PROPELLER THEORY

1) Simple Propeller Theories: Screw-Nut Principle

q A screw in a solid medium advances P meters in one revolution. P=pitch

q If n is the screw rate of revolutions (rev. per second), the advance speed of
the screw is P*n in m/s

q A propeller advances in one second less than P.n

P*n since it accelerates water in the direction V s A P.n
opposite to the motion. If V is the ship speed VA s R P.n
(m/s) and VA is the speed at the propeller plane: V .w
P.n − V V
- Apparent slip ratio: s A = = 1−
P.n P.n
P.n − VA VA
- Real slip ratio s R = = 1− V
P.n P.n VA
1 − s R VA
- Wake fraction (w) = = 1− w
1 − sA V
T .VA
- An efficiency may be defined as η = = 1 − s R ( s R = 0 ⇒ η = 1)
T .n.P
q The propeller is a reaction machine: it takes water at a certain speed and
throws it astern at a greater speed
 PROPELLER THEORY
2) Blade Element Theory of Propellers (Froude)

q The propeller blades are composed of annular strips

extending from leading edge (LE) to trailing edge (TE)
Blade element
q Each blade element operates as if it were a part of a
hydrofoil

q Originally losses at the tips due to tip vortices dr

were neglected as well as those due to blade r
interference (cascade effect). Propeller induced
velocities were also not accounted for initially.
Hub
q Later it has been combined with momentum
or with lifting line theory to overcome Blade R
such shortcomings
 PROPELLER THEORY
Nomenclature UA
chordline
UT
VE
αE
dD
dT αG
dL Foil section
VA=VS(1-w)

βI
β

ωr+Vθ
dFT=dQ/r

dT= blade element thrust VS= ship velocity

dFt= blade element tangential force
dQ= blade element torque
dL= blade element lift
dD= blade element viscous drag
ω= propeller angular rate of rotation (rad/s)
αG= geometric angle of attack (2D)
αE= effective angle of attack (3D)
w= wake fraction
VA= local axial average inflow
Vθ= local tangential average inflow
VE= local effective total velocity
UA= induced axial velocity
UT= induced tangential velocity
β= propeller angle of advance
βi= induced hydrodynamic pitch angle
 PROPELLER THEORY
2) Actuator disk by momentum theory (MT)
q The propeller is represented by a disk that produces a pressure jump ∆p
between its upstream and downstream faces. The fluid passing through the
disk is uniformly accelerated V VA+UA oo

q The thrust is uniformly dis-

tributed over the propeller VA VA+UA Vd
Vu X
disk
p p+
q No frictional forces are ∆pO
considered. They can be pu pO pd
accounted for by combining p- X
actuator disk with blade
element theory and using
viscous drag coefficients SC

q The propeller race has VA VA+UA VA+UA oo

either only axial or axial A-oo UT UT oo
AO A+oo
and tangential motion
depending on the degree
of simplification used
 PROPELLER THEORY
2.1) Axial momentum theory
Only axial motion (OX) considered, and the mechanism by which ∆p is
produced at the propeller plane is not known. Consider the fluid inside
streamlines SC

q Bernoulli’
s equation
upstream p−∞ + 12 ρVA2 = p − + 12 ρ (VA + U A ) 2 ∆p = p + − p −
downstream p∞ + 12 ρ (VA + U A∞ ) 2 = p + + 12 ρ (VA + U A ) 2 ∆p = 12 ρU A∞ (2VA + U A∞ )
T = ∆p. A0 = ρA0U A∞ (VA + 12 U A∞ ) (1)

q Energy balance equation (power supplied to the propeller is the change in

kinetic energy per second in the fluid)
m& = ρA0 (VA + U A )
[
T (VA + U A ) = 12 m& (VA + U A∞ ) 2 − VA
2
] T = ρA0U A∞ (VA + 12 U A∞ ) (2)

q Momentum law (thrust is the change of momentum per second)

T = m& (VA + U A∞ ) − m& VA = m& U A∞ T = ρA0U A∞ (VA + U A ) (3)
 PROPELLER THEORY
Equating (1) and (3) U A = 12 U A∞ (4)

The axial velocity induced at the propeller plane is half of that induced at
infinity (this is the traditional momentum theory, acceptable for lightly or
moderately loaded propellers where wake contraction is small)

q EFFICIENCY

It is the ratio of the effective power delivered by the propeller to the power
supplied to the propeller
TVA VA 2
η= = = (5)
T (VA + U A ) VA + U A 1 + 1 + CT
T
where CT = and equation (1) are used to get the right hand side
2 ρA0V A
1 2

- Notice that axial momentum theory does not explain how ∆p is produced

- Notice that Bernoulli’

s equation (1) and momentum law (3) represent the
same physical principle, however they apparently yield different equations
when applied according to traditional momentum theory
 PROPELLER THEORY
In fact (3) results from assuming that the pressure forces on SC are constant and
equal to the pressure at infinity. If we assume that they are not constant, but vary
according to Bernoulli’ s law, then the momentum law yields the same as (1) or
(2). For example, if FP is the resultant of pressure forces on SC, Aoo, A-oo, then
r−∞ r0
T + FP = m& U A∞ FP = ∫ 2πr ( p0 − pu )dr + ∫ 2πr ( p0 − pd )dr
r0 r∞
r−∞ r0

(by Bernoulli’
s equation) FP = ∫ πρ (V − V )rdr + ∫ πρ (Vd2 − [VA + U A∞ ]2 )rdr
u
2
A
2

r0 r∞

r−∞
 A 2
 r
 A 2

FP = ∫ πρVA2  −2∞ 2 − 1 rdr + ∫ πρ (VA + U A∞ ) 2  ∞2 2 − 1 rdr
0

(m& = constant)
r
0  (πr )  r∞  (πr ) 
 r02   r02 
FP = m& VA 1 + 2  + m& (VA + U A∞ ) 1 − 2  T = ρA0U A∞ (VA + 12 U A∞ )
 2r−∞   2r∞ 
here the contributions upstream and downstream of the propeller have been
separately calculated and the continuity equation has been used:
m& = ρA−∞VA = ρA0 (VA + U A ) = ρA+∞ (VA + U A∞ ) = ρAuVu = ρAdVd Au = πr 2 Ad = πr 2
For an annular blade element of thickness dr dT = ρ 2πrU A∞ (VA + 12 U A∞ )dr (6)
 PROPELLER THEORY
2.1) Axial and angular momentum theory
Consider an annular element of stream tube at r=r(x). Now both axial and angular
motions are considered
UT ∆ω ∆ω+ UT+ ∆ωoo UToo
ω= propeller angular velocity
∆ω= angular velocity induced at PP ∆ω+/2
∆ω+= ang. velocity induced behind PP
∆ω-= ang. velocity induced in front of PP X
∆ωoo= ang. velocity induced far downstream
UA= axial velocity induced at PP
UAoo= axial velocity induced far downstream SC
UT= tangential velocity induced at PP=r ∆ω dr
UT += tang. velocity induced behind PP
UT -= tang. velocity induced in front of PP
UT oo= tang. velocity induced far downstream
r= radius of streamtube at PP r VA+UA VA+UA VA+UA oo
VA
roo= radius of streamtube far downstream AO AO A-oo
A-oo
H+= total head behind PP
∆ω=0 ∆ω=0 ∆ω+ ∆ωoo
H-= total head in front of PP (PP=
UTpropeller
-=0 Uplane)
+
UToo
UT=0 T
dA= cross area of annular element=2πrdr
dm/dt= mass flow through dA (=ρ(VA+UA)dA)
dI/dt= momentum of inertia per second at ∆ω+/2
PP=r2dm/dt
dIoo/dt= momentum of inertia per second far
downstream=roo2dm/dt
 PROPELLER THEORY
q Energy balance equation (power supplied to the propeller is the change in
kinetic energy per second in the fluid)

dQ.ω = 12 dm& [(VA + U A∞ ) 2 − VA2 ] + 12 dI&∞ ∆ω∞2 (7)

The power supplied to the propeller can be also expressed as the

summation of a translational component and a rotational one:
dQ.ω = dT (VA + U A ) + dQ∆ω (8)

q Momentum law (the torque is the change of angular momentum)

dQ = dI&∆ω + − dI&∆ω − = dI&∆ω + (9)
The jump of pressure ∆p through the propeller disk (P.D.) can be explain by
a jump in the angular (and tangential) velocity from ∆ω−=0 in front of the
propeller to ∆ω+ behind the propeller, being the axial velocity continuous
through the P.D. At the propeller plane ∆ω= ∆ω+/2 is averaged

dQ.∆ω = dI&∆ω + ∆ω = 12 dI&(∆ω + ) 2 (10)

For lightly or moderately loaded propellers ∆ω∞ ≈ ∆ω

+
 PROPELLER THEORY

q Bernoulli’
s equation
upstream p−∞ + 12 ρVA2 = p − + 12 ρ (VA + U A ) 2 = H −
downstream p∞ + 12 ρ (VA + U A∞ ) + 12 ρU T∞ = p + 12 ρ (VA + U A ) + 12 ρU T = H
2 + 2 + 2 +2 +

[
∆p = p + − p − = 12 ρ (VA + U A∞ ) 2 − VA + U T2∞ − U T+
2 2
] (11)
∆H = H + − H − = ∆p + 12 ρU T+ dT = 2πrdr∆p
2

Useful work = dT .VA = 2πrdr∆pVA

Translational work = dT .(VA + U A ) = 2πrdr∆p (VA + U A )
Total work (translational + rotational) = 2πrdr∆H (VA + U A )

But the total work is also dQ.ω , therefore

dQ.ω = 2πrdr (∆p + 12 ρU T+ )(VA + U A )
2
(12)

Setting (11) into (12) dQ.ω = 2πrdr ((VA + U A∞ ) 2 − VA + U T2∞ )(VA + U A )

2
§

but U T∞ = ∆ωT∞ r∞ then dQ.ω = 12 dm& [(VA + U A∞ ) 2 − VA2 ] + 12 dI&∞ ∆ω∞2 , i.e.
equation (7) is obtained
 PROPELLER THEORY
Equation (12) can be written also dQ.ω = 2πrdr∆p (VA + U A ) + 12 ρU T+ (VA + U A )
2
§
but U T+ = ∆ωT+ r ∆ω = ∆ω + / 2 dI& = dm& .r 2 dQ = dI&∆ω +
dQ.ω = dT (VA + U A ) + + 12 dI&∞ ∆ω∞2 eq. (8) dQ.ω = dT (VA + U A ) + dQ∆ω

q EFFICIENCY (useful work divided by total work supplied to the propeller)

dTV A VA ω − ∆ω
From (8) dQ.(ω − ∆ω ) = dT (VA + U A ) η= = (13)
dQω (VA + U A ) ω
§ In the traditional momentum theory small flow contraction is assumed,
equation (3) holds and U A∞ = 2U A ∆ω ≈ ∆ω + = 2 ∆ω
∞

dTV A dm& .U A∞VA VA U A

UA η= = = (14)
UT dQω dm& .r 2ω∆ω + ωr ∆ω.r
U A ω.r − U T
VE
ωr Equating (13) and (14) = (15)
VA U T VA + U A
In other words the induced velocity (UA+UT) is perpendicular to the effective
inflow VE. Lerbs has shown using vortex theory that this perpendicularity
condition stands only for lightly loaded optimum propellers with a wake following
the unperturbed flow (β)
 PROPELLER THEORY

q EFFICIENCY COMPONENTS VA
ηI =
A) Efficiency as product of components η 0 = η Iη ROTη NBη FR (VA + U A )
ωr − r∆ω
η ROT =
η0= propeller open water efficiency ωr
ηI= ideal efficiency (only losses due to axial induced velocities)
ηROT= rotational efficiency (only losses due to slipstream rotation)
ηNB= efficiency due to the finite number of blades
ηFR= efficiency due to blade friction (calculated by viscous drag coefficients)

B) Efficiency as sum of components UA

LAX =
η 0 = 1 − LAX − LROT − LNB − LFR (VA + U A )
U VA
LROT = T
LAX= losses due to axial induced velocities ωr (VA + U A )
LROT= losses due to rotational effects
LNB= losses due to the finite number of blades
LFR= losses due to blade friction
 PROPELLER THEORY

q Relationship between induced velocities and thrust

(ω − ∆ω )
v From (8) dT = dQ but dQ = dm & r 2 ∆ω + = ρ 2πrdr (VA + U A )r 2 ∆ω +
(VA + U A )
∆ω + r
then dT = ρ 2πrdr∆ω r (ωr −
+
) (16)
2
(∆ω )+ 2
dT dT
− ω∆ω +
+
=0 ∆ω = ω − ω −
+ 2
(17)
2 ρ 2πr dr
3
ρπr dr
3

This result is for a propeller with infinite number of blades. For finite number
of blades ∆ω+ at the blade section is larger. Some authors set ∆ω= ∆ω+ in (8)
to compensate for this deficit and for viscous losses. Then,
dT 2dT
(∆ω + ) 2 − ω∆ω + + =0 ∆ω + = ω − ω 2 − (18)
ρ 2πr dr
3
ρπr 3 dr
which is accurate for most type of propellers, especially 4-bladed ones.

v From equation (6),

dT U A∞ 1  dT 
U A2∞ + 2VAU A∞ − =0 UA = =  − VA + VA2 +  (19)
ρπrdr 2 2 ρπrdr 
 PROPELLER THEORY
4) Actuator disk by vortex theory

q Consider the velocity relative to the propeller blade on the stream-tube at

points right in front (l) and behind (u) the propeller disk. Use cylindrical
r r r
coordinates with unit vectors ex , eθ , er
θ

ωr VL

V A + UA
θ

ωr -UT +
VU
X

Then the following equivalences can be established γ = 2Vd = U T+

r r
Vu Vm= (V A + U A )ex + (ωr − 12 U T+ )eθ Vm
r r
Vl Vd= 12 U T+ eθ γ= γ .e θ
 PROPELLER THEORY
q Then the actuator disk on the propeller plane can be modeled as a vortex
r directed vortices since γ is perpendicular to the
sheet distribution of radially
x-θ plane, i.e. pointing to er
VL +0.5UT +
θ
q The lift per unit surface according to Kutta- γ
Joukowski’ s law ωr Vm
-0.5UT +
L = ρVmγ = ρVmU +
T VU
X

(VA + U A ) contributing to the torque Q

q Vm consists of 2 components
(ωr − 12 U T+ ) contributing to the thrust T

Applying Kutta-Joukowski’s law to the T component of Vm acting on an area

2πrdr U T+
dT = ρ 2πrdrU (ωr − )
+
T
2
which coincides with (16). As dT = 2πrdr∆p then
U T+
∆p = ρU T (ωr − )
+ (20)
2
 PROPELLER THEORY
Applying Kutta-Joukowski’
s law to the Q component of Vm acting on an area
2πrdr dQ.ω = 2πrdr.rρ (V + U )U +
A A T
+2
U
which coincides with (12) since ∆p + ρ = ρωrU T+ from (20)
T

2
dTV A VA (ωr − 0.5U T+ )
q The efficiency is η = = but U T+ = ∆ω + r = 2∆ω.r
dQω (VA + U A ) ωr
This is equation (13)

q Conservation of angular momentum

Consider again the stream tube in the figure at the beginning of this section
and two circular curves C1 and C2 on it. All vortex lines passing through C1
also pass through C2, i.e. Γ1 on C1 coincides with Γ2 on C2 according to
Stokes’theorem. Due to the flow being axisymmetric UT is constant on C1
and on C2
Γ1 = 2πr1U T 1 Γ2 = 2πr2U T 2 Γ1 = Γ2
r1U T 1 = r2U T 2 r12 ∆ω1 = r22 ∆ω2 dI&∆ω = constant
 PROPELLER THEORY

v Conclusions:

1) Vortex theory when applied to an actuator disk yields the same equations as
momentum theory

2) An actuator disk can be modeled as a propeller with infinite number of

blades, the blades being represented by radial axisymmetric vortex lines

3) The strength of the radial vortex lines can be allowed to vary in the radial
direction provided that helical vortex sheets are shed on cylindrical surfaces
at each radii
 PROPELLER THEORY
4) Lerb’
s equivalent profile method

q Assumes that the radial station at non-dimensional radius r/R=0.7 or 0.75 is

representative of the hydrodynamic behavior of the entire propeller. Let’
s call
dT Tr/R
Tr / R = = radial distribution of lift per unit T0.7
dr length (N/m)
R T
T = ∫ Tr / R dr = total propeller thrust (N) r
rhub
rhub R

For an optimum distribution of circulation the shape of Tr/R is similar to that

shown in the figure. If D is the propeller diameter, the lift per meter at station
r/R=0.7 can be approximated for an optimum propeller as follows,
 dT  T
T0.7 =   = 3.633 (21)
 dr  0.7 D

Notice that other constants in the formulae are possible for other shapes in
the curve Tr/R
 PROPELLER THEORY
q Steps to be followed in Lerb’
s equivalent profile method and momentum
theory (according to G. Pérez Gómez)
1) Choose the desired radial distribution of Tr/R for example (21). The total
thrust (T) is assumed to be given as input

2) Calculate UA and ∆ω at r/R=0.7 using (18) and (19)

VA + U A V (1 − w) + U A
3) Find tanbβi at r/R=0.7 tan β i = = S
0.7 R (ω − ∆ω ) 0.7 R (ω − ∆ω )
VE = (VA + U A ) 2 + [0.7 R(ω − ∆ω )]
2
4) Calculate VE at r/R=0.7

5) Find the drag forces FD from a drag coefficient CD, FD = 12 ρVE2 c0.7C D
A D
c0.7= chord at r/R=0.7 ( = 2.247 E for Wageningen BB series)
Z= number of blades A0 Z
AE/A0= expanded area ratio
 4

According to Minsaas C D = 1 + 2 + 60   (C FS + C FP )
t t
t= thickness  c c 
CFS= frictional coefficient for the suction side of the profile
CFP= frictional coefficient for the pressure side of the profile
For Wageningen BB series t 0.7 = D (0.0216 − 0.0015Z )
 PROPELLER THEORY
Usually CFS and CFP are calculated as functions of the Reynolds’number
VE c0.7
Re = (ν= 1.1883*10-6 m2s)
ν
T0.7 + ZFD sin β I
6) Calculate L0.7 the lift per unit radial length L0.7 =
cos β I
7) Find Q0.7 the torque per unit radial length Q0.7 = 0.7 R ( L0.7 sin β I + ZFD cos β I )
T0.7VA
8) Calculate η0ηrr the efficiency η 0η rr =
ωQ0.7
L0.7 Z
9) Calculate CL the lift coefficient for the r/R=0.7 section C L =
2 ρVE c0.7
1 2

10) The final step is to calculate the 2D profile that produces CL. This is done by
using 2D wing theory with correction factors for 3D effects

Usually the initial data known when designing a propeller is the torque Q (via
BHP) instead of the thrust. Then the design problem is solved in an iterative way:
a) Assume some value for η0ηrr
b) Find the total thrust from the BHP and η0ηrrηhullηmechanical
c) Repeat steps 1) through 8) and obtain a new value of η0ηrr
d) Go to a) until convergence of η0ηrr is reached
 PROPELLER THEORY
Diagram of Lerb’
s equivalent profile method for propeller design

INPUT DATA BHP, t , w, n,η rr ,η mec. , resistance curve, etc.

(t = thrust deduction fraction)
Assume η0ηrr

R EHP BHPη 0η rrη mec.

Calculate T T= = =
1 − t VS (1 − t ) VS (1 − w)

Steps 1) through 8) T0.7 ,U A , ∆ω , β I ,VE , FD , Q0.7

New η0ηrr

No
Converged?
Yes
Calculate CL step 9)

Geometry 2D wing theory + 3D corrections, f/c, t/c,P/D