Acoustic Remote Sensing in Maritime Archaeology

Acoustic Remote Sensing in Maritime Archaeology

Rory Quinn
The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology
Edited by Ben Ford, Donny L. Hamilton, and Alexis Catsambis
Print Publication Date: Dec 2013

Subject: Archaeology, Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
Online Publication Date: Sep 2012 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199336005.013.0003
Abstract and Keywords
This article offers an introduction to acoustic remote sensing. In shipwreck studies,

acoustic remote sensing has traditionally been used for reconnaissance surveys and for
site relocation. With the advent of higher-resolution sonar systems, the focus in ship
wreck studies has shifted toward site reconstruction and studies of site formation.
Acoustic systems provide baseline data at rates higher than those of experienced dive
teams. This article describes how acoustic data is generated. It describes the profiling
methods such as single-beam echo-sounders and sub-bottom profilers, and swath meth
ods such as side-scan sonar and multibeam echo-sounders. The last few years have seen
developments of multielement sonar platforms, which allow for the acquisition of true
concurrent sonar data sets from one platform. Every phase of development in sonar tech
nology brings an increase in sensors' resolving capability and therefore the ability to im
age smaller and smaller artifacts in greater detail.
Keywords: acoustic remote sensing, reconnaissance surveys, site relocation, sonar systems, shipwreck studies,
profiling methods
Introduction
In the twenty-first century, acoustic (sonar) systems are routinely used for rapid, noninva
sive surveys of the seafloor and subsurface. Indeed, bathymetric survey techniques have
been employed in the marine sciences since at least the early part of the nineteenth cen
tury. Regrettably, the existing bathymetric charts for most parts of the world are Victori
an in vintage, compiled from lead-line soundings and sextant positioning. These charts
are therefore severely outdated in terms of spatial and temporal resolution and are un
suitable for marine research and stewardship. More importantly, due to the nature and
size of archaeological artifacts and submerged sites, these charts are generally unsuit
able for research as they are of such low resolution that they offer little functional use in
archaeological investigations.
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In the early part of the twentieth century, single-beam echo-sounders (SBES) replaced
traditional lead-weighted lines as the primary bathymetric survey technique for civilian
and military purposes (Lurton 2002). Between 1925 and 1927, the first large-scale scien
tific bathymetric survey was conducted by the German Atlantic Expedition on RV Meteor
using SBES (Wüst and Defant 1936). In the early 1960s, side-scan sonar (SSS) was devel
oped as a tool for regional-scale geological mapping, revolutionizing seafloor mapping in
terms of spatial coverage and data resolution. The effectiveness of acoustic mapping
evolved between the 1970s and the twenty-first century with the advent of multibeam
echo-sounders (MBES) allied to powerful and affordable desktop (p. 69) computing facili
ties. In addition to modern bathymetric charts providing highly accurate depth informa
tion, the results from these acoustic surveys now routinely provide details of objects on
the seabed and the geological and biological components therein. Modern seabed map
ping therefore results from the integration of many different types of information, much
of which is gathered acoustically (Lurton 2002).
Marine remote-sensing technology has been applied in maritime archaeology since the
1960s. Initially, remote sensing was primarily used as a tool in the search for submerged
shipwreck sites and large-scale reconnaissance mapping investigations. More recently,
with technological developments, emphasis of marine geo-archaeological research has
moved away from pure prospection toward a fuller understanding of submerged land
scapes and wrecks in terms of detailed site mapping, site formation processes, and site
reconstructions.
The major advantages of acoustic mapping systems as applied to maritime archaeology

are that they are rapid and noninvasive and capable of surveying large tracts of the
seabed at very high resolution. Although acoustic systems will never completely replace
diver surveys, they do provide baseline data at rates far exceeding those of experienced
dive teams. Unfortunately, a full discussion of the theory behind the acquisition, process
ing, and interpretation of these data is beyond the scope and remit of this chapter. How
ever, an excellent introduction to the principles and applications of underwater acoustics
can be found in Lurton 2002.
Navigational Control and Positional Accuracy

To effectively map, interpret, integrate, and ground-truth remotely sensed acoustic data,
tight navigational and positional control is essential in all phases of the investigation. To
precisely locate the position of features and objects on the seabed, knowledge of the fol
lowing three parameters is required: (1) the location of the survey vessel on the sea-sur
face, (2) the location of the sonar platform below the sea-surface, and (3) the portion of
the seafloor that is being insonified (exposed to sonar energy) at any given time. This pre
cise positional control is achieved through a combination of position fixing (latitude, lon
gitude, and altitude above a reference datum), heading, speed, and attitude (heave, roll,
pitch, yaw) information.
Page 2 of 22

The minimum requirement for accurate navigation of a survey vessel is the Global Posi
tioning System (GPS). Using the calculated distance and orbital position of satellites (a
minimum of three is required for accuracy), the GPS receiver determines a position fix in
degrees of latitude and longitude, conventionally to the WGS84 datum (World Geodetic
System of 1984, the default datum for GPS units). This position can in turn be translated
into any global or local metric coordinate system (e.g., UTM). Accuracy of GPS varies
with satellite constellation geometry and receiver type, but an (p. 70) accuracy of ±5 m
with an update rate of once per second is now common. To reduce positional errors to an
acceptable level for high-resolution archaeological surveys (±1 m), differential GPS (DG
PS) employs a land-based station to calculate the error in positioning and transmit the er
ror to the shipboard receiver. Corrected data from the shipboard GPS unit is output to
computer-based software packages for survey navigation and logging. Furthermore, for
quantitative analysis of the seafloor and/or subsurface, it is essential to relate depth data
to a static horizon, and therefore it is necessary to remove the effects of tidal variation
over the survey period. Tidal corrections are achieved with reference to either a static
tidal gauge or to modeled tidal predictions. For high-accuracy surveys the tidal curve
should be recorded continuously at a site in close proximity (±1 km) to the survey site.
Recently the technology of DGPS has been superseded by Real Time Kinematic (RTK) sys
tems that use the characteristics of the signal carrying the GPS data from satellite to the
receiver, to give x, y, and z values to an accuracy of ±1 cm. RTK-GPS also negates the re
quirement to set up a tide gauge, as tidal corrections can be derived from the z-compo
nent of the signal.
In many applications, the sonar platform (often referred to as the towfish) is towed by the
ship, and its position determined in one of two ways—either by manual calculation or by
using acoustic tracking techniques. “Layback” is the term used to define the horizontal
distance between the towfish and the GPS antenna mounted on the survey vessel. It is im
portant to remember that the sonar data is generated not at the survey vessel, but at the
towfish. The layback correction can be calculated manually using Pythagoras’ theorem,
where the length of cable deployed corresponds to the hypotenuse and the depth of the
towfish equates to one leg of the right-angled triangle. Alternatively, an acoustic beacon
(transponder), operating at a set frequency, is attached to the towfish and interrogated by
a ship-mounted hydrophone to accurately determine the position of the towed array.
Which portion of the seafloor is being insonified at any given time is addressed by mea
suring the motion of the ship or sonar platform using an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)
or Motion Referencing Unit (MRU). This system uses a combination of accelerometers
and angular rate sensors (gyroscopes) to track vessel movement, detecting the current
acceleration and rate of change in attitude. These corrections are applied to remotely
sensed data to correct for the effects of pitch, roll, and yaw on the survey vessel and/or
towfish. In practice, as IMUs are expensive to purchase and/or hire and their mobilization
is time-consuming, they are usually only used for MBES surveys, where these corrections
are essential for high-quality data.
Page 3 of 22

Brief Introduction to Ocean Acoustics

In order to effectively interpret acoustic data, it is essential to understand how these data
are generated. Sonar systems function by transmitting acoustic pulses toward the
seafloor and waiting for the returned energy to be received and processed by (p. 71) on
board computers. Once an acoustic pulse is transmitted by a survey instrument, it is at
the mercy of the medium through which it propagates (the water column and sediment
pile) and is no longer in the control of the surveyor or survey instrumentation. The inter
action of the acoustic pulse with the water column, seafloor, and subsurface is not always
straightforward and can influence the resulting acoustic data in many ways. In order to
correctly interpret acoustic remote-sensing data, it is therefore essential to have some ap
preciation of underwater acoustics. Two factors must be considered: (1) interactions of
the acoustic pulse with the water column, the seafloor, and the subsurface, and (2) mech
anisms whereby the transmitted energy is returned to the instrument.
Sound is used to measure physical properties of the seafloor, the depth of the ocean,
ocean temperature, and ocean currents, by transmitting an acoustic pulse into the water
column and measuring the time taken for the pulse to travel back to the instrument.
Sound velocity in water is dependent on temperature, salinity, and pressure. A typical val
ue of sound velocity in saline water is 1,480 ms-1. The value for freshwater is lower, as
freshwater is less dense than saline water. Velocity depends primarily on temperature,
less on pressure, and very little on salinity. All of the acoustic techniques described in this
chapter are founded on the same basic principles of seismic reflection: each technique
measures the time taken for an acoustic pulse to be transmitted from the survey instru
ment, travel through the water column (or sediment), reflect (or scatter) from a boundary,
and travel back to the instrument.
The sonar transmits a fixed amount of energy into the water in the form of the acoustic
pulse. As the pulse wavefront spreads in a spherical pattern, the intensity of the pulse
falls with increasing distance (or range) from the source. The energy returning to the
sonar is also affected by spherical spreading. As the acoustic pulse propagates through
the water column and subsurface, some of the energy is simply absorbed by the medium
due to frictional effects. In general terms, the higher the frequency of the transmitted
pulse, the higher the absorption rate. Absorption is also stronger in saline water than in
freshwater.
The transmitted acoustic pulse may be deflected as it propagates through the water col
umn and subsurface. For example, it may encounter air bubbles, fish, suspended sedi
ment, rough seafloors, subsurface targets, and so on. In each scenario, a proportion of
the sound is scattered and reflected in various directions, including back toward the sur
vey instrument. It is important to understand the differences between reflected energy
and scattered energy. In general terms, echo-sounders and sub-bottom profilers rely on
specular reflection, and side-scan sonar relies on scattered (diffuse) energy, to produce
acoustic images of the seafloor and subsurface.
Page 4 of 22

When the transmitted pulse reaches an obstacle in the water column, at the seafloor or in
the subsurface, some portion of the acoustic pulse is reflected from the interface. The ori
entation of the reflecting medium with respect to the incident ray (measured as the angle
of incidence, or grazing angle) is the most important factor in determining whether the
reflected energy travels toward or away from the survey instrument.
(p. 72) As seismic reflection techniques (echo-sounders and sub-bottom profilers) rely on
specular reflection, these sources conventionally transmit the acoustic pulse vertically
downward and rely on the acoustic pulse being reflected vertically upward. The relative
proportion of energy transmitted to each of these rays is determined by the contrast in
acoustic impedance (Z) across the boundary, where acoustic impedance is equal to the ve
locity (V) of the medium multiplied by density (ρ):
The strength of the reflection from the boundary between two materials (a measure of the
proportion of energy returned toward the survey instrument) is governed by the reflec
tion coefficient (KR), where
The polarity of the reflection coefficient is dependent on whether there is an increase

(positive reflection) or decrease (negative reflection) in the acoustic impedance across
the interface. In normal subsurface geological situations, values of KR fall into the range
of ±0.1 (Anstey 1981), with the majority of energy being transmitted. The reflection coef
ficient values for wood buried in unconsolidated marine sediments are generally large
and negative (between −0.2 and −0.8; Quinn, Bull, and Dix 1997a). The magnitudes of
these reflection coefficients indicate that acoustic instruments can readily image wooden
artifacts and structures. Anstey (1981) states that values of KR = ±0.3 are unusual in the
earth because it is rare that such contrasting materials should be brought together.
Clearly, however, in the realm of maritime archaeology, such high-order reflection coeffi
cients are the norm rather than the exception.
Seismic reflection surveys account for more than 90% of the money spent worldwide on
applied geophysics (Milsom 1996). The majority of these surveys are conducted by and
for the hydrocarbon exploration industry in the search for oil and gas reserves. However,
in the marine environment, seismic reflection techniques are employed in the form of ba
thymetric surveys and sub-bottom profiling surveys and, in a looser framework, in side-
scan sonar surveys.
In side-scan sonar systems, the transducers transmit the acoustic pulse out to the side of
the system, inclined at an angle toward the seafloor. The majority of the incident energy
in this case is reflected away from the actual source. However, as the seafloor (and ob
jects lying upon it) contain an inherent roughness, a proportion of the incident pulse is
scattered by the roughness of the medium, and some of this scattered energy is
Page 5 of 22

“backscattered” (or diffused) toward the side-scan instrument. This backscattered sound
is also known as reverberation. The intensity of the backscattered signal is a direct func
tion of bottom roughness and angle of incidence. The rougher the bottom, the stronger
the reverberation. However, roughness is a relative term and is dependent on the fre
quency (and, more importantly, the inherent wavelength) of the acoustic pulse.
(p. 73) To date, we have spoken in terms of time (or travel time), that is, the time taken
for a pulse to be transmitted toward the seafloor and returned to the survey instrument.
However, all measurement of depth or distance in marine acoustics depends on the con
version of time to depth and an assumption regarding the velocity of sound through sedi
ment or water. The time taken for the acoustic wave to travel from the transducer to the
reflecting boundary and back again is known as the two-way-travel-time (twt), which is
related to depth (d) by the following equation:
V is highly variable for different sediment types. As noted above, V for salt water is ap
proximately 1,480 ms-1. V varies between different sediment types and rocks. In general,
hard rigid materials (rock, metal, wood) have relatively high compressional wave veloci
ties, while soft plastic materials such as unconsolidated sediment have low compressional
wave velocities. Furthermore, the general empirical rule applies that the compressional
wave velocity increases in step with density in similar material types. For example, sedi
ment generally becomes denser with depth of burial, hence their compressional wave ve
locity also increases with depth. In some shallow penetration applications, no differentia
tion is made between the velocity of sound in the water column and in the sediment pile.
Instead, a constant value of 1,500 ms-1 is used for V. This is usually the same value used
in side-scan sonar and bathymetric surveys.
The majority of users and manufacturers of acoustic instruments state that the resolution
of acoustic systems is principally dependent on the frequency of the acoustic waves em
ployed. This rule of thumb is misleading. It is naive to assume that higher-frequency
acoustic systems always acquire higher-resolution acoustic data. In fact, the resolution
and detection capability of acoustic instrumentation and resultant data is a complex is
sue, dependent on pulse lengths, beam angles, pulse rates, speed over ground, sample
frequencies, and display mechanisms, to name a few (Quinn et al. 2005). It is therefore
imperative that users of these data have some appreciation of underwater acoustics in or
der to carry out accurate and realistic geo-archaeological interpretations.
Some processed images derived from acoustic remote-sensing surveys are now of suffi
cient detail that they are interpretable by almost anyone, sometimes without much prior
experience in remote-sensing interpretation. These types of images prove enormously
beneficial in convincing resource managers and government bodies of the worth of this
approach. Unfortunately however, many end-users of the acoustics tend to treat data as
simple image data (often quoting the dreaded “wow factor”), without exploiting the inher
ent quantitative quality of the data. Given that acoustic remote sensors are designed to
Page 6 of 22

acquire quantitative data on geophysical properties of seafloor and subsurface materials,

it is naive, uneconomical, and inefficient to treat these data purely as simple image (picto
rial) data.
(p. 74) Profiling Methods

Single-Beam Echo-Sounders (SBES)
An essential component of all underwater investigations is the production of a detailed

bathymetric (depth) chart. In maritime archaeology, bathymetric survey is a standard
technique used in site investigations (Lawrence and Bates 2002; McNinch, Wells, and
Trembanis 2006; Momber 1991; Momber and Geen 2000; Quinn 2006) and regional map
ping initiatives (Quinn, Cooper, and Williams 2000). Inexpensive SBES are now common
place, with many vessels equipped to conduct relatively unsophisticated but effective low-
resolution bathymetric surveys. More sophisticated MBES are becoming increasingly
common in archaeological investigations (see below), although relative cost remains a
prohibitive factor.
Conventional echo-sounder systems consist of single hull-mounted or pole-mounted trans

ducers that act as both an acoustic transmitter and receiver (transceiver). These systems
transmit a single- or dual-frequency pulse, typically within the 50–300 kHz bandwidth.
The frequency-dependent, vertical resolution of these systems can be as great as a few
centimeters. Echo-sounders produce an acoustic pulse with a 30–45° cone angle, oriented
vertically downward, concentrating the acoustic energy in a small circular area of the
seabed (the radius of this circle is dependent on the water depth). The horizontal resolu
tion of these systems is controlled by a combination of source frequency, cone angle, and
water depth. For example, a 200 kHz echo-sounder with a 50° cone angle has a horizontal
resolution of 0.14 m in a water depth of 20 m.
One major disadvantage of SBES systems is that the density of the survey grid controls
the effective horizontal resolution of the survey. In a tidal environment, the maximum sur
vey grid density achievable is on the order of 5 m. Therefore, the highest possible hori
zontal resolution for the bathymetric survey is ±5 m. Bathymetric data is conventionally
represented as profiles, two-dimensional contour plots, or three-dimensional digital eleva
tion models (DEMs). Regional-scale SBES surveys are conventionally designed with sur
vey lines oriented perpendicular to the coast, as bathymetric variation is usually at a max
imum in this direction. Site-specific SBES surveys are conventionally designed with sur
vey lines oriented on a grid.
Page 7 of 22

Sub-Bottom Profilers (SBP)
Figure 3.1 (a) Chirp sub-bottom profile acquired

over the midships section of the Invincible (1797)
wreck site, The Solent, United Kingdom. These data
were acquired with a GeoAcoustics GeoChirp profiler
using a 2–8kHz swept frequency source (Quinn et al.
1997) pulsing at 4 Hz. The chirp profile over the mid
ships section images the buried oak wreck structure
as a high-amplitude reflector with a measured reflec
tion coefficient of −0.27; (b) Chirp profile illustrating
the seismic stratigraphy of the postglacial and
Holocene sequence in Belfast Lough, Ireland. These
data were acquired by the CMA (University of Ul
ster) with an EdgeTech X-Star SB-216S using a 2–10
kHz swept frequency source pulsing at 4 Hz.
As many archaeological sites coincide with areas of high sedimentation, the partial or
complete burial of structures, features, and artifacts is common (Figure 3.1). When non
metallic artifacts, sites, and landscapes are buried, the only technique suitable for detect
ing them is sub-bottom (seismic) profiling (Bull, Quinn, and Dix 1998; Fitch, Thomson,
and Gaffney 2005; Papatheodoru, Geraga, and Ferentinos 2005; Plets et al. 2007, in press;
Quinn et al. 1997b, 1998, 2002a). (p. 75)
Two principal types of SBP exist: those that produce single frequency pulses (e.g.,
pingers, boomers, and sparkers) and those that produce swept frequency (wide-band
width) pulses (e.g., Chirp profilers). Single frequency systems suffer from a “penetration
versus resolution” compromise, in that higher-frequency sources give better resolution
but can penetrate only a short distance into the sediment, while lower-frequency systems
penetrate farther (p. 76) but result in poorer resolution. The development of Chirp tech
nology in the early 1990s addressed the classic trade-off between penetration and resolu
tion by producing a swept frequency pulse capable of penetrating decameters into the
seabed while still retaining decimeter resolution. It should be noted however, that the ef
Page 8 of 22

fectiveness of individual profiling systems is heavily dependent on the geological charac

teristics of the subsurface, with coarser sediments (sands and gravels) being harder to
penetrate than fine-grained sediments (silts and clays).
All sub-bottom profilers employ acoustic sources that penetrate the seabed, reflect off
boundaries or objects in the subsurface, and are detected by an acoustic receiver (or hy
drophone) that is usually mounted in close proximity to the source. Reflections occur
where there are differences in density and/or sound velocity across a boundary, that is,
where an acoustic impedance contrast exists. Sub-bottom profilers generate a data set
that can be processed to give a cross section in the direction of movement of the boat in
two-way travel time. With additional knowledge of the speed of sound through the sedi
ments (obtained from in situ measurements of core material or by comparison with stan
dard empirically derived values), the time section can be converted to a depth section.
Pingers transmit short pulses of a single frequency (3.5 kHz, for example), which gives a
vertical resolution of 0.3–0.5 m and penetration of 20–25 m. Transmission of the pulse
and reception of the returning echoes are conducted within a single set of transceivers,
optimizing the system’s horizontal resolution. Boomer systems represent a single lower-
frequency source, typically between 1 and 6 kHz. The boomer output pulse can be tai
lored to the survey’s requirement, in terms of both the frequency content and the energy
output. Boomer systems have a range of penetration of 50–100 m and a typical vertical
resolution of 1.0 m. The bandwidth of Chirp systems is typically between 5 and 15 kHz,
with a practical vertical resolution of 10–20 cm obtainable at penetration depths in ex
cess of 30 m. To minimize attenuation and maximize resolution of the system, Chirp pro
filers are towed as close to the seabed as practical, typically 5–10 m above the bottom.
For artifact identification, Chirp systems currently represent the best available technolo
gy, not only because of their good resolution but because suitable postprocessing of this
digital data allows some degree of material characterization of buried objects and materi
als (Bull, Quinn, and Dix 1998; Quinn, Bull, and Dix 1997a). For landscape reconstruction,
the boomer system is most reliable, as it is capable of penetrating most sediment types
found within the coastal zone and can thus guarantee some basic imagery of buried land
scapes. However, in ideal circumstances both Chirp and boomer should be deployed on a
survey to ensure both detailed imagery of any fine sedimentary cover and penetration to
bedrock. Similar to SBES surveys, regional-scale seismic surveys are conventionally de
signed with track lines oriented perpendicular to shore, as stratigraphic variation is usu
ally highest in this direction.
(p. 77) Swath Methods

Side-Scan Sonar
Side-scan sonar is a method of seabed imaging using narrow beams of acoustic energy
transmitted out either side of the towfish and across the seabed (Fish and Carr 1990).
Page 9 of 22

Sound, scattered back from the seafloor and from submerged objects, is processed to pro
vide laterally undistorted acoustic images of the seafloor in real time (Figure 3.2). The
swath-width of side-scan sonars (i.e., the area of the seafloor surveyed in a single pass) is
user-controlled, generally encompassing 10 times the water depth. For archaeological
surveys, the angle at which the acoustic energy insonifies the target is important, as dif
ferent grazing angles reveal different site characteristics. An effective way to alter this
angle is to repeat survey lines encompassing the site at different towfish altitudes. Up to
the early part of the twenty-first century, side-scan sonar was regarded as the workhorse
of offshore survey, featuring heavily in archaeological investigations (Fish and Carr 1990;
Sakellariou et al. 2007; Sonnenburg and Boyce 2008; Théorêt 1980; Ward and Ballard
2004). However, side-scan sonar is now slowly being replaced by the multibeam echo-
sounder as the instrument of choice for archaeological investigations.
As with most acoustic instruments, side-scan systems are available in a variety of types,
depth ratings, and operating frequencies. Standard systems are portable and suitable for
deployment from inshore survey vessels, employing one of two industry-standard frequen
cies for imaging: 100 kHz and 500 kHz. In general terms, a 100 kHz operating frequency
is chosen for regional surveys with swath widths in excess of 100 m per channel. Fre
quencies of 500 kHz are generally used where a higher resolution is required, such as for
detailed shipwreck surveys. Very-high-frequency systems of up to 1 MHz give even better
definition, but their effective range is limited to less than about 50 m. Modern systems
provide resolution on a centimetric scale when operated under near-perfect survey condi
tions (Quinn et al. 2005).
Material properties of the substrate determine the acoustic response of the seafloor
(Quinn et al. 2005). All materials have an inherent roughness—for example, coarse-
grained material scatters more energy than fine-grained material due to the rougher in
terface presented to the acoustic pulse. Therefore, rock, gravel, wood, and metals scatter
more energy than finer-grained sediments and will therefore be recorded as darker ele
ments on the sonar record. Reflector shape, including seafloor gradient, also influences
reflectivity and backscattering. Arguably the most important phenomenon on side-scan
records for archaeological purposes is acoustic shadows, which provide a three-dimen
sional quality to what is essentially two-dimensional data. Acoustic shadows occur along
side objects that stand proud of, or are partially buried in, the seafloor. In side-scan sonar
data, shadows can often indicate more about the target than the acoustic returns.
Page 10 of 22

Figure 3.2 Side-scan sonar data from the (a) Appin

(1913) and (b) Oregon (1945) wreck sites in Belfast
Lough, Ireland. The sonar data were acquired using
an EdgeTech 272-TD side-scan system operating at
500 kHz with a swath width of 150 m (Quinn et al.
2000). Side-scan data images the wrecks within their
environmental context, allowing resource managers
a valuable tool for site management strategies. For
example, the remains of the hull of Appin are imaged
lying among a field of bifurcating wave ripples, indi
cating that the long-term site evolution is influenced
by its location within the wave base.
The majority of side-scan investigations follow a predetermined survey pattern, with lane
spacing less than the swath width of the sonar, allowing for overlap between (p. 78) suc
cessive survey lines. This overlap allows for deviation off the survey line and also compen
sates for loss of resolution with range. Although data in the past was conventionally dis
played on thermal film, modern systems allow for digital acquisition and geo-rectification.
Individual geo-rectified side-scan lines are routinely compiled into mosaic views to pro
vide large-area acoustic images at the original resolution.
(p. 79) Multibeam Echo-Sounders
Multibeam echo-sounders are a direct development of the SBES, but instead of estimat
ing the depth of a single point on the seafloor directly beneath the transceiver, they esti
mate the depths of tens or hundreds of points within a swath orthogonal to the transceiv
er, ensuring high-density, high-resolution coverage (Momber and Geen 2000; Quinn
2006). MBES systems are therefore used to increase bottom coverage, with each of the
narrow beams producing data at a resolution equivalent to that of a narrow SBES (Figure
3.3). MBES systems are usually mounted on the hull or on a remotely operated vehicle
(ROV) but can be mounted on a towfish if required.
Page 11 of 22

Two types of swath systems are commonly employed for bathymetric mapping—multi
beam echo-sounders and interferometric sonars (also termed bathymetric side-scan
sonar). Each of these systems has its own advantages and disadvantages. To put it simply,
MBES systems offer higher-resolution bathymetric data with low-order backscatter data
as a by-product, whereas interferometric systems offer lower-order bathymetric data and
true side-scan. The more sophisticated MBES can simultaneously acquire depth and
backscatter data for each point insonified on the seafloor. These data can then be used to
derive charts of the seafloor showing relief and backscatter intensity, which can in turn
be used to produce geological maps when ground-truthed using direct (grabs, cores) or
indirect (video, stills) sampling methods. Despite their complexity and relative expense,
MBES now dominate seafloor mapping.
MBES have many uses and are designed to operate in various water depths. System
choice therefore depends on the water depth range to be surveyed. MBES systems are
grouped into three main categories (Lurton 2002). Deepwater systems are designed for
regional survey and operate in the frequency range of 12 kHz (deep ocean mapping) to 30
kHz (continental shelf investigations). The large size and weight of these MBES trans
ceivers limits their installation to deep-sea vessels. Shallow-water systems typically oper
ate at 100–200 kHz and are designed for hydrographic survey of the continental shelves.
High-definition systems, operating between 300 and 500 kHz, are used for high-definition
work and object detection (see Figure 3.3). Their small size and weight makes them ideal
for small-vessel deployment and for mounting on ROVs.
Page 12 of 22

Aspects of Data Acquisition, Processing, and

Interpretation
Figure 3.3 Multibeam echo-sounder data of (a) HMS

Royal Oak and (b) the SS Richard Montgomery
(bottom) wreck sites. HMS Royal Oak was anchored
at Scapa Flow in Orkney, Scotland, when she became
the first of five Royal Navy battleships and battle
cruisers sunk in World War II. She was torpedoed at
anchor by the German submarine U-47 on 14 Octo
ber 1939. HMS Royal Oak is a designated war grave
and now lies upside down in 30 m of water, with her
hull 5 m beneath the surface. SS Richard Mont
gomery was an American Liberty ship built during
World War II and subsequently wrecked in the
Thames estuary (UK) in 1944 with around 1,500 tons
of explosives on board. The explosives continue to be
a hazard to the area; time-lapse MBES surveys are
conducted over the site to assess change in the
wreck and cargo. These data were collected using a
Reson 8125 operating at 455 kHz. Pulse rate was 5–7
Hz on the Royal Oak survey and 12–22 Hz on the
Richard Montgomery survey. Data acquired by ADUS
for Salvage and Marine Operations, UK Ministry of
Defence.
The quality of remotely sensed data is affected by many factors, including towfish insta
bility, positioning accuracy, weather, boat heave, and water column noise. To aid data in
terpretation, detailed and time-stamped field notes should be logged (p. 80) during sur
vey. As the person interpreting the data has often not been involved in the data acquisi
tion phase, comprehensive survey logs can be of great benefit to the interpreter. Simple
things like “start of line” (SOL) and “end of line” (EOL) marks should be recorded both on
the data and in a field log to facilitate data processing.
Page 13 of 22

Due to the large volume of data acquired in acoustic remote sensing surveys, sys
(p. 81)
tems of file naming should be logical and consistent. Files should be numbered sequen
tially to avoid ambiguity. For example, one of the easiest ways to name files is to use the
date of survey followed by a letter. For example, the first navigation file recorded on 17
January 2008 could be called 170108a.dat; the second file recorded on the same day
could be called 170108b.dat, and so on. Unfortunately, loss of remotely sensed data tends
to be permanent. Backups are therefore essential. Originals and backups should be
stored separately.
To the surveyor, “signal” is the portion of data that is required, and “noise” describes any
thing else that is recorded but is considered to contain no useful information. Good-quali
ty data has a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Because of this, much of the surveyors’ ef
forts are dedicated to the need to improve the SNR of data. In the marine environment,
noise is caused by such phenomena as vessel engine noise, wake from passing vessels,
sea-surface chop, and in extreme cases by marine life. Survey procedures should be
adapted to ensure that the best possible data is acquired. For example, a pulsing echo-
sounder may cause regular interference on side-scan data. The easiest way of eliminating
this interference is to turn off the echo-sounder. However, in shallow-water applications,
the skipper may require a depth readout, so the echo-sounder cannot be switched off. In
this case, interference may be limited by increasing the distance between the echo-
sounder transducer and the side-scan towfish by towing on a longer cable length (Fish
and Carr 1990).
Interpreters of remotely sensed data tend to concentrate on anomalies, that is, on appre
ciable differences between a constant or smoothly varying background and a very strong
or “anomalous” signature. Archaeological anomalies take many forms. For example, a
concentration of iron cannon in gullies on a bedrock substrate would give rise to a sharp
magnetic anomaly but may not be imaged in a side-scan survey (see Gearhart in this vol
ume for a discussion of magnetic anomalies). Conversely, a wooden vessel on a planar
sand substrate may present a noticeable high-backscatter anomaly on side-scan data that
would not be detected in a magnetometer survey.
The results from geophysical surveys can be presented in many formats, depending on
data type and audience. The results of surveys along single traverses can be presented in
profile form, where the horizontal scale is distance and the vertical scale is the quantity
being measured: for example, the results of a single bathymetric transect would plot dis
tance against depth. The results along grid-type surveys can be contoured and presented
as two-dimensional or three-dimensional plots and surfaces: for instance, the results of a
bathymetric survey could be contoured to provide a bathymetric chart of the area. The re
sults of side-scan sonar surveys are usually presented as either acoustic snapshots (image
data) or mosaics of the seafloor. Whatever method is used, it is important to present data
in such a way that the target audience is addressed and data attributes are clear. Data
should be presented to inform, not to impress.
Page 14 of 22

The success of marine remote-sensing surveys is largely dependent upon the experience
of the surveyors and interpreters. Although some research has focused on the acoustic
signatures of anthropogenic materials submerged and buried in the (p. 82) marine envi
ronment (Bull, Quinn, and Dix 1998; Quinn, Bull, and Dix 1997a; Quinn et al. 2005), it re
mains a poorly understood subject. This often leads to the misinterpretation of acoustic
archaeological data. The only satisfactory method presently available for quantifying ma
rine archaeo-acoustic data is to physically ground-truth anomalies and ambiguous tar
gets, either through diver, drop-down video, or ROV investigations. With the increase in
predevelopment and research-oriented remote-sensing surveys, combined with initiatives
to substantiate national, regional, or local cultural heritage registers, a rapid and accu
rate method for ground-truthing these data is essential (see, for example, Quinn et al.
2002b; Quinn et al. 2007).
Applications to Shipwreck Archaeology

In shipwreck studies, acoustic remote sensing has traditionally been used for reconnais
sance surveys and for site relocation. More recently, with the advent of higher-resolution
sonar systems, the focus in shipwreck studies has shifted toward site reconstruction and
studies of site formation. Site formation processes at wreck sites are driven by some com
bination of chemical, biological, and physical processes, with physical processes initially
dominant (Quinn 2006; Ward, Larcombe, and Veth 1999; see also C. Martin in this vol
ume). Wreck sites act as open systems, with the exchange of material (sediment, water,
organics, and inorganics) and energy (wave, tidal, storm) across system boundaries
(Quinn 2006). Wrecks are therefore generally in a state of dynamic equilibrium with re
spect to the natural environment, characterized by negative disequilibrium, ultimately
leading to wreck disintegration. Positive and negative feedbacks operate between physi
cal, chemical, and biological processes in the water column, sediment pile, and the wreck
as it disintegrates and interacts with the surrounding environment (Ward, Larcombe, and
Veth 1999). Fundamental processes driving site formation therefore depend on the com
plex erosion (net sediment loss) and accretion (net sediment deposition) history of wreck
sites. Furthermore, exposed parts of wreck structures tend to be affected by aerobic bac
teria, wood-borers, and increased corrosion rates, while buried wreck components tend
to be affected by anaerobic bacteria (Ward, Larcombe, and Veth 1999). Therefore, even
major chemical and biological processes contributing to site formation are constrained by
the physical processes of scour and deposition (Quinn 2006).
Acoustic methods can be used to elucidate and quantify these processes of site formation
and aid our understanding of resultant wreck and artifact distributions. Acoustics can
help to quantify sediment budgets at sites, provide information on hydrodynamics, quanti
fy seabed movement, and play a primary role in recording artifact distributions. Examples
of the application of acoustic techniques to site formation studies include the gravitation
al collapse of the Santo Antonio de Tanna (Quinn et al. 2007), scouring at the Queen
Anne’s Revenge (McNinch, Wells, and Trembanis 2006) and Mary Rose (Quinn et al.
1997b) wreck (p. 83) sites, and the storm-controlled redistribution of material and arti
Page 15 of 22

facts at the Invincible site (Quinn et al. 1998). Furthermore, repeat (time-lapse) side-scan
sonar surveys have proven effective in quantifying change in a variety of studies, includ
ing at archaeological sites (Quinn 2006; Quinn et al. 1998).
An example of the successful implementation of the time-lapse technique to assessing

change at a shipwreck site is illustrated with the case study of the Arklow Bank wreck, ly
ing approximately 11 km off the east coast of Ireland (Quinn 2006). The wreck was dis
covered in 2002 during a side-scan sonar survey as part of an offshore wind park develop
ment. Subsequent to relocation, repeat MBES surveys of the wreck site were conducted
on 12 August and 23 August 2003 (Figure 3.4). The wreck stands proud of the seabed by
up to 2 m at midships, with the wreck aligned approximately 60° to the dominant flow di
rection. The primary scour feature emanates from the eastern end of the vessel, with a
maximum recorded depth of 16.3 m, approximately 3 m below mean bed level. Two accre
tionary ridges parallel the peak flow direction, one originating at midships and one at the
western end of the wreck structure.
The results of the repeat MBES surveys were corrected for tidal variation and subsam
pled to generate corresponding spatial grids (0.05 m spatial resolution). These grids were
subsequently subtracted to produce an accretion-erosion plot, displaying bed-level
change after an 11-day period (Figure 3.4c). Migration of flow-perpendicular bifurcating
ripples is characteristic of the site, indicating that live bed processes participate in site
development. The most significant signatures developed in the accretion-erosion plot are
the series of flow-parallel erosional “troughs” and the single accretionary “ridge” devel
oped on the northeastern margin of the wreck. The amplitude of the accretionary ridge is
in excess of 4 m, indicating the accumulation of at least 4 m of sediment at the midships
section over an 11-day period, parallel to the dominant flow direction. This is equal to the
deposition of 0.36 m per day, assuming a constant sedimentation rate. Other areas of sed
iment accumulation include the northwestern tip of the wreck and a mound on the south
ern margin of the structure, around the midship section. The series of erosional troughs
form largely flow-parallel features, although the trough at the eastern side of the accre
tionary ridge converges with the ridge approximately 15 m from the wreck (Quinn 2006).
The results from the repeat MBES surveys highlight the extreme dynamic characteristics
of some wreck sites, with gross bed-level change occurring rapidly over large areas. This
result alone raises serious questions about the validity of many site formation models
where “processes” are often generalized and averaged over periods of hundreds of years
(Quinn 2006).
Page 16 of 22

Applications to Submerged Landscapes
Figure 3.4 Composite graphic representing (a)

three-dimensional terrain model of the Arklow Bank
wreck site (Ireland) generated from multibeam data
acquired on 12 August 2003; (b) three-dimensional
terrain model of the wreck site generated from multi
beam data acquired on 23 August 2003; and (c)
three-dimensional accretion-erosion model produced
by subtracting the results of the time-lapse surveys.
The model shows areas of accretion in red and ero
sion in blue. The MBES data were acquired by Titan
Environmental Surveys Ltd. using a GeoAcoustics
GeoSwath system operating at 250 kHz with a beam
angle of 1°, providing a theoretical vertical resolu
tion of 0.0175 m.
Page 17 of 22

Figure 3.5 Paleo-geographic reconstructions of ar

eas located off the northern coast of Ireland. These
reconstructions are based on MBES data derived
from the Joint Irish Bathymetric Survey (JIBS), co-co
ordinated by the Maritime and Coastguard Agency,
the Irish Marine Institute, and the Northern Ireland
Environment Agency. (a) Reconstruction of the north
eastern coast of Ireland at a lowstand of −60 m; (b)
Paleo-geographic reconstruction of The Skerries off
Portrush (Co. Antrim), based on a lowstand of −30m
identified by Kelley et al. (2006); and (c) Paleo-geo
graphic reconstruction of Rathlin Island based on a
lowstand of −30 m identified by Kelley et al. (2006).
Much of the recent renewed interest in the archaeology of submerged coastlines stems
from the increased resolving capability of acoustic methods and their role in locating,
mapping, and reconstructing these environments (Figure 3.5; see also (p. 84) Firth in this
volume). The centimetric resolution of the acoustic remote-sensing techniques, allied to
digital signal processing and analysis, allows for the interrogation of morphology of sub
merged landscapes and also of the materials that comprise the landscapes. For example,
automated classification of backscatter data, signature analyses of seismic data and slope
analysis of MBES data all find applications in submerged landscape studies. (p. 85)
Examples of the application of acoustic techniques to broad-scale studies of sub

(p. 86)
merged landscapes include mapping the paleogeography of a submerged flood plain and
archaeological sites through the fusion of SBES and SSS data (Sonnenburg and Boyce
2008), mapping of late Pleistocene and Holocene depositional systems on the Dogger
Bank through the integration and visualization of 3D seismics (Fitch, Thomson, and
Gaffney 2005), identifying the influence of climate and cultural activity on basin develop
ment in Lower Lough Erne using side-scan and Chirp seismic data (Lafferty, Quinn, and
Breen 2006), and the characterization of buried inundated peat on seismic data (Plets et
al. 2007).
Page 18 of 22

Perhaps some of the most exciting developments in this area of research in recent years
are being realized through the provision of high-resolution MBES data sets acquired over
large geographic areas. When these data are integrated with the outputs from glacio-iso
static models, they allow research teams to produce nested regional- and local-scale pale
ogeographic reconstructions of submerged landscapes at resolutions previously unheard
of (see Figure 3.5). The availability of these sonar data and the increasing cooperation be
tween government agencies and academic institutions interested in seabed mapping,
landscape evolution, and archaeology has spawned research networks dedicated to relo
cating, mapping, and understanding the evolution of these submerged landscapes. An ex
ample of one of these multidisciplinary research groups is the Submerged Landscapes Ar
chaeological Network (SLAN; Bell, O’Sullivan, and Quinn 2006), comprising archaeolo
gists and geoscientists from Europe and North America who use sonar data, numerical
modeling, and archaeological theory to understand how the submerged coastal environ
ments of the North Atlantic Rim facilitated the expansion and growth of its first peoples
and how the evolving coastal landscape, marine resources, and climate may have stimu
lated social and cultural change across prehistoric times and into the medieval period
(Bell, O’Sullivan, and Quinn 2008).
Current and Future Trends

Undoubtedly, wreck and landscape remote-sensing surveys benefit from integrated ap
proaches (Papatheodorou, Geraga, and Ferentinos 2005; Quinn et al. 1998, 2002a; Son
nenburg and Boyce 2008). To date, integrated surveys often meant using different
acoustic systems to collect separate data sets, with the spatial integration of these data
occurring in the postprocessing stage. However, the last few years have seen develop
ments of multielement sonar platforms, which allow for the acquisition of true concurrent
sonar data sets from one platform.
As outlined by Mayer (2006), the past few years have witnessed remarkable and simulta
neous advances in sonar technology, positioning systems, and computer power that have
revolutionized the imaging of the seafloor. Advances in the acquisition, processing, and vi
sualization of these data will continue into the future, allied (p. 87) to further develop
ments in digital acquisition, signal processing, and advanced visualization (see, for exam
ple, Plets et al. 2009). All of these developments are possible due to increasing power and
decreasing costs of computers. Perhaps most importantly for maritime archaeology, every
new phase of development in sonar technology brings an increase in sensors’ resolving
capability and therefore the ability to image smaller and smaller artifacts in greater de
tail.
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Page 19 of 22

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change and inner shelf stratigraphy off northern Ireland. Marine Geology 232: 1–15.
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bathymetry system to the management of underwater sites. International Journal of Nau

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Theodoulou, and K. Dellaporta. 2007. Searching for ancient shipwrecks in the Aegean
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(p. 89)
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Rory Quinn
Rory Quinn, Centre for Maritime Archaeology, University of Ulster.
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Acoustic Remote Sensing in Maritime Archaeology - Rory Quinn

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Acoustic Remote Sensing in Maritime Archaeology

Print Publication Date: Dec 2013

Abstract and Keywords

This article offers an introduction to acoustic remote sensing. In shipwreck studies,

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

The major advantages of acoustic mapping systems as applied to maritime archaeology

Navigational Control and Positional Accuracy

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Brief Introduction to Ocean Acoustics

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

The polarity of the reflection coefficient is dependent on whether there is an increase

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

acquire quantitative data on geophysical properties of seafloor and subsurface materials,

(p. 74) Profiling Methods

An essential component of all underwater investigations is the production of a detailed

Conventional echo-sounder systems consist of single hull-mounted or pole-mounted trans­

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Sub-Bottom Profilers (SBP)

Figure 3.1 (a) Chirp sub-bottom profile acquired

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

fectiveness of individual profiling systems is heavily dependent on the geological charac­

(p. 77) Swath Methods

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Figure 3.2 Side-scan sonar data from the (a) Appin

(p. 79) Multibeam Echo-Sounders

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Aspects of Data Acquisition, Processing, and

Figure 3.3 Multibeam echo-sounder data of (a) HMS

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Applications to Shipwreck Archaeology

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

An example of the successful implementation of the time-lapse technique to assessing

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Applications to Submerged Landscapes

Figure 3.4 Composite graphic representing (a)

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Figure 3.5 Paleo-geographic reconstructions of ar­

Examples of the application of acoustic techniques to broad-scale studies of sub­

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Current and Future Trends

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Kelley, J. T., J. A. G. Cooper, D. W. T. Jackson, D. F. Belknap, and R. Quinn. 2006. Sea-level

Lurton, X. 2002. An introduction to underwater acoustics: Principles and applications.

Milsom, J. 1996. Field geophysics. Chichester, UK: Wiley.

Momber, G. 1991. Gorad Beuno: Investigation of an ancient fish-trap in Caernarvon Bay,

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

bathymetry system to the management of underwater sites. International Journal of Nau­

Plets, R. M. K., J. K. Dix, J. R. Adams, J. M. Bull, T. J. Henstock, M. Gutowski, and A. I. Best.

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

Sakellariou, D., P. Georgiou, A. Mallios, V. Kapsimalis, D. Kourkoumelis, P. Micha, T.

Théorêt, M. A. 1980. Side-scan sonar in Lake Champlain, Vermont, USA. International

wreck site formation. Journal of Archaeological Science 26: 561–570.

Rory Quinn, Centre for Maritime Archaeology, University of Ulster.

Subscriber: University of New South Wales; date: 14 November 2019

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bathymetry system to the management of underwater sites. International Journal of Nau