Why TCP IP is used instead of OSI?
PROTOCOL: a protocol is a standardized
The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual
model that defines network
communication used by systems open to
interconnection and communication with
other systems. On the other
hand, TCP/IP helps you to determine how a
specific computer should be connected to the
internet and how you can be transmitted
between them.
Data communications are the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
A data communications system has five
components
Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that
govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating
devices. Protocols are like a common language
for computers.
Elements of a Protocol
set of rules for formatting and processing
data. Protocols enable computers to
communicate with one another.
TCP= transmission control protocol
IP = Internet protocol
HTTP = Hypertext Transfer Protocol
SMTP= Simple mail transfer protocol
SNMP= Simple network management
protocol
DNS = Domain name system
TELNET= Terminal network
FTP = File transfer protocol
OSI vs TCP/IP
Syntax
◦Structure or format of the data
◦Indicates how to read the bits -field
delineation
Semantics
◦Interprets the meaning of the bits
◦Knows which fields define what action
Timing
◦When data should be sent and what
◦Speed at which data should be sent or speed
at which it is being received.
Data flow Full-Duplex
Communication between two devices can be In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex stations can transmit and receive
Simplex simultaneously.
In simplex mode, the communication is The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street
unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only with traffic flowing in both directions at the
one of the two devices on a link can transmit; same time.
the other can only receive. Keyboards and Example of full-duplex communication is the
traditional monitors are examples of simplex telephone network.
devices. When two people are communicating by a
Half-Duplex telephone line, both can talk and listen at the
In half-duplex mode, each station can both same time.
transmit and receive, but not at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when
When one device is sending, the other can only communication in both directions is required
receive, and vice versa. Walkie-talkies and CB all the time. The capacity of the channel,
(citizens band) radios are both half-duplex however, must be divided between the two
systems. directions.

NETWORKS Delay: The time between we asked the service

A network is the interconnection of a set of devices and get the service is called delay.
(often referred to as nodes) connected by The performance will better when there is
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, more throughput and less delay.
or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving
Higher the throughput better the performance
data generated by other nodes on the network. A link can
be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which can lower the throughput poor the performance.
be transport a signal carrying information. Lower the delay better the performance and
Network Criteria higher the delay poor the perfoemance.
A network must be able to meet a certain number of
criteria. The most important of these are performance, Reliability
reliability, and security.
◦Failure rate of network components
◦Measured in terms of availability/robustness
Performance
Security
◦Depends on Network Elements
◦Data protection against corruption/loss of
◦Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
data due to:
Data Rate: Maximum Capacity of the line.
◦Errors
What is the maximum data can transfer
through the line. ◦Malicious users
Throughput: The number of bits successfully
transferred to the receiver. Whatever we
actually get.

Physical Structures ◦Type of transmission -unicast, multicast,

Type of Connection broadcast
◦Point to Point -single transmitter and Unicast:
receiver. Provides a dedicated link between two There is only one sender, and one
devices.
receiver.
◦Multipoint -also called multidrop. Multiple
Ex: Downloading a file from a FTP Server.
recipients of single transmission
Physical Topology (FTP Server is the sender and your
◦Connection of devices computer is the receiver.)
Multicast:
The sender transmit only one copy of
data and it is delivered and/or processed
to many devices (Not as delivered and
processed by all devices as in Broadcast)
who are interested in that traffic.
Broadcast: In Broadcast, there is only one
sender and the data is sent only once. But
Mesh Topology:
In mesh topology each device is
connected to every other device on
the network through a dedicated point-
to-point link. When we say dedicated it
means that the link only carries data
for the two connected devices only.
Lets say we have n devices in the
network then each device must be
connected with (n-1) devices of the
network. Number of links in a mesh
topology of n devices would be n(n-
1)/2.
Star Topology:
In star topology each device in the
network is connected to a central
device called switch(previously it was
hub).
Categories of Networks
Personal Area Network (PAN)
◦Smallest network and coverage area is
around the desk/body
Local Area Network (LAN)
◦Short distances
◦Designed to provide local interconnectivity
CHAPTER-2
THE OSI MODEL
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to
describe the functions of a networking system
ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.
Seven layers of the OSI model
the Broadcast data is delivered to all
connected devices.
Topology:
There are four basic topologies possible:
mesh, star, bus, and ring.
Bus Topology:
In bus topology there is a main cable
and all the devices are connected to
this main cable through drop lines
Ring Topology:
In ring topology each device is
connected with the two devices on
either side of it.
Star topology is best of all the
topology.
A Star Network Topology is best suited for
smaller networks and works efficiently when
there is limited number of nodes. One has to
ensure that the hub or the central node is
always working and extra security features
should be added to the hub because it s the
heart of the network.
Campus Area Network (CAN)
◦Larger than LAN but smaller than MAN
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
◦Provide connectivity over areas such as a city
Wide Area Network (WAN)
◦Long distances
◦Provide connectivity over large areas
Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
Physical layer:
The physical layer is responsible for
movements of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next. This layer includes the
physical equipment involved in the data
transfer, such as the cables and switches.
To transmit bits over a medium; to
provide mechanical and electrical
specifications.
Datalink layer:
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next. The
data link layer takes packets from the
network layer and breaks them into
smaller pieces called frames. To organize
bits into frames; to provide hop to ho
delivery.
CHAPTER 3
To be transmitted, data must be
transformed to electromagnetic signals.
Analog data: The term analog data refers to
information that is continuous. Analog data
take on continuous values. That uses one time
variable quantity. (Each of the point has
different value)
Digital data: refers to information that has
discrete states. Digital data take on discrete
values.
Network layer: The network layer is
responsible for the delivery of individual
packets from the source host to the destination
host. To move packets from source to
destination; to provide internetworking.
Transport layer: The transport layer is
responsible for the delivery of a message from
one process to another. To provide reliable
process to process msg delivery and error
recovery.
Session layer: The session layer is
responsible for dialog control and
synchronization. To establish, manage, and
terminate sessions.
Presentation layer: The presentation layer is
responsible for translation, compression, and
encryption. To translate. Encrypt, and
compress data.
Application layer: The application layer
is responsible for providing services to the
user. To allow access to network resources.
Analog and Digital Signals:
•Signals can be analog or digital.
•Analog signals can have an infinite number
of values in a range.
•Digital signals can have only a limited
number of values.
Frequency : the number of complete cycle in
one second. (1/T)
Amplitude: Amplitude is the maximum
displacement of points on a wave,
Higher amplitude the stronger the signal
Phase: compared to the reference point the
position of the signal of any particular time is
called phase.
Time domain: represent any signal by
amplitude and time.
Attenuation:
Frequency domain: represent any signal by
amplitude and frequency.
Wavelength: The Wavelength is the distance
a simple signal can travel in one period.
Lemda= c*T= c/f
Period: time is required to complete a full
cycle.

Distortion:

Noise:

SNR: Signal to Noise Ratio.(higher the snr better the performance)

SNR= (signal/noise)