MMS3013

INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

SYSTEM (GIS)
PENGENALAN KEPADA SISTEM MAKLUMAT
GEOGRAFI (GIS)

Idham Khalil
idham@umt.edu.my
+601110655307
Coordinate System
and Map Projections
Coordinate System (CS) – provides a frame of
reference to define locations

 Geographic CS – Used for 3D (sphere or globe), locations

defined by latitude and longitude, usually in decimal
degrees
 Projected CS – Used for 2D (maps), locations defined by
x,y measured from some origin (0,0), usually in meters,
sometimes in feet
Latitude-Longitude System
The most commonly used coordinate system
today is the latitude, longitude, and height system.

The Prime Meridian and the Equator are the

reference planes used to define latitude and
longitude.
Equator and Prime Meridian

Meridian = (N-S Longitude); Parallel = (E-W Latitude)

Latitude-Longitude Systems
Degree-Minute-Second (DMS)
◦1 deg = 60 min
◦1 min = 60 sec

Decimal Degrees (DD)

◦455230= 45.875 
Plane Coordinate Systems
2-D Systems 3-D Systems
(1 plane) (2 orthogonal planes)
 Map Projection
The transformation from the geographic grid to
a plane coordinate system is referred to as map
projection.
Transformation from one plane coordinate
system to another is referred to as re-projection.
 Ellipsoid/
Spheroid – A
simplified model
of the shape of
the Earth

Datum - Defines the spheroid

being used and aligns the
spheroid, optimizing fit either
for a specific area, or overall
globally. This also defines the
origin point of the coordinate
system.
Projection Classes
Conformal: preserves local shape
Equivalent: preserves area
Equidistant: preserves length
Azimuthal: preserves directions

Map can have more that one property, but conformal

and equivalent are mutually exclusive
 Projections Affect Maps
The greater the map area, the greater the impact of projection
 Types of Projections
Imagine a globe with a light source inside that projects features on the
earth’s surface onto a flat surface
That flat surface can be configured a number of ways – as a cylinder, a cone,
or a plane
 Projections in ArcGIS

All geographic datasets have a GCS

Many also have a PCS
Unprojected (GCS) data is generally inappropriate for GIS
analyses
The first layer added to ArcMap defines the projection and
datum for the data frame. This can be changed in the data frame
properties.
All subsequent layers are projected on-the-fly (if necessary) to
match the data frame projection. The GCS of the layer must match
the data frame or a transformation is required.
Introduction
to ArcGIS
 Projection Metadata
CS information can be viewed in ArcMap (layer properties>source tab) and
ArcCatalog (Description tab)
Data with Unknown Coordinate Systems
Cannot be projected on-the-fly
Will generate a warning when added to ArcMap
Layer will be added, but may not align with other data
Can be fixed with Define Projection tool if you know the CS
If you don’t, you can try:
 contacting the source
 adding the layer to a map with a known CS. If the new layer is
registered with existing layers, it is the same CS.
Projecting Raster Data

Because projections cause distortions in size and shape, and raster

data must have square cells, cells in projected rasters represent
different areas on the surface of the earth
Resampling is used to assign values to projected cells.
 Nearest neighbor is fastest and must be used for categorical data
like land cover
 Bilinear interpolation uses a weighted distance average of
surrounding cells. Smooths values moderately, useful for
continuous data like elevation
 Cubic convolution fits a curve through surrounding points. Can
smooth data significantly and is slower

Introduction
to ArcGIS
 Map Units vs. Display Units

Coordinates of the dataset are stored in map units.

Geographic generally uses decimal degrees, while a PCS
will usually use meters or feet. Map units can only be
changed by changing the CS of the data (Project tool).

Display units are independent of map units and are set

in the data frame properties. ArcMap reports coordinate
values and measurements in display units.
Thank you