A Framework for Creative Teams

of Non-fiction Interactive Digital

Narratives

Nicole Basaraba(B)

Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

nicole.basaraba@adaptcentre.ie

Abstract. Interactive digital narratives (IDNs) have been widely stud-

ied in the format of video games and in the fiction genre, but less atten-
tion has been focused on the creative process and non-fiction. There are
many IDN formats such as interactive cinema and transmedia stories and
with these increasingly complex narrative forms, there are more people
involved in the creation beyond the author of the text, such as graphic
designers, programmers, curators, photographers and other specialists.
Considering the affordances and limitations of new media is also increas-
ingly important for IDN creation. This article takes a media-centred app-
roach and adapts the principles of rhetoric to create a framework that
aims to support the process of collaborative authorship of non-fiction
IDNs in different formats.

Keywords: Interactive digital narrative · Non-fiction

Rhetorical theory

1 Introduction and Background

Interactive digital narrative (IDN) theory was first proposed by Koenitz [1] whose
analysis of different formats (e.g., interactive fiction, interactive cinema, video
games, etc.) showed that IDNs are comprised of the three main components: the
system, process, and product. Regardless of format, IDNs are expressive digital
narratives realised in a system containing potential narratives that are expe-
rienced through a process that results in products [1] or emergent narratives.
Since IDN theory was established, Koenitz et al. [2] identified different possible
approaches and key requirements for its future development. This article takes
a medium-centred approach to show how digital media impact non-fiction IDN
creation. This paper outlines a proposed framework for non-fiction IDN sys-
tem creation based in rhetorical theory and best practices in human-computer
interaction (HCI), which is currently being tested in ongoing research.

This PhD research is supported by the ADAPT Centre and is supervised by Drs. Owen
Conlan, Jennifer Edmond, and Peter Arnds of Trinity College Dublin, Ireland.
c Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018
R. Rouse et al. (Eds.): ICIDS 2018, LNCS 11318, pp. 143–148, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04028-4_11
144 N. Basaraba

In current practices, many creators release a digital work into the world hop-
ing it will be successful without consulting potential users in advance [3] and
there is a sense of urgency to adopt new media technologies as they emerge
to remain relevant and engage with the public in novel ways. However, digital
communication production involves complex choices regarding audience, content,
technology, and media [4]. Existing frameworks for creating IDNs have focused on
developing different authoring tools and element-driven approaches [5–7] which
categorise narratives into components such as pattern, path, goal, action, out-
come and event. Different authoring tools have answered certain questions and
problems, but they commonly focus on video games and system developers are
also the content creators so less attention has been paid to the creative pro-
cess [8]. Element-driven approaches rely on specific terminology and become a
challenge for IDN creators who may come from different disciplines or industries
(e.g., novelists, journalists, educators, or museologists) and require easy-to-follow
composition guidelines. Thus, there still is a gap between the descriptions of IDN
and the current, natural practices of creators [9].
IDN authoring studies have also focused on fictional narratives. Aristotle’s
Poetics is often referred to when examining and creating fictional IDNs [10], but
scholars [11,12] have noted that Poetics is an inadequate narrative model for the
complexity of IDNs, and especially for non-fiction IDNs which have communi-
cation goals and call for different composition considerations. The IDN creation
process has been compared to African storytelling - a circular rather than lin-
ear process - [11] and oral storytelling [13] which adapts to specific audiences
and their responses. Considering these techniques, Aristotle’s Rhetoric, with ori-
gins in oral traditions and emphasis on persuasion/purposeful communication, is
more applicable for non-fiction IDN composition. Rhetorical theory is an applied
art; it generates principles, not rules that are always interpreted and adjusted
for different situations [14]. The art of storytelling is subjective or “fuzzy” and
it is difficult to define a one-size-fits-all method for creating different IDNs but
many scholars agree that the medium affects the message [15–18] and rhetoric,
with its long history of use, can formalise the process of non-fiction IDN creation.
The following media-centred rhetorical framework for IDN creation leaves cre-
ators with the artistic licence to use the narrative techniques (e.g., poetics) and
specific tools best suited to the genres of their narratives while guiding decision-
making that considers how media will affect the rhetoric. The following outline
of a proposed non-fiction IDN creation framework is being tested in ongoing
research in a case study and aims to be useful for collaborative creative teams.

2 A Framework for Creating Non-fiction IDN Systems

Phase 1: Know Your Audience. It is important to consider the audience
by conducting demographic research or user modelling. Key questions to answer
may include: Who is the IDN for? Where are they from? Which age group(s) do
they fall into? What is their level of digital literacy? What information might
they know about the IDN topic already and what information do they need to
know? [19].
 A Framework for Creative Teams of Non-fiction IDNs 145

Phase 2: Define the Communication Goals. To measure IDN success, the

rhetorical goals to be evaluated in later product testing need to be defined.
For example, is the IDN aiming to communicate a feeling, theme, clear message,
specific learning outcomes, or a call to action? Are there multiple messages being
communicated? What type of experience is being created or what emotional
response is desired from the audience?
Phase 3: Delivery. Digital delivery influences the production, design, and
reception of narratives and ability to achieve rhetoric [20]. IDN systems include
the hardware on which the artefact is delivered and the software containing
the “protostories” [1]. The medium (hardware) and authoring tools (software)
can impact creative expression and require considerations of which affordances
are necessary to achieve the rhetorical goals. IDNs can use a single medium
or use multimedia (i.e., transmedia) and the software depends on the IDN
media format(s), complexity of narrative, and project budget. Software selec-
tion will require individual project-based research and future platform/software
studies [21] would be useful for IDN creators to cross-compare of affordances
and constraints for narratives with different purposes, formats, and genres. As
the medium and authoring tool selection affects the ability to communicate the
message and also depend on the content gathered during “invention”, there may
be a back-and-forth process between the “delivery” and the following “inven-
tion” phases.
Phase 4: Invention. IDN invention involves searching for and gathering mate-
rials to create persuasive works [22]. This includes considering multimodal
resources, existing remixed content and which tools/software can accommodate
the content [22]. There is now a specialisation that allows each mode to carry
part of a message for which it is best equipped as different modes have differ-
ent affordances [18] and IDN creators need to consider which semiotic mode
of communication is best suited for each type of narrative content/topic [23].
Reality-based technologies (e.g., VR, AR, MR) offer new opportunities, espe-
cially for non-fiction narrative communication. IDNs could also include remixed
content, which is often user-generated, includes commentary, opinions and cre-
ative ideas. Digital media support and encourage a participatory culture [24]
and once an IDN is created, it may later be remixed by users which could also
be reviewed in phase 7: “revision”.
Phase 5: Arrangement. Arrangement involves considering the procedural
rules for interactivity and the narrative structure. IDN arrangement is deter-
mined in part by the creators and users to create emergent narratives. IDN
systems involve the arrangement of multiple protostories that emerge from user
interaction and as opportunities for interaction increase, it raises the possibility
of ludonarrative dissonance—the conflict between narrative interactivity and
structure [50] of becoming an issue. The narrative structure helps maintain
immersion and avoid ludonarrative dissonance [25]. One tool to help deter-
mine interactivity level is Ryan’s [26] five levels of interactivity that range
from low to high. IDN systems offering high levels of interactivity (i.e., agency)
146 N. Basaraba

through artificial intelligence (AI) have a major impact on the narrative arrange-
ment/structure because AI (e.g., via an AI drama manager) provides new choices
and paths. The rules for linking protostory content is determined through a nar-
rative structure. Examples of protoype IDN structures include those identified by
Ryan [26] (e.g., the Vector, Braided Plot, and Action Space) and Schoenau-Fog
[27,28] (e.g., IDEM, STDM).
Phase 6: Design. For many IDN formats, the style or aesthetics pertain to the
interface design, including options like colour, font choice, layout, appropriate
use of media, and usability [22]. The interface design choices need to be intuitive
for the user and could be used to create more meaning depending on how the
multimodal content is delivered. The aesthetics need to clearly identify how to
navigate through the content and present options for user interaction. The inter-
face design impacts how long a user will interact with an IDN and it contributes
to their level of immersion. Historically, artists made a work within a single
medium so the interface and the work were one in the same but in new media
they are separate, which presents opportunities to create multiple interfaces
for the same material to be accessed from a “database” of multimodal material
[29]. Thus, IDNs can have a single digital interface or multiple. As many issues
with IDN consumption are technical, the “design” and “delivery” are important
phases for rhetorical success.
Phase 7: Revision. In more recent scholarship, the rhetorical principle of
“memory” has generally been overlooked because print and digital media tech-
nologies diminished the need for memorisation. Eyman [22] argues that the mem-
ory in the digital medium refers to the creators’ knowing how to store, retrieve,
and manipulate information. However, these skills may be covered by different
creators involved in the process and they need to be considered during “deliv-
ery”. It is proposed that the principle of “memory” be reframed to “revision”.
Instead of developing a narrative and delivering it into the world in a one-to-
many linear manner, IDNs have the potential to be a work in progress. As per
HCI best practices, testing the technical aspects of interaction and understand-
ing the audience’s response will determine if the IDN achieves rhetorical goals,
if it needs to be updated, re-released or if a subsequent or spin-off narrative is
possible. There is an opportunity to create stronger rhetoric through revision,
remixing, and/or further response to the audience’s reaction and interaction with
the text. IDNs could also continually be expanded through user-generated con-
tent or, if permitted, a level five interactivity [26] which would allow consumers
to directly modify the original IDN.

3 Conclusion

While this framework, only outlined above, does not cover every creative deci-
sion that is required for non-fiction IDN creation, it aims to act as a guideline or
roadmap to facilitate media-centred choices for creative teams in digital human-
ities and creative industries. This framework is presented in seven phases, but
 A Framework for Creative Teams of Non-fiction IDNs 147

the process should be cyclical, involve a negotiation between phases, and evolve
as the IDN production progresses. It aims to aid collaborate authorship in con-
sidering how the properties of digital media and interactivity affect the IDN and
ability to achieve rhetorical purposes. This framework could be supplemented
with more artistic-driven approaches and format-specific creation tools.

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