positioning can

complement segmentation and targeting strategies that have been developed based on GREEN.

7. Limitations and future research directions

The current study has certain limitations, some of which can form the basis for future

research. While the study relied on a sample of respondents that were expected to be more aware

of green marketing issues than the typical consumer in India, this was still a convenience sample

and was not representative of the wider Indian population. Future studies should use a more

representative sample, so that there can be generalizations based on the study results. The study

reported here also did not address any issue related to the possible reasons that consumers in

emerging economies might differ in the value they place on environmental protection through

their behaviors in consumption settings; that is, there was no exploration of possible drivers and

inhibitors of GREEN. This paves the way for research that should seek to establish different
 24

motivators and inhibitors of green consumption values among consumers in emerging

economies.

In the case of green advertising, different studies in this stream of research have looked

at the effects of certain green advertising appeals on consumers’ attitudes and intentions (e.g.,

Green and Peloza, 2014; Matthes, Wonneberger, and Schmuck, 2014; Xue, 2015; Yang et al.,

2015). In recent research, Green and Peloza (2014) investigated the impact of using consumer
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

benefits appeals versus societal benefits for environmentally friendly products and policies on

consumer environmental behavior. They found that the appeals worked differently based on

whether consumers are making public or private decisions. Matthes, Wonneberger, and Schmuck

(2014) also assessed the impact of functional, emotional, mixed types of green appeals on

consumers’ ad and brand attitudes. They found that functional appeals worked best when

consumer level of consumer involvement was high. Xue (2015) found evidence from research

conducted in China that green message framing (negative or positive) impacted consumers based

on whether the appeals were collectivistic or individualistic. This study did not investigate the

extent to which consumer response to different types of green appeals may be moderated by the

level of GREEN consumption values. The exploration of this issue presents an opportunity for

additional research.

The research explored here looked at consumer response to advertising and a public

relations stimuli. The models differed in their components, so future studies should expand the

advertising model to include similar measures to those in the PR model. Nonetheless, the

findings do underscore that GREEN impacts responses to advertising messages and PR efforts.

Also, since these represent just two of a number of marketing communications activities that can
 25

be undertaken by brands, researchers should investigate the role of green consumption values in

engaging consumers in other marketing communications efforts: sales promotional activities

such as contests and games; product packaging and green product packaging information; and

personal selling. In the case of sales promotions, research can explore whether tying promotional

rewards to green behavior impacts consumer response to sales promotions. In the case of

packaging, it would be interesting to investigate whether GREEN impacts response to product

Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

packaging and product disposal. Research can explore the extent to which green consumption

values influence how consumers perceive green messages coming from sales representatives of a

brand; exploration of how this may be moderated by the green reputation of a brand would also

be useful for brand managers. Finally, future research should investigate the working of the

GREEN scale in different cultural contexts.

 26

References

Abeliotis, K., Koniari, C., and Sardianou, E. (2010), “The profile of the green consumer in
Greece”, International Journal of Consumer Studies, Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 153-160.

Armstrong Soule, C, and Reich, B. (2015), “Less is more: is a green demarketing strategy
sustainable?”, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 31 No. 13-14, pp. 1403-1427.

Atkinson, L. (2013), "Smart shoppers? Using QR codes and 'green' smartphone apps to mobilize
sustainable consumption in the retail environment”, International Journal of Consumer Studies
Vol. 37 No. 4, pp. 387-393.
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

Atkinson, L., and Rosenthal, S. (2014), "Signaling the green sell: The influence of eco-label
source, argument specificity, and product involvement on consumer trust”, Journal of
Advertising, Vol. 43 No. 1, pp. 33-45.

Bailey, A. A., Mishra, A., and Tiamiyu, M. F. (2014), “Green advertising receptivity: An initial
scale development process”, Journal of Marketing Communications (published online). DOI:
10.1080/13527266.2014.904812

Baron, R. M. and Kenny, D. A. (1986), “The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social

psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations”, Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 51 No. 6, pp. 1173-1182

Bickart, B. A. and Ruth, J. A. (2012), “Green eco-seals and advertising persuasion”, Journal of
Advertising, Vol. 41 No. 4, pp. 51-67.

Borin, N., Cerf, D. C. and Krishnan, R. (2011), “Consumer effects of environmental impact in
product labeling”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 76-86.

Browne, M. W. and Cudeck, R. (1993), “Alternative ways of assessing model fit”, in Bollen,
K.A., Long (Eds.), Testing Structural Equation Models. Sage, Newbury Park, CA, pp. 136–162.

Byrne, D. (1997), “An overview (and underview) of research and theory within the attraction
paradigm,” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 417-431.

Carlson, L., Grove, S. J., Laczniak, R. N. and Kangun, N. (1996), "Does environmental
advertising reflect integrated marketing communications?: An empirical investigation”, Journal
of Business Research, Vol. 37 No. 3, pp. 225-232.

Carrete, L., Castaño, R., Felix, R., Centeno, E. and González, E. (2012), “Green consumer
behavior in an emerging economy: Confusion, credibility, and compatibility”, Journal of
Consumer Marketing, Vol. 29 No. 7, pp. 470-481.
 27

Chan, R. K. (2000), “The effectiveness of environmental advertising: the role of claim type and
the source country green image”, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 349-
375.

Chan, R. Y. K. (2001), “Determinants of Chinese consumers’ green purchase behavior”,

Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 389–413.

Chan, R. K. and Lau, L. Y. (2000), “Antecedents of green purchases: A survey in China”,

Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 17 No. 4, pp. 338-357.

Chang, H., Zhang, L. and Xie, G.-X. (2015), “Message framing in green advertising: The effect
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

of construal level and consumer environmental concern”, International Journal of Advertising,

Vol. 34 No. 1, pp. 158-176.

Chen, Y.-S. (2010), “The drivers of green brand equity: green brand image, green satisfaction,
and green trust”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 93 No. 2, pp. 307–319.

Cleveland, M., Kalamas, M. and Laroche, M. (2005), “Shades of green: Linking environmental
locus of control and pro-environmental behaviors”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 22 No.
4, pp. 198-212.

Davari, A. and Strutton, D. (2014), “Marketing mix strategies for closing the gap between green
consumers' pro-environmental beliefs and behaviors,” Journal of Strategic Marketing, Vol. 22
No. 7, pp. 563-586.

Dhasmana, I. (2016), “At 7.6% in FY16, India is now the fastest growing economy”, Business-
Standard, June 1, 2016. http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/at-7-6-in-
fy16-india-is-now-the-fastest-growing-economy-116053101080_1.html

D’Souza, C., and Peretiatko, R. (2002), “The nexus between industrialization and environment –
a case study of Indian enterprises”, Environment, Management and Health, Vol. 13 No. 1, pp.
80–97.

Fatma, M., Rahman, Z. and Khan, I. (2015), “Building company reputation and brand equity
through CSR: The mediating role of trust”, International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol. 33
No. 6, pp. 840-856.

Fornell C. and Larcker, D. F. (1981), “Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable
variables and measurement error”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 39–50.

Fuentes, C. (2014), "Managing green complexities: consumers' strategies and techniques for
greener shopping", International Journal of Consumer Studies, Vol. 38 No. 5, pp. 485-492.
 28

Gleim, M. and Lawson, S. J. (2014), “Spanning the gap: An examination of the factors leading to
the green gap”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 31 No. 6/7, pp. 503-514.

González, E. M., Felix, R., Carrete, L., Centeno, E. and Castaño, R. (2015), “Green shades: A
segmentation approach based on ecological consumer behavior in an emerging economy”,
Journal of Marketing Theory & Practice, Vol. 23 No. 3, pp. 287-302.

Green, T. and Peloza, J. (2014), "Finding the right shade of green: The effect of advertising
appeal type on environmentally friendly consumption”, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 43 No. 2,
pp. 128-141.

Gupta, S. and Ogden, D. T. (2009), “To buy or not to buy? A social dilemma perspective on
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

green buying”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 26 No. 6, pp. 376-391.

Hartmann, P. and Apaolaza-Ibáñez, V. (2012), "Consumer attitude and purchase intention

toward green energy brands: The roles of psychological benefits and environmental concern",
Journal of Business Research, Vol. 65 No. 9, pp. 1254-1263.

Haws, K. L., Winterich, K. P., and Naylor, R. W. (2014), “Seeing the world through GREEN-
tinted glasses: Green consumption values and responses to environmentally friendly products”,
Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 336-354.

Homer, P. M. (1990), "The mediating role of attitude toward the ad: Some additional evidence",
Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 27 No. 1, pp. 78-86.

Hu, L. and Bentler, P. M. (1999), “Cutoff criteria for fit indices in covariance structure analysis:
Conventional criteria versus new alternatives”, Structural Equation Modeling, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp.
1-55.

Jain, S. K. and Kaur, G. (2006), “Role of socio-demographics in segmenting and profiling green
consumers: An exploratory study of consumers in India”, Journal of International Consumer
Marketing, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 107-146.

Khare, A., Mukerjee, S. and Goyal, T. (2013), "Social Influence and green marketing: An
exploratory study on Indian consumers", Journal of Customer Behavior, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 361-
381.

Konuk, F. A., Rahman, S. U. and Salo, J. (2015), “Antecedents of green behavioral intentions: a
cross-country study of Turkey, Finland and Pakistan”, International Journal of Consumer
Studies, Vol. 39, pp. 586–596.

Lafferty, B. A., Goldsmith, R. E. and Newell, S. J. (2002), “The dual credibility model: The
influence of corporate and endorser credibility on attitudes and purchase intentions”, journal of
marketing theory & practice, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 1-12.
 29

Lu, L.-C., Chang, H.-H. and Chang, A. (2015), "Consumer personality and green buying
intention: The mediate role of consumer ethical beliefs”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 127
No. 1, pp. 205-219.

MacKenzie, S. B., Lutz, R. J. and Belch, G. E. (1986), "The role of attitude toward the ad as a
mediator of advertising effectiveness: A test of competing explanations”, Journal of Marketing
Research, Vol. 23 No. 2, pp. 130-143.

Mackinnon, D. P. (2008), Introduction to statistical mediation analysis, New York,

New York, Routledge Academic.
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

Matthes, J. and Wonneberger, A. (2014), "The skeptical green consumer revisited: Testing the
relationship between green consumerism and skepticism toward advertising." Journal of
Advertising 43, no. 2: 115-127.

Matthes, J., Wonneberger, A. and Schmuck, D. (2014), “Consumers' green involvement and the
persuasive effects of emotional versus functional ads”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 67
No. 9, pp. 1885-1893.

Muthen, L. K. and Muthen, B. O. (1998-2012), Mplus Users’ Guide, Seventh Edition, Los
Angeles: Muthen and Muthen.

Nittala, R. (2014), “Green consumer behavior of the educated segment in India”, Journal of
International Consumer Marketing, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 138-152.

Ohanian, R. (1990), “Construction and validation of a scale to measure celebrity endorsers'

perceived expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness”, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 19 No. 3,
pp. 39-52.

Olsen, M. C., Slotegraaf, R. J. and Chandukala, S. R. (2014), "Green claims and message frames:
How green new products change brand attitude", Journal of Marketing, Vol. 78 No. 5, pp. 119-
137.

Pagiaslis, A., and Krontalis, A. K. (2014), "Green consumption behavior antecedents:

Environmental concern, knowledge, and beliefs”, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 31 No. 5, pp.
335-348.

Peattie, K. and Crane, A. (2005), “Green marketing: Legend, myth, farce or prophesy?”,
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, Vol. 8 No. 4, pp. 357-370.

Pickett-Baker, J. and Ozaki, R. (2008), “Pro-environmental products: Marketing influence on

consumer purchase decision”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 25 No. 5, pp. 281-293.
 30

Pillania, R.K. (2008), “State-of-art of Indian competitiveness”, Journal of Applied Economic

Sciences, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 1–15.

Roberts, J. A. (1995), “Profiling levels of socially responsible consumer behavior: A cluster

analytic approach and its implications for marketing”, Journal of Marketing Theory & Practice,
Vol. 3 No. 4, pp. 97-117.

Roy, H. (2013). Green Marketing in Emerging Economies - An Indian Perspective. Lambert

Academic Publishing

Saxena, R. and Khandelwal, P. K. (2010), “Can green marketing be used as a tool for sustainable
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

growth?: A study performed on consumers in India- an emerging economy”, International

Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 277-
291.

Sharma, S.K., and Srinivasan, R. (2008), “Perceptions of foreign players for effective positioning
in India”, Management Decision, Vol. 46 No. 10, pp. 1465–1481.

Singh, V., Ankur, and Singh, A. (2014), “Green Marketing in India: A Review based Study”,
International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research, Vol. 3 No. 9, pp. 45-47.

Verain, M. C.D., Bartels, J., Dagevos, H., Sijtsema, S. J., Onwezen, M. C. and Antonides, G.
(2012), "Segments of sustainable food consumers: A literature review", International Journal of
Consumer Studies, Vol. 36 No. 2, pp. 123-132.

Voorhees, C. M., Brady, M. K., Calantone, R., and Ramirez, E. (Forthcoming), “Discriminant
validity testing in marketing: An analysis, causes for concern, and proposed remedies”, Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science, published online: DOI 10.1007/s11747-015-0455-4.

Whitson, D., Ozkaya, H. E. and Roxas, J. (2014), “Changes in consumer segments and
preferences to green labelling”, International Journal of Consumer Studies, Vol. 38 No. 5, pp.
458-466.

Xue, F. (2015), "Message framing and collectivistic appeal in green advertising—A study of
Chinese consumers”, Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Vol. 27 No. 2, pp. 152-166.

Yang, D., Lu, Y., Zhu, W. and Su, C. (2015), "Going green: How different advertising appeals
impact green consumption behavior”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 68 No. 4, pp. 2663-
2675

Yi, Y. (1990), “Cognitive and affective priming effects of the context for print advertisements”,
Journal of Advertising, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 40-48.
 31

Biographies

Ainsworth Anthony Bailey is an Associate Professor in the Department of Marketing &

International Business, College of Business and Innovation, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH,
USA; Aditya Mishra is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Marketing & Strategy, IBS,
Hyderabad (IFHE), India; and Mojisola Tiamiyu is an Associate Professor in the Department of
Psychology, College of Languages, Literature and Social Sciences, University of Toledo,
Toledo, OH, USA.
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)
 32

Table 1 Scale statistics based on PR stimulus

Scale Factor AVE CR α

loadings
GREEN consumption values
It is important to me that the products I use do not harm .55 .42 .88 .78
the environment.
I consider the potential environmental impact of my .60
actions when making many of my decisions.
My purchase habits are affected by my concern for our .61
environment.
I would describe myself as environmentally responsible. .81
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

Green trust
Untrustworthy/Trustworthy .73 .59 .94 .88
Undependable/Dependable .77
Dishonest/Honest .71
Unreliable/Reliable .81
Insincere/Sincere .80

Green brand attitude

Unpleasant/Pleasant .67 .56 .92 .85
Unfavorable/Favorable .89
Bad/Good .70
Negative/Positive .72

Green brand support intentions

Impossible/Possible .82 .72 .94 .89
Very Unlikely/Very Likely .90
Improbable/Probable .83

Green brand purchase intentions

Impossible/Possible .74 .65 .93 .84
Very Unlikely/Very Likely .85
Improbable/Probable .83

Model statistics: CFI = .96; TLI = .95; RMSEA = .06; SRMR = .04; χ2 (137) = 258.72; p < .001
 33

Table 2 Correlation matrix based on data from PR stimulus

1 2 3 4 5
1. GREEN values .42*
2. Green trust .21 .59
3. Green attitude .22 .50 .56
4. Green support intention .25 .66 .60 .72
5. Green purchase intention .21 .62 .61 .70 .65

*Numbers in bold on the diagonal are Average variance extracted for each construct
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)
 34

Table 3 Scale statistics based on Ad stimulus

Scale Factor AVE CR α

loadings
GREEN consumption values
It is important to me that the products I use do not harm .54 .48 .90 .78
the environment.
I consider the potential environmental impact of my .77
actions when making many of my decisions.
My purchase habits are affected by my concern for our .84
environment.
I would describe myself as environmentally responsible. .59
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

Green ad attitude
Unpleasant/Pleasant .80 .65 .94 .89
Unfavorable/Favorable .83
Bad/Good .83
Negative/Positive .75

Green brand attitude

Unpleasant/Pleasant .79 .69 .95 .90
Unfavorable/Favorable .86
Bad/Good .84
Negative/Positive .85

Model statistics: CFI = .97; TLI = .96; RMSEA = .07; SRMR = .04; χ2 (46) = 109.62; p < .001
 35

Table 4 Correlation matrix based on data from Ad stimulus

1 2 3
1. GREEN values .48*
2. Green ad attitude .22 .65
3. Green brand attitude .25 .78 .69

*Numbers in bold on the diagonal are Average variance extracted for each construct
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)
 36

Table 5 Results of tests of the conceptual model

Hypothesized paths Study (PR)* Study (Ad)*

Std. coefficient Std. coefficient
(t-value) (t-value)
H1a: GREEN values
Green trust .22a
(3.36)
H1b: GREEN values
Green brand attitude .11ns
(1.77)
H2a: Green trust
Green attitude .54a
(9.79)
H2b: Green trust
Green support intentions .52a
(9.34)
H2c: Green trust
Green purchase intentions .47a
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

(7.67)
H3a: Green attitude
Green support intentions .42a
(7.42)
H3b: Green attitude
Green purchase intentions .44a
(6.95)
H4a: GREEN values
Green trust
Green attitude .12b
(2.49)
H4b: GREEN values
Green trust
Green support intentions .12b
(2.38)
H4c: GREEN values
Green trust
Green purchase intentions .11b
(2.28)
H5a: GREEN values
Green attitude
Green support intentions .05ns
(1.34)
H5b: GREEN values
Green attitude
Green purchase intentions .05ns
(1.34)
H5c: GREEN trust
Green attitude
Green support intentions .23a
(3.61)
H5d: GREEN trust
Green attitude
Green purchase intentions .24a
(3.73)
H6a: GREEN values
Green ad attitude .25a
(3.78)
H6b: GREEN values
Green brand attitude .04 ns
(0.85)
H7: Green ad attitude
Green brand attitude .86a
(29.80)
H8: GREEN values
Green ad attitude
Green brand attitude .21b
(3.09)

*PR= Press release used as stimulus; Ad: Ad used as stimulus

a = p < 0.001; b = p < 0.01; c = p < 0.05
 37

Figure 1 Conceptual model: Public relations

Green trust
(Perceived green
brand trustworthiness) H2b
Green brand support
intentions
H1a
H2c
GREEN
(consumption H2a
values)
H3a Green brand purchase
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

intentions

H1b
Green brand attitude H3b
 38

Figure 2 Conceptual model: Advertising

Attitude toward green

ad
H6a

GREEN H7
(consumption
values)
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

H6b Green brand attitude

 39

Appendix A

Scales used in study

GREEN scale (Haws, Winterich, and Naylor, 2014)

It is important to me that the products I use do not harm the environment.
I consider the potential environmental impact of my actions when making many of my decisions.
My purchase habits are affected by my concern for our environment.
I am concerned about wasting the resources of our planet.*
I would describe myself as environmentally responsible.
I am willing to be inconvenienced in order to take actions that are more environmentally
friendly.*
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

*Dropped from analysis owing to low factor loadings

Items in the REGRAD Scale

Respond to the following statements by circling a number on the 7-point scale to indicate your
level of agreement/disagreement with each statement (1 = strongly disagree/7 = strongly agree).
(a) I tend to pay attention to advertising messages that talk about the environment.
(b) I tend to pay attention to green advertising messages.
(c) The use of green messages in ads affects my attitude toward the ads.
(d) I respond favorably to brands that use green messages in their advertising.
(e) I am the kind of consumer who responds favorably when brands use green messages in their
ads.
(f) I think that green advertising is valuable.
(g) Green advertising is a necessary form of advertising.
(h) I am the kind of consumer who is willing to purchase products marketed as being green.
(i) I support brands that support the environment.

Short-form proxy ECCB scale

I buy environmentally friendly products whenever possible.
I use products made from recycled materials whenever possible.
I reduce household waste, whenever possible.
I recycle household waste, whenever possible.
I would be willing to reduce my consumption to help protect the environment.
I am the kind of concerned consumer who recycles.

Environmental concern item

I am very concerned about the environment.
 40

Appendix B: Stimuli

Copy of article used in Study

Packaging Good Company ‘India Packaging’, a major marketer of consumer packaged goods,
has launched a new "multi-brand initiative" that intends to demonstrate the "green" credentials
of its products. The company plans to spend $5 billion on making and promoting "sustainable
innovation products", and said last year it would run its first "green" marketing campaign in
India in 2015. It has now announced that the Green Friendly scheme will feature three of its
major brands, and aims to educate shoppers on how to "save water, waste and energy at home."
"With Green Friendly, we're trying to educate 'mainstream' consumers on how to conserve
natural resources in their homes," said one of the company’s spokespersons. "These consumers
Downloaded by Cornell University Library At 22:35 14 September 2016 (PT)

want to purchase the brands they already know and trust and understand how using these
products can help them lower their impact on the environment."