Module 13 - Bruner’s Constructivist Theory 143

Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning

outcomes: "Learners
• describe the development of the child’s ability to represent
knowledge. are
• explain how the spiral curriculum works. encouraged
to discover
Introduction facts and
relationships
Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A
major theme in the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in for
which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past themseCves. ”
knowledge.
-Jerome (Bruner
Advance Organizer
Bruner’s
Spiral Discovery
Constructivist Theory
Curriculum Learning
(Main Concepts)

Representation of Theory
of Instruction Categorization
Knowledge

Enactive Predisposition
to Learn

Iconic Structure
of Knowledge

Symbolic Effective
Sequencing

Reinforcement
 144 F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n in g

Bruner’s Ma
Representati!
Think of a topic that you studied when you were in your preschool or Bruner s
elementary years, and then you studied it again in high school, and probably These three si
you had that same topic again in college. 1. Enact
the w
What was the topic?__________________________________________ these
sensat
Try to recall how the topic was discussed/tackled in class (use of visual motor
aids by teacher, experiment, field trip, etc.). a bicy
2. Iconic
obtain
Describe what and how you learned about the topic during preschool/ use m
elementary. _________________________________________________ repres!
in mil
Describe what and how you learned about the topic during high school. 3. Symb
deveh
systen
langua
Describe what and how you learned about the topic in college.
Bruner a<
Jerome Bruner then symbolic
Bom New York City,
October 1, 1915. abstract mat!
He received his A.B.
degree from Duke
represented e
University in 1937 Children can
and his Ph.D in 1947
from Harvard. He
only with nun
was on the faculty
Compare and contrast how the topic was taught to you in the different
in the Department levels (Try to recall the activities, materials, details given, etc.)
of Psychology at
Harvard University
Spiral currici
from 1952 - 1972. Why do you think the same topic was taught in the three different Bruner s
Next he was at
Oxford from 1972 levels in school? Cite three or more reasons in bulleted form. development,
- 1980. Later he
joined the New York
teach it using
University of Law. be anchored o
In 1960 Bruner pub­
lished The Process is to translate
of Education. This learner’s cum
was a landmark book
which led to much a spiral mann!
experimentation and H I Abstraction/Generalization already leamet
a broad range of
educational programs In the activity you just had, you would have surely seen that a single In a spir
in the 1960’s. Howard
Gardner and other topic can be taught in preschool/elementary, then again in high school, and teaching the
young researchers
still again in college! Take for instance, in learning about Jose Rizal, in developments
worked under Bruner
and were much-influ- elementary we may have his picture in a postcard, know that he is our grade school ii
enced by his work.
national hero, bom on June 19, 1861 in Calamba Laguna, and maybe even topic is tackl
In the early 70’s
Bruner left Harvard have a field trip there. In high school, we may study his two novels in more topic can be n
to teach at University
detail. In college, we would go deeper into analyzing Rizal’s works and the 14 learner
of Oxford for several
years. He returned to may look into the personal and social factors that influenced him in his life will again be t
Harvard in 1979.
and work and write a term paper on it. This repeated topic on Rizal is a up as a means
way of applying the principles in Bruner’s Theory. He gave us important subject. Many
concepts in development of representations, the spiral curriculum and taken up in yc
discovery learning. These concepts are all in line with the constructivist Principles of 1
approach. (Constructivism will be discussed in Module 14). you get a clea:
 Module 13 - Bruner’s Constructivist Theory 145
Bruner’s Main Concepts
Representation
Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge in three stages.
These three stages also become the three ways to represent knowledge.
1. Enactive representation - At the earliest ages, children learn about
the world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of
these actions. Children represent objects in terms of their immediate
sensation of them. They are represented in the muscles and involve
class (use of visual motor responses, or ways to manipulate the environment (i.e. riding
a bicycle and tying a knot, tasting the apple).
2. Iconic representation - This second stage is when learning can be
obtained through using models and pictures. The learner can now Watch these
during preschool/ use mental images to stand for certain objects or events. Iconic videos at
representation allows one to recognize objects when they are changed youtube
in minor ways (e.g. mountains with and without snow at the top).
during high school. 3. Symbolic representation - In this third stage, the learner has
Jerome Bruner
developed the ability to think in abstract terms. This uses symbol spoke at the
system to encode knowledge. The most common symbol systems are Universidad
language and mathematical notation. Autonoma de
Bruner advised that teachers utilize and bring together concrete, pictorial Madrid May
then symbolic activities to facilitate learning. Before children can comprehend 27, 2006.
abstract mathematical operations, teachers can first have the numbers Part 1
represented enactively (with blocks) and then, iconically (in pictures). http://w w w .
Children can later on handle number concepts without concrete objects and voutube.com /
only with numbers and number signs (symbolic).

Spiral curriculum
Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting cognitive
development. Students will not understand the concept if teachers plan to
teach it using only the teacher’s level of understanding. Instruction needs to
be anchored on the learners’ cognitive capabilities. The task of the instructor
is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the
learner’s current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in
a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have
already learned.
In a spiral curriculum, teachers must revisit the curriculum by
teaching the same content in different ways depending on students’
developmental levels. This is why certain topics are initially presented in
grade school in a manner appropriate for grade schoolers, and then the same
topic is tackled in high school, but on a much deeper level. Sometimes a
topic can be revisited within the same semester or school year. For instance,
the 14 learner-centered principles were introduced to you in Module 2, and
will again be tackled in Module 26. This time the 14 principles will be taken
up as a means to integrate and summarize all your learning in this course/
subject. Many other concepts and principles discussed in this book are also
taken up in your other subjects like Child and Adolescent Development and
Principles of Teaching to name a few. This is part of spiral learning. It helps
you get a clearer understanding, thus more effective learning.
146 F a c i l i t a t i n g L e a r n in g

In the K to 12 curriculum, the spiral progression is a mandate. Section

5 (g), Curriculum Development of RA. 10533, states “The curriculum shall Classroom
use the spiral progression approach to ensure mastery of knowledge and skills Leami
after each level.” As applied in Math, this would mean that the teachers learning en
teach Algebra, Geometry, Statistics and Trigonometry concepts from Kinder • In el(
to Grade 10. In the science class, Biology, Chemistry, and Physics concepts help i
are taught from Grade 3 (where Science as a subject starts) to Grade 10 Rathe
considering the developmental stages of students. In the spiral progression exam
approach, the teaching of concepts increases in depth and breadth across the name
Grade levels. Statistics concepts in Kindergarten are much simpler compared classi
to the Statistics concepts in Grade 10. Geometry concepts in Kindergarten Categ
are much simpler than those taught in Grade 10. This is in contrast to appro
the disciplinal approach of Math and Science teaching in the 2002 Basic
prope
Education Curriculum (BEC). This means that in the 2002 BEC, Algebra is
taught in the First and Second Year; Geometry in the Third Year; Statistics and simih
Probability, and Trigonometry in the Fourth Year. In the sciences, Integrated * In hi
Science is taught in the First Year; Biology in the Second Year; Chemistry in liquic
the Third Year and Physics in the Fourth Year. studei
In the spiral progression approach, concepts are revisited again and again deterr
as you go up the Grades. This supports mastery of concepts. the e:
varioi
the c<
(Retrie

Bruner (1
major aspects
1. Predispos
learning”.
of develop
feature spe
a love of
Motivatio!
emphasize
Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner: this. He b
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts exploratio
child’s spo
that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
.
2 Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by 2. Structure
the student (spiral organization). knowledge
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill learner. Bi
in the gaps (going beyond the information given). may be m;
factual ele
and there \
Discovery learning preference
structuring
Discovery learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. The teacher 1. Ur
plans and arranges activities in such a way that students search, manipulate, it
explore and investigate. Students learn new knowledge relevant to the domain fui
and such general problem-solving skills as formulating rules, testing and be!
gathering information. Most discovery does not happen by chance. Students str
require background preparation. Once students possess prerequisite knowledge, 2. To
careful structuring of material allows them to discover important principles. fill
 Module 13 - Bruner’s Constructivist Theory 147
andate. Section
nrriculum shall Classroom Example:
edge and skills Learning becomes more meaningful when students explore their
at the teachers learning environment rather than listen passively to teachers.
ts from Kinder • In elementary school - Teachers might use guided discovery to
/sics concepts help children learn animal groups (e.g. mammals, birds, reptiles).
to Grade 10 Rather than provide students with the basic animals groups and
al progression examples for each, the teacher could ask students to provide the
dth across the names of types of animals. Then the students and teacher could
pier compared classify the animals by examining their similarities and differences.
l Kindergarten Category labels can be assigned once classifications are made. This
n contrast to approach is guided by the teacher to ensure that classifications are
: 2002 Basic
proper, but students are active contributors as they discover the
!C, Algebra is
; Statistics and similarities and differences among animals.
;es, Integrated • In high school - A chemistry teacher might use “mystery”
; Chemistry in liquids and have students discover the elements in each. The
students could proceed through a series of experiments designed to
lain and again determine if certain substances are present in a sample. By using
the experimental process, students learn about the reactions of
various substances to certain chemicals and also how to determine
the contents of their mystery substance.
(Retrieved from http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Bruner.htm)

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four

major aspects:
1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for
learning”. Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any stage
of development in a way that fits the child’s cognitive abilities. This
feature specifically states the experiences which move the learner toward
a love of learning in general, or of learning something in particular.
Motivational, cultural and personal factors contribute to this. Bruner
emphasized social factors and early teacher’s and parents’ influence on
this. He believed that learning and problem solving emerged out of
contexts exploration. Part of the task of a teacher is to maintain and direct a
is). Child’s spontaneous explorations.
asped by 2. Structure of Knowledge. This refers to the ways in which a body of
knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the
and or fill learner. Bruner emphasized the role of structure in learning and how it
may be made central in teaching. Structure refers to relationships among
factual elements and techniques. This will depend on different factors,
and there will be many ways to structure a body of knowledge and many
preferences among learners. Bruner offered considerable detail about
structuring knowledge.
The teacher 1. Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes
manipulate, it more comprehensible. Bruner viewed categorization as a
i the domain fundamental process in the structuring of knowledge. Details are
testing and better retained when placed within the context of an ordered and
ce. Students structured pattern.
knowledge, 2. To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts,
principles. fundamental principles or patterns are best suited.
148 F a c ilita t in g L e a rn in g

3. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge

in a subject area is diminished when instruction centers on a
structure and principles of orientation. This means that a body of
knowledge must be in a form simple enough for the learner to
understand and it must be in a form recognizable to the student’s
experience.
3. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in
general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing,
or lack of it, can make learning easier or more difficult. Spiral curriculum
refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon
them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery.
4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced
appropriately. He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally,
interest in the subject matter is the best stimulus for learning. Bruner did
not like external competitive goals such as grades or class ranking.

Categorization
Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the construction
of internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception, conceptualization,
learning, decision making and making inferences all involved categorization.
Categories are “rules” that specify four thing about objects. The four things are
given below:
1. Criterial attributes - required characteristics for inclusion of an object
in a category. (Example, for an object to be included in the category
“car” it must have an engine, 4 wheels, and be a possible means of
transportation,
2. The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are combined.
3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties. (Example, it could
be a car even if a tire was missing, and if it was used for hauling cargo it
would be shifted to a different category of “truck” or perhaps “van”.)
4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some attributes can
vary widely, such as color. Others are fixed. For example a vehicle without
an engine is not a car. Likewise, a vehicle with only two wheels would
not be included in “car”.
There are several kinds of categories:
1. Identity categories - categories include objects based on their attributes
or features.
2. Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories).
Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render objects
equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related
functions (for example, “car”, “truck”, “van” could all be combined
in an inclusive category called “motor vehicle”), or by formal criteria,
for example by science, law or cultural agreement. For example, an
apple is still an apple whether it is green, ripe, dried, etc (identity). It is
food (functional), and it is a member of a botanical classification group
 Module 13 - Bruner’s Constructivist Theory 149
knowledge (formal).
:enters on a 3. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input. They
at a body of are major organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going
le learner to beyond immediate sensory data involves making inferences on the basis
the student’s of related categories. Related categories form a “coding system.” These
are hierarchical arrangements of related categories.
tmer, but in The principles of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret the world
Sequencing, mostly in terms of similarities and differences. This is a valuable contribution to
1 curriculum how individuals construct their own models or view of the world.
lilding upon
nastery.
d and paced
that ideally,
Bruner did
nking.
as Synapse Strengthened

1. Read more about discovery learning and how it is used in preschool,

elementary and high school levels.

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»tualization,
egorization.
lr things are

jf an object
he category
e means of

mbined.
)le, it could
ing cargo it
s “van”.)
tributes can
icle without
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ir attributes

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ider objects
on related
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lal criteria,
cample, an
ntity). It is
ition group