Chapter 2: Reference Systems

Chapter 2: Reference Systems

1. Anatomical
2. Linear
3. Angular (rotational or radial)
 Dimensions of Movement
• 0 Dimensions - point.
• 1 Dimension - line.
• 2 Dimensions - plane.
• 3 Dimensions - cube, sphere, etc.
• 4 Dimensions - 3 Dimensions + time.
 Dimensions of Movement
• 4 Dimensions - 3 Dimensions + time.
Movement occurs in all 4 dimensions (time and space).

Space
Anatomical Analysis of Movement
Oldest Analysis in Exercise Biomechanics

1. Which Joints (or body segments) are Moving?

2. What type of Joint (or segment) Movement is/are

occurring?

3. Which Skeletal Muscles are Contributing to

Joint/segment Movement?

4. Are the Muscles contracting Concentrically (shortening),

Eccentrically (lengthening), or Isometrically (static)
Body Planes Used in Describing Anatomy
 Anatomical Planes

Divide the body

Divide the body
Into left and right
Into front and back
sections
sections

Divide the body

Into upper and lower
segments
 Sagittal Plane
cycling running

front flips

Crunches
Sagittal Plane Joint Movements
 Frontal (Coronal) Plane
jumping jack pulldown

Side stepping
Overhead press
Frontal Plane Joint Movements
 Transverse Plane
baseball swing

dancer's pirouette

tennis backhand
Transverse Plane Joint Movements
Directional Terms Used in Describing
Anatomy
• Anterior (ventral) –
Towards the front of
the body
• Posterior (dorsal) –
Towards the back of
the body
• Superior (cranial) –
Towards the head
• Inferior (caudal) –
Away from the head
The toes are anterior to the heel
Directional Terms Used in Describing
Anatomy
• Medial – Nearer the
midline of the body
• Lateral – Farther
from the midline of
the body
• Proximal – Nearer to
the attachment of a
limb to the trunk
• Distal – Farther from
the attachment of
the limb to a trunk
 Y Axis
The cardinal axes lie at
the intersection of the
cardinal planes. Center of Gravity

X Axis
Z Axis

The cardinal planes

and axes all intersect
at the center of
gravity.
 Cardinal Axes of the Body

• X-Axis (Mediolateral Axis)

 to Sagittal plane
• Y-Axis (Longitudinal Axis)
 to Transverse plane
• Z-Axis (Anteroposterior Axis)
 to Frontal plane

Movement, both whole body and segmental,

takes place in the cardinal planes and around
the cardinal axes.
The ellipse represents the
transverse plane and the black
line represents the Y-axis. (The
plane is like a record turntable
and the axis is like the spindle Transverse Plane
that holds the record in place.)
The Y-axis is perpendicular to
the transverse plane. Therefore
a point which rotates around the
Y-axis will move in the
transverse plane. Essentially,
movement in a given plane
takes place around the axis that
is perpendicular to that plane. Y-axis
 X-Axis

• Passes from side to side.

• Rotation in the sagittal plane takes place around the x-axis.

 Y-Axis

• Passes from top to bottom.

• Rotation in the transverse plane takes place around the y-axis.

 Z-Axis
• Passes from front to back.

• Rotation in the frontal plane takes place around the z-axis.

1. Body Plane
(sagittal, frontal, transverse)

2. Directions

3. Axis (x, y, z)
 Degrees of Freedom
• The number of axes joint (or movement) can rotate around
• Ex. Elbow joint has 1 DF
(flexion and extension in the sagittal plane)

Shoulder has 3 DF
 Standard Reference Terminology

• Movements
• actions that occur in reference to Time and Space

• Categorized and quantified using the LINEAR and

ANGULAR reference systems.
 Linear and Angular

• Linear – transitional motion

(from point A to point B)

• Angular – rotational motion

(from angle A to angle B)
 Linear Reference System

• Linear – The basic units - distance (cm, in, km, etc).

• Rectilinear - straight line (100 m dash)

• Curvilinear – path of the head of a golf club, flight of a

ball
Rectilinear Movement
 Curvilinear Movement
• Curvilinear
• Follows a curved path

• Path of a thrown football

• Movement of hand around the elbow (segments/joints)
• Rotation of tennis racket around body
 Curvilinear Movement

Tom Brady Ryan Tannehill

 Two Dimensional Coordinate System

Y-Axis
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Coordinates are
expressed as pairs
of numbers in
(5,3) parentheses.
X = 5 and Y = 3 is
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
X-Axis expressed as (5, 3)
Two Dimensional Coordinate System
 3 Dimensional Coordinate System
Y-Axis
In a three
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
dimensional
system the
coordinates are
given as triplets of
X-Axis
numbers inside of
parentheses.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(4, 3, 7) X = 4, Y = 3 and
Z = 7 would be
expressed as
Z-Axis (4,3,7).