Networking Principles

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 Data communication
▪ The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data refers to
information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using
the data.
▪ Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.

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 Characteristics
Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data
must be received by the intended device or user and only by that
device or user.
Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have
been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely
delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of
delivery is called real-time transmission.
Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the
uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.

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 Components

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 ▪ Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
▪ Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message.
▪ Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message.
▪ Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver.
▪ Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications

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 Data Representation
▪ Text
▪ Numbers
▪ Images
▪ Audio
▪ Video

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 Data flow

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 Simplex flow
▪ The communication is unidirectional. Only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit; the other can only receive.

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 Half duplex
▪ Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
: When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa

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 Full duplex
▪ both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

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 Comparison Chart
Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
Direction of Unidirectional Two-directional, Two-directional,
Communication one at a time simultaneously
Send / Receive Sender can only Sender can send Sender can send
send data and receive data, and receive data
but one a time simultaneously
Example Keyboard and Walkie-talkie Telephone
monitor

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 Networking
▪ A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication
links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
▪ Connecting devices
▪ router, which connects the network to other networks
▪ switch, which connects devices together
▪ modem (modulator-demodulator), which changes the form of data.

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 Network Criteria
▪ A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria
▪ Performance
▪ Measured based on transit time and response time
▪ transit time - amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
▪ response time - is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response
▪ Depends on a number of factors,
▪ number of users
▪ the type of transmission medium
▪ the capabilities of the connected hardware, and
▪ the efficiency of the software etc..

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 ▪ Reliability
▪ accuracy of delivery
▪ frequency of failure
▪ time it takes a link to recover from a failure
▪ Robustness
▪ Security
▪ protecting data from unauthorized access
▪ Protecting data from damage and development
▪ implementing policies and procedures for
▪ recovery from data losses

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 Line configuration

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 ▪ two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
▪ point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
▪ The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
▪ Connected through wire/cable or microwave/satellite.
▪ E.g change television channels by infrared remote control

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 ▪ Multipoint - is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link.
▪ the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
▪ If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection.
▪ If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

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 Network topology
▪ How computers connect in a network
▪ Two types
▪ Physical topology (it describes the way nodes are connected with cables )

Cables

▪ Logical topology (describes the flow of data from one computer to another )

Data

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 ▪ Computers can be physically connected in a local area network, wide area network,
metropolitan area network etc.
▪ Topology falls into,
Star topology
Bus topology
Ring topology
Mesh topology
Hybrid topology

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 • Computers connect with a shared central
cable called bus with taps and drop line
• Shared – all computers use the same link
Bus topology for data transmission.
• Multipoint connection
A C
• Taps – connector and drops lines are cables
Data between the central bus and the computer.

Disadvantages
• Limited computers
• Limited fault tolerance
• Less secured
D • Data collision
B

• Suppose if computer A wants to send data to D.

• The data send by A will be received by B and C also.
• But the MAC address is destined to only D. Hence other computers will discard the data
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 ▪ Computers connect to a central switch or hub
Star topology with a point to point connection.
▪ There is a dedicated link or cable between two
devices
▪ If a device wants to send data it will routed to
data the central hub or switch
▪ Based on the central node data will be
broadcasted or unicasted.
▪ If hub is used then there will be unnecessary
data traffic in the network.

Frame (data format)

Preamble Source Destinatio IP FCS
MAC n Mac datagram
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 Disadvantages
Star topology • Whole network becomes Switch table
MAC 4 down if the central
system fails Address Port
• Limited computer count MAC1 P1
MAC2 P2
data MAC3 P3
P4
P3 MAC4 P4

P1 MAC 3
MAC 1 Switch can also broadcast data
P2

Frame (data format)

Preamble Source Destinatio IP FCS
MAC 2 MAC n Mac datagram
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 ▪ Computers are connected to each other to form a
Ring topology ring.
▪ Data transmitted from one computer moves in a
circular fashion to reach another.
▪ Easy installation and less cabling
▪ Slower transmission as it has to transmit data to
all computer between source and destination.
▪ Network get paralyzed when one ring fails. And
difficult to reconfigure the network.
▪ So instead they use physical star topology and
logical ring topology

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 Mesh topology
3 4 • In a fully connected mesh topology, each
device has a point to point link with every
other devices in the network.
• If the number of devices in a link is 4 (N=4)
then the number of links per device is (N-1)
i.e 3
• Total number of links or cables for these 4
device is N(N-1) if it is a simplex link
• And, N(N-1)/2 for a full duplex link
Data Disadvantages
1 2
• Large number of cables
• Difficult installation

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 Hybrid topology
▪ Integration of two or more different topology to form a resultant topology.

Star-Bus topology

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 Network types
▪ Criteria for distinguishing one type of network to the other
▪ size, geographical coverage, and ownership
▪ Local Area Network
▪ privately owned and connects some hosts in a single office, building, or
campus.
▪ LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office, or it
can extend throughout a company and include audio and video devices.
▪ A packet sent by a host to another host carries both the source host’s and the
destination host’s addresses.
▪ LANs use a smart connecting switch, which is able to recognize the destination
address of the packet and guide the packet to its destination

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 ▪ A typical LAN

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Source: Conceptdraw
▪ Wide Area Network - wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a country,
or even the world.
▪ A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects connecting devices such as
switches, routers, or modems.
▪ A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating devices through
a transmission media (cable or air).
▪ A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
▪ combination of several point-to-point WANs that are connected by switches
▪ When two or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork, or
internet
Evolution of networks
▪ telegraph and telephone networks, before 1960 – constant rate communication
(connection has to be made before sending the message)
▪ Networks should be able to handle bursty data (data received at variable rates at
different times).
▪ Packet-Switched Networks
▪ first presented by Leonard Kleinrock in 1961 at MIT to deal with bursty traffic.
▪ ARPANET
▪ mainframe computers in research organizations were stand-alone devices
▪ Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one
another.
▪ Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Defense
(DOD)
▪ ARPA presented ARPANET (small network of connected computers) in ACM
▪ Each host will be connected to IMP (interface message processor). IMPs can
communicate with itself.
▪ By 1969, ARPANET was a reality – 4 nodes at different universities were
connected via IMP.
▪ Network control protocol was used for connection.
▪ Birth of the Internet
▪ In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, wanted to link dissimilar networks so that a host on one
network could communicate with a host on another.
▪ Supported diverse packet sizes, diverse interfaces, and diverse transmission rates, as
well as differing reliability requirements.
▪ devised the idea of a device called a gateway to serve as the intermediary hardware to
transfer data from one network to another.
▪ TCP/IP
▪ to achieve end-to-end delivery of data.
▪ included concepts such as encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a gateway.
▪ Split into - Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). IP would handle
datagram routing while TCP would be responsible for higher level functions such as
segmentation, reassembly, and error detection.
▪ The new combination became known as TCP/IP.

▪ MILNET
▪ ARPANET split into two networks: Military Network (MILNET) for military users and ARPANET for
nonmilitary users

▪ CSNET
▪ Computer Science Network (CSNET) was a network sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF).
The network was conceived by universities that were ineligible to join ARPANET due to an absence of ties to
the Department of Defense.
▪ CSNET was a less expensive network; there were no redundant links and the transmission rate was slower.
 ▪ NSFNET
▪ National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET), a backbone that connected five
supercomputer centers located throughout the United States.

▪ ANSNET
▪ the U.S. government decided that NSFNET was not capable of supporting the rapidly increasing
Internet traffic.
▪ Three companies, IBM, Merit, and Verizon, filled the void by forming a nonprofit organization
called Advanced Network & Services (ANS) to build a new, high-speed Internet backbone called
Advanced Network Services Network (ANSNET).

Internet Today - World wide we, multimedia, peer-peer networking

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 Protocols layering
▪ In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules that
both the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow.
▪ When the communication is complex, we may need to divide the task
between different layers, in which case we need a protocol at each layer,
or protocol layering.
internet

Router

Server

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Network Models
Network Models

TCP/IP OSI

5 layer model 7 layer model

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 Layers in a TCP/IP protocol suite

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 Physical Layer
▪ Responsible for carrying bits individual bits in a frame across the link.
▪ Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).
▪ transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or optical signals

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 ▪ Responsibilities of physical layer
▪ Physical interface and medium used
▪ Fibre optics
▪ Twisted pair
▪ Coaxial cable
▪ Representation of bits
▪ Data rate
▪ Synchronization of bits
▪ Line configuration
▪ Point to point
▪ Multi point
▪ Physical topology
▪ Bus/star
▪ Transmission mode
▪ Simples
▪ Half duplex
▪ Full duplex

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 Data link layer
▪ The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a
frame.
▪ It is hop to hop transmission of data
▪ Responsibilities of data link layer
▪ Framing – data is converted into manageable units called frames
▪ The header information of the data link layer contains the physical address of the nodes.
(source MAC and destination MAC)
▪ prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slower receiver (Flow control)
▪ Error control mechanism (checksum, CRC etc) – check bits used for error control is
added in the trailer end of the protocol data unit (PDU)
▪ A PDU is a combination of header + data + trailer

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 Network layer
▪ The network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the source
network and the destination network. (communication between two different
networks).
▪ communication at the network layer is host-to-host.
▪ Routers do not need the application and transport layers
▪ Internet Protocol (IP), that defines the format of the packet, called a datagram at
the network.
▪ Logical addressing is used to identify the corresponding network (ip address)
▪ Routing - routing the packet through possible routes (since there may be more
number of routers in the internet)

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 Control messages send in network layer
▪ The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) helps IP to report some problems
when routing a packet.
▪ The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is another protocol that helps
IP in multitasking.
▪ The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) helps IP to get the network-
layer address for a host.
▪ The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol that helps IP to find the link-
layer address of a host or a router when its network-layer address is given.

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 Transport layer
▪ The logical connection at the transport layer is also end-to-end.
▪ Process – Process delivery of data.
▪ gets the message from the application layer, encapsulates it in a transport
layer packet (called a segment or a user datagram in different protocols)
and sends it.
▪ Transport Layer requires a Port number to correctly deliver the segments
of data to the correct process amongst the multiple processes running on
a particular host.
▪ A port number is a 16 bit address used to identify any client-server
program uniquely – service point addressing
▪ Creates an end-to-end Connection between hosts for which it uses TCP
(transmission control protocol) and UDP (user datagram protocol)

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 ▪ TCP is a secure, connection- orientated protocol which uses a handshake
protocol to establish a robust connection between two end- hosts.
▪ TCP ensures reliable delivery of messages.
▪ UDP, on the other hand, is a stateless and unreliable protocol which ensures
best-effort delivery.
▪ It is suitable for the applications which have little concern with flow or error
control and requires to send the bulk of data like video conferencing.
▪ Multiplexing and demultiplexing
▪ The transport layer accepts these packets from different processes
differentiated by their port numbers and passes them to the network layer after
adding proper headers
▪ Congestion Control
▪ Congestion is a situation in which too many sources over a network attempt to send data and the
router buffers start overflowing due to which loss of packets occur.

▪ Flow and error control

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 ▪ Segmentation and Reassembly
▪ In segmentation, a message is divided into transmittable segments; each segment
containing a sequence number. This number enables this layer to reassemble the
message.
▪ Upon arriving at its destination system message is reassembled correctly, identify and
replaces packets that were lost in transmission.

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 Application layer
▪ The two application layers exchange messages between each other as though here were a
bridge between the two layers.

▪ The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for accessing the World Wide Web
(WWW).

▪ The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main protocol used in electronic mail (e-mail)
service.

▪ The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring files from one host to another.

▪ The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are used for accessing a site
remotely.

▪ The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used by an administrator to manage the
Internet at global and local levels.

▪ The Domain Name System (DNS) is used by other protocols to find the network-layer address
of a computer.
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 OSI reference model
▪ Established in 1947, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide
agreement on international standards.
▪ An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.
▪ The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to
facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring changes to the logic of
the underlying hardware and software.

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 Presentation layer
▪ From the application layer the data is passed to the presentation layer.
▪ The presentation layer translates the data into machine readable form -
translation
translates
ABCDEF 110111010111111
▪ The layer reduces the number of bits transmitted – Data Compression

Reduces
110111010111111 11011011

▪ To maintain integrity of data, the data can be converted to another form –

Encryption/decryption

11011011 @10!!)12

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 Session layer
▪ Setting up and managing connections in sending and receiving data followed by
termination of connection
▪ Done by APIs
▪ Suppose, if u want to connect to a server, the server
▪ Authenticates (who you are – uses usernames and passwords)
▪ If password matches the connection is established
▪ Authorization (determine if u have permission to access a file)
▪ Session management (managing the images and text)

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 Protocols and standards
▪ protocol, which is synonymous with rule
▪ Syntax - refers to the structure or format of the data
▪ Semantics - meaning of each section of bits
▪ Timing - when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent

▪ standards, which are agreed-upon rules.

▪ provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service
providers
▪ fall into two categories: de facto and de jure

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 Organizations for creating standards
▪ International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
▪ International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector
(ITU-T)
▪ American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
▪ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
▪ Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

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 ▪ Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
▪ US professional society
▪ IEEE 802 project which produced recommendations

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 ▪ 802. 1 Overview of 802 standards
▪ 802. 2 Logical Link Control
▪ 802. 3 Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection CSMA/CD
▪ 802. 4 Token Bus
▪ 802. 5 Token Ring
▪ 802. 6 MANs
▪ 802. 7 Broadband LANs
▪ 802. 9 LAN Integration
▪ 802.10 LAN Security
▪ 802.11 Wireless LANs
▪ 802.12 100VG Any LAN
▪ 802.17 Resilient Packet Ring

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