Chapter 3

Construction materials

 Cement and water

 Aggregates and sands

Reinforcing steel
 Construction materials
Building material is any material which is used for a construction
purpose. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood
and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used to construct buildings.
Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are
in use, some more and some less synthetic.
 Concrete
Concrete: Concrete is a composite building material made from
the combination of aggregate and a binder such as cement. The
most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete,
which consists of gravel, sand , portland cement and water. After
mixing, and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. This is
the material referred to by the term
concrete.

video
 Concrete composition
Concrete is a mixture of aggregate and often controlled amounts of
entrained air held together by a hardened paste made from cement
and water.

Cement + Fine aggregates+ coarse aggregate + water

 A) cement
Cement is a hydraulic binder, an inorganic, non-metallic, finely ground
substance which, after mixing with water, sets and hardens
independently as a result of chemical reactions with the mixing water
and, after hardening, it remains its strength and stability even under
water. The most important area of application is therefore the
production of mortar and concrete, the bonding
of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material
which is durable in the face of normal environmental effects.
 Uses of cement
 It is used in making joints for drains ,pipes.

 It is used to prepare RCC structures of building by using

reinforcement with cement concrete.

 it is used in construction of buildings, bridges, tanks, domes,

flyovers, etc.

 It is used to prepare cement mortar for building construction

works like masonry, plaster, painting, flooring etc.

 It is used to prepare cement concrete for various construction

works.
 Types of Cement
The properties of cement during hydration vary according to:
 Chemical composition
 Degree of fineness

It is possible to manufacture different types of cement by

changing the percentages of their raw materials.
Types of Cement
 Portland cement
 Natural cement
 Expansive cement
 Portland Cement
A hydraulic cement capable of setting, hardening and
remaining stable under water. It consists essentially of
hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing calcium
sulfate.
Portland cement is
the most common
type of cement in
general use around
the world, used as a
basic ingredient of
concrete , mortar and
most non-
specialty grout.
 Types of Portland Cement
The production process for portland cement first involves
grinding limestone or chalk and alumina and silica from shale or
clay.

Types of Portland Cement

 Ordinary Portland cement – Type Ι

 Modified cement - Type ΙΙ
Rapid-hardening Portland cement – Type ΙΙΙ
 Low heat Portland cement – Type ΙV
 Sulfate-resisting Portland cement – Type V
It is possible to add some additive to Portland cement
to produce the following types:
 Portland blast furnace cement Type ΙS
 Pozzolanic cement - Type ΙP
 Air-entrained cement - Type ΙA
 White Portland cement
 Colored Portland cement

Type I/II portland cements are the most popular cements used by
concrete producers
-Type I cement is the general purpose cement and most common
type. Unless an alternative is specified, Type I is usually used.
-Type II cement releases less heat during hardening. It is more
suitable for projects involving large masses of concrete--heavy
retaining walls
 Types of Portland cement and use
Cement type Use
I1 General purpose cement, when there are no extenuating
conditions
II2 providing moderate resistance to sulfate attack
III 3 When high-early strength is required
IV4 When a low heat of hydration is desired (in massive structures)

V5 When high sulfate resistance is required

IA6 A type I cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

IIA7 A type II cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

IIIA8 A type III cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

 Physical Properties of Portland Cements
1) Fineness,
2) Soundness
3) Consistency
4) Setting time
5) Compressive strength
6) Heat of hydration
7) Loss of ignition
• Portland cements are commonly characterized by their
physical properties quality control purposes. Their physical
properties can be used to classify and compare Portland
cements. The challenge in physical property characterization
to develop physical tests that can satisfactorily characterize key
parameters.
 1)Fineness
• Fineness, or particle size of Portland cement affects Hydration
rate and thus the rate of strength gain. The smaller the particle size,
the greater the surface
area-to-volume ratio, and thus, the more area available for water-
cement interaction per unit volume. The effects of greater fineness
on strength are generally seen during the first seven days.
• When the cement particles are coarser, hydration starts on the
surface of the particles. So the coarser particles may not be
completely hydrated.This causes low strength and low durability.
• For a rapid development of strength a high fineness is necessary.
 Soundness
When referring to Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability
of a hardened cement paste to retain its volume after setting without
delayed expansion. This expansion is caused by excessive amounts of
free lime or magnesia . Most Portland cement specifications limit
magnesia content and expansion.
The cement paste should not undergo large changes in volume after
it has set. However, when excessive amounts of free or are present in
the cement, these oxides can slowly hydrate and cause expansion of
the hardened cement
paste.
Soundness is defined as the volume stability of the cement paste.
 Consistency
The consistency is measured by the Vicat apparatus using a 10mm
diameter plunger.
A trial paste of cement and water is mixed and placed in the mold
having an inside diameter of 70mm at the base and 60mm at the top,
and a height of 40mm.
The plunger is then brought into contact with the top surface of the
paste and released. Under the action of its weight the plunger will
penetrate the paste. The depth depending on the consistency.
When the plunger penetrates the paste to a point 5 to 7mm from
the bottom of the mold. The paste is considered to be at “normal
consistency”.
The water content of the paste is expressed as a percentage by
weight of dry cement. The usual range of values being between 26%
and 33%.
setting Time

 Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items

including: cement fineness, water-cement ratio, chemical content
(especially gypsum content) and admixtures. Setting tests are
used to characterize how a particular cement paste
sets.
 For construction purposes, the initial set must not be too
soon and the final set must not be too late. Normally, two
setting times are defined:
 Initial set. Occurs when the paste begins to stiffen
considerably.
 Final set. Occurs when the cement has hardened to the
point at which it can sustain some load
 Setting time
 The setting time test is conducted by using the sameVicat
apparatus, except that a 1mm diameter needle is used for
penetration.
The test is started about 15 minutes after placing the cement
paste (which has normal consistency) into the mold. Trials for
penetration of the needle are made.
 The final setting time is defined as the length of time between
the penetration of the paste and the time when the needle(with
annular ring) no longer sinks visibly into the paste.
 The initial setting time is defined as the length of time between
the penetration of the paste and the time when the needle
penetrates 25mm into the cement paste.

Test video
 Water to Cement Ratio
When water and cement is mixed, it forms a paste that coats and
binds the aggregate particles together. Through a chemical process
called hydration, the paste hardens and gains strength. The
strength of the paste is determined by the applied ratio of water to
cement. The strength of concrete increases when less water is used
during the preparation of the mix. Although the hydration process
consumes a certain amount of water, wet concrete actually
contains more water than required for the
hydration reactions. The excess water is added to provide the wet
mix with sufficient workability. Concrete needs to be workable so
that it can be moulded into the desired shapes and consolidated to
the required density.
The quantity of water divided by the amount of cement gives the
water to cement ratio. A low water to cement ratio leads to high
strength but low workability while a high water to cement
ratio produces a low strength concrete but good workability. A
careful balance of cement to water is therefore required when
preparing the mix. Water/cement ratios in the range between 0.4
and 0.6 provide a good workability without compromising the quality
of the concrete. Hand-mixed and hand-placed concrete requires more
water to secure sufficient workability (water/cement ratio between
0.5 and 0.65).

w/c = 0.4 - 0.6

Example

A batch of concrete has 45 gallons of water and 900 lbs of cement.

a)Calculate the water to cement ratio
b)Fine the water in ibs

Solution
Chang gallons to Ibs
1gallon = 8.33 Ibs
So,
Water to cement ratio(r)

r = 8.33 (45 gallons) / (900 lbs)

= 0.42
Water (Ibs) =900*0.42 = 378 Ibs
The end
 b) Aggregate and sand

Aggregates occupy 60 to 80 percent of the

volume of concrete.

Sand, gravel and crushed stone are the

primary aggregates used.

All aggregates must be essentially free

of silt and/or organic matter.
 Natural Aggregate

Sand and Gravel : Aggregates that come from

unconsolidated sand and gravel deposits. Typically deposited by
streams or glaciers.

Quarry: Aggregates that come from bedrock deposits.

Bedrock, which is consolidated rock includes: granite, basalt,
, etc.
Contrived Aggregate

Recycle: Products that include crushed concrete, bituminous,

or demolition debris and in some instances tailings.
The properties of concrete are affected by the properties
of aggregate

1. The mineral character of aggregate affects the strength,

durability, elasticity of concrete.
2. The surface characteristics of aggregate affects the workability of
fresh mass & the bond between the aggregate & cement paste
in hardened concrete. If it is rough, workability decreases &
bond increases.
3. The grading of aggregate affects the workability, density &
economy.
4. The amount of aggregate in unit volume of concrete
 Practical shape& surface texture

 In addition to petrological character, the external characteristics,

i.e. The shape & surface texture of aggregates are of importance.
Particle Shape
 Rounded: Completely water worn & fully shaped by attrition.
(River Gravel)

 Irregular: Partly shaped by attrition so it contains some rounded

edges. (Land Gravel)
 Angular: Has sharp corners, show little evidence of wear.
(Crushed Stone)

 Flaky: Thickness is relatively small with respect to two

other dimensions. (Laminated Rocks)

 Elongated: Have lengths considerably larger than two

other dimensions
flat elongated

round
angular
 Rounded aggregates are suitable to use in concrete because flaky
& elongated particles reduce workability, increase water
demand & reduce strength.

 In the case of angular particles, the bond between agg. Particles

is higher due to interlocking but due to higher surface area,
angular particles increase water demand & therefore reduce
workability. As a result, for the same content & same
workability rounded agg. Give higher strength.
 Surface Texture
 This affects the bond to the cement paste & also influences the
water demand of the mix.

Smooth: Bond between cement paste & agg is weak.


Rough: Bond between cement paste & agg. is strong.

 Surface texture is not a very important property from

compressive strength point of view but agg. Having rough
surface texture perform better under flexural & tensile stresses.
smooth rough
 Grading of Aggregates
Grading is the particle-size distribution of an aggregate as
determined by a sieve analysis using wire mesh sieves with
square openings.
 The particle size distribution in an aggregate sample is known as
“gradation”.

 Strength development of concrete depends on degree of

compaction & workability together with many other factors. So,
a satisfactory concrete should be compacted to max density with
a reasonable work.

 On the other hand, in good concrete all aggregate particles

must be covered by cement paste.
 The grading of aggregate must be so that the workability, density &
volume stability of concrete may not be adversely affected by it.

• Fine Particles → higher cost

• Coarse Particles → less workability

 A reasonable combination of fine & coarse aggregate must be used.

This can be expressed by maximum density or minimum voids
concept.
A cube with a dimension of 2Dx2Dx2D is filled with spheres
of diameter D

Vcube=(2D)3=8D3

1Vsphere=(4/3)π(D/2)3≈0.52D3

8*Vsp=8*0.52D3≈4.2D3 (solid volume)

D
Void Volume=8D3 - 4.2D3=3.8D3
2D
 Size of agg. is not important. If an agg. with the same size is used
amount of void volume will not change. So, to overcome this
different sizes of particles should be used.
 However, you should not forget that as agg. get finer, the surface area
increases.
 More surface area → more paste & water requirement
 Factors Affecting a Desired Grading

1) Surface area of the Aggregate

The lower surface area is lesser the paste requirement.
2) Relative Volume of Agg. in Concrete
Higher volume of agg.:
→economical
→higher strength, higher volume stability
→less workability !
3) Workability: The ease with which a concrete mixture can
be mixed, transported, placed in theform & compacted
without any segregation.
Workability increases as the amount of paste between
fine agg. part increases. It also increases as the amount
of mortar between coarse agg. particles increases.

4) Segregation: Seperation of the particles with different

sizes & specific gravities.
The requirements of workability and absence of
segregation tend to oppose each other. Thus, these two
factors are interrelated. The major of these is
workability which, in turn, affects most of the
properties of concrete.
 Determination of the Grading of Aggregate
 There are two different methods for determining the agg. grading:
• Fineness Modulus (FM)
• Granulometry

 The grading of the particles in an agg. sample is performed by

“sieve analysis”. The sieve analysis is conducted by the use of
“standard test sieves”. Test sieves have square openings & their
designation correspond to the sizes of those openings.
1) Fineness Modulus (FM):
• FM is a single figure which is the sum of cumulative % retained
on a series of sieves having a clear opening half that of the
preceeding one. Usually determined for fine agg.

• The FM of the mixture of two or more agg. is the weighted

average of the FM of that two more agg.
Example
A 500gr sample of a Fine Agg. was sieved. Determine FM?

Amount Retained Amount Retained % Cumulative

Sieve
on (gr) on (%) Retained on
3/8" 0 0 0
#4 30 6 6
#8 80 16 22
#16 100 20 42
#30 120 24 66
#50 125 25 91
#100 35 7 98
Pan 10 2 100
 6+22+42+66+91+98
FM = = 3.25
100

• Pan is not included.

• Only standard sieves are included, if we were given #10 sieve you
should not use that in calculations.
2) Granulometry:

• The FM is not always representative of the gradation of an

aggregate sample and various gradation curves may give the same
FM.
• In the gradation curves, the vertical axis represents the %
passing & the horizontal axis represents the sieve opening.
• A logarithmic scale is used for horizontal axis.
 A good aggregate gradation for a particular concrete is the one that
leads to a workable, dense & uniform concrete, without any
segregation of particles.

 There is no single “ideal” grading curve. Instead, standards

provide upper & lower limits.
 Maximum aggregate size

 It’s the smallest sieve size through which the entire amount of the
agg particles can pass.

 The larger size of agg, the smaller the surface area to be wetted per
unit weight. Thus, extending the grading of agg to a larger max size
lowers the water requirement of the mix. So, for the same
workability & cement content higher strength will be obtained.
Optimum max agg size for structural concrete is 25mm.

Studies have shown that concrete’s made with max agg size greater
than 40mm have lower strength. Because of the smaller surface area
for the bond between agg to paste. Volume changes in the paste
causes larger stresses at the interface.
 Standard Limitations for Max Agg Size
The concrete mix must be placed inside the
molds and between the reinforcing bars easily
without any segregation. So, max agg size (Dmax)
should not exceed:

1) 1/5 of the narrowest dimension of the mold.

d=min (d1,d2,d3)
d2
d3
d1
2) 1/3 of the depth of the slab
slab h
Dmax <
h 3

3) ¾ of the clear spacing between reinforcement

Suface of the distance
3
Dmax < S
4

S 4) Dmax < 40mm

 Example:
6cm
slab 9cm Φ=10mm
Dmax=?
beam
40cm

5cm
20cm
Dmax < 3cm
 c) Reinforcing steel
Reinforcing bars are hot-rolled from a variety of steels in several
different strength grades. Generally, reinforcing steel bars are either
carbon-steel or low-alloy steel ,Most reinforcing bars are rolled from
new steel billets, but some are rolled from used railroad-car axles or
railroad rails that have been cut into rollable shapes. An assortment of
strengths is available.

video
 Tension in Steel
Steel bars are strong in tension. Structural grade is capable of safely
carrying up to 18,000 psi and intermediate, hard, and rail steel,
20,000 psi. This is the safe or working stress; the breaking stress is
about triple this.
When a mild steel bar is pulled in a testing machine, it stretches a
very small amount
with each increment of load. In the lighter loadings, this stretch is
directly proportional to the amount of load The amount is too small
to be visible and can be measured only with sensitive gauges.

video
 Types of reinforcing steel

 mild steel (hot rolled steel)

 hard drawn steel, high strength steel

 Comparison concrete and steel reinforcement in tensile
strength
 concrete is weak in tension but strong in compression
Steel is strong in tension
Therefore ,reinforcement steel is needed to resist tension stresses
resulting from the applied loads
Additional reinforcement some times added to the compression
zone to reduce long term deflection.
Steel reinforcement consists of
 bars
Wires
Welded wire fabric
 Combination steel and concrete
 it follows that the two materials are best used in combination
if the concrete is made to resist the compressive stress and the
steel resist the tensile stress

Concrete can not withstand very much tensile stress without

cracking .

 it follows that tensile reinforcement must be embedded in the

concrete to overcome the deficiency

 steel is high-cost material compared with concrete

Link
Concrete
Steel reinforcement
bars

video
The end