Introduction to Geographic Information Systems

15

Figure  2.4  Portion of a sanitary sewer design plan showing (a) terrain contours and (b) connected
services. (From Brown and Toomer 2003. With permission.)

• Identify what is at a location through placement of a feature’s symbol in a reference frame

• Portray the relationship between features as connecting, adjacent, contained within, inter-
secting, in proximity, or higher/lower
• Display multiple attributes of an area
• Allow portrayal of and discernment between distributions, relationships, and trends
• Show classifications of feature attributes and graphic portrayals as thematic maps
• Visually encode feature attributes as text, values, or identifiers
• Detect changes over time using maps prepared at different times
• Integrate data from diverse sources into a common geographic reference, thereby allow-
ing comparison

In environmental and water resources engineering, maps and plans are a basic medium for design.
Infrastructure designs are portrayed in a map format to communicate the exact nature of the project
in terms of specific locations and relationships over an area. For example, a sanitary sewer system
is shown in Figure 2.4. The layout shows the location and flow path of the collection sewer system.
Topographic contours describe the lay of the land. Slope values can be derived and act as input for
pipe alignment and diameter computations. Pipe flows are derived from the specific properties and
streets in this plan.

2.3.2 Coordinate Systems and Geocoding

If a map feature is to be comparable in space to other features, it must have a location. Spatial data
compiled from various sources must be assembled into a consistent reference frame. All points on
the Earth’s surface can be defined in geographic coordinates as latitude, longitude, and elevation
above mean sea level. A map projection is a mathematical transformation by which the latitude
and longitude of each point on the Earth’s curved surface is converted into corresponding (x,y) or
(easting, northing) projected coordinates in a flat-map reference frame (Snyder 1987). Figure 2.5
illustrates the concept of map projection for the equatorial case. If data are available in one map
projection and required in another, then specialized GIS software can perform the transformation
into the new projected reference frame.
Knowledge of the map scale is needed to properly understand a map’s accuracy. The map scale
describes the relationship between the mapped size and the actual size. It is expressed as the ratio
(or representative fraction) of the linear distances on the map and corresponding ground distances.
Large-scale maps (≈1:1000) cover small areas, but can include a high level of detail. Large-scale
maps are most often used for municipal facilities plans, and these maps must be developed using
16 Geographic Information Systems in Water Resources Engineering

Figure 2.5  Geographic coordinates expressed as degrees latitude and longitude represent angular degrees
calculated from the center of the earth. (Source: www-atlas.usgs.gov/articles/mapping/a_latlong.html)

photogrammetric techniques. Small-scale maps (≈1:250,000) depict larger areas with less detail. For
example, the U.S. Geological Survey Digital Line Graph (DLG) series is issued as three primary
types: (a) large-scale (7.5-min of latitude and longitude) DLGs correspond to the USGS 1:20,000-,
1:24,000-, and 1:25,000-scale topographic quadrangle maps; (b) intermediate-scale (1:100,000-scale)
DLGs; and (c) small-scale (1:1,000,000-scale) DLGs for the National Atlas. The 1:24,000 scale is most
often used for watershed studies. The 1:100,000 scale is used for national coverage of the U.S. stream
network. Details on U.S. map standards can be found at http://nationalmap.gov/gio/standards/.
USGS maps adhere to the National Map Accuracy Standards (USGS 1999). As applied to the
USGS 7.5-min quadrangle topographic map, the horizontal accuracy standard requires that the
positions of 90% of all points tested must be accurate within 1/50th of an inch (0.05 cm) on the map.
At 1:24,000 scale, 1/50th of an inch is 40 ft (12.2 m). The vertical accuracy standard requires that
the elevation of 90% of all points tested must be correct within half of the contour interval. On a
map with a contour interval of 10 ft, the map must correctly show 90% of all points tested within 5
ft (1.5 m) of the actual elevation.

2.3.3 Data Representations and Data Models

The nature of the data representation has a strong influence on the analysis that can be applied.
Spatial data in GIS are most often organized into vector and raster (or surface) data structures
(Figure 2.6). In the vector structure, geographic features or objects are represented by points, lines,
and polygons that are precisely positioned in a continuous map space, similar to traditional hard-
copy maps that identify landmarks, buildings, roads, streams, water bodies, and other features by
points, lines, and shaded areas. In addition, each object in the vector structure includes topologic
information that describes its spatial relation to neighboring objects, in particular its connectivity
and adjacency. This explicit and unambiguous definition of and linkage between objects makes vec-
tor structures attractive and allows for the automated analysis and interpretation of spatial data in
GIS environments (Meijerink et al. 1994).
On the other hand, surface, or raster (from display technology), data structures divide space into
a two-dimensional (2-D) grid of cells, where each cell contains a value representing the attribute
being mapped. A raster is an x,y matrix of spatially ordered numbers. Each grid cell is referenced
by a row and column number, with the boundary of the grid being registered in space to known
coordinates. Raster structures arise from imaging sources such as satellite imagery and assume that
the geographical space can be treated as though it were a flat Cartesian surface (Burrough 1986).
A point is represented by a single grid cell, a line by a string of connected cells, and an area by a
group of adjacent cells. When different attributes are considered, such as soil and land use, each
Introduction to Geographic Information Systems 17

Figure 2.6  Raster (grid) and vector data structures provide complementary means for representing loca-
tion and character of map features.

are represented by separate raster layers. Operations on multiple layers involve the retrieval and
processing of the data from corresponding cell positions in the different layers. This overlay con-
cept is like stacking layers (2-D grids) and then analyzing each cell location (Meijerink et al. 1994).
The simplicity of data processing in raster structures has contributed to its popularity. Both vector
and raster structures are valid representations of spatial data. The complementary characteristics
of both structures have long been recognized, and modern GIS can process both structures, includ-
ing conversions between structures and overlays of both structures. Additional details on GIS data
structures are presented in Chapter 3.
Of primary interest for water resources, especially surface-hydrology applications, are represen-
tations of topography. Digital elevation model (DEM) is the general term used for topographic data
models. DEMs are generally stored in one of three data structures: (a) raster or grid structures, (b)
triangulated irregular network (TIN) structures, and (c) contour-based structures. Grid structures
consist of a square grid matrix, with the elevation of each grid square (called a pixel) stored in a
matrix node. Location is implicit from the row-and-column location within the matrix, given known
boundary coordinates. In TIN structures, a continuous surface is generated from interconnected
triangles with known elevation values at the vertices of the triangles. For each triangle, the location
(x,y) and elevation (z) of the vertices are stored, as well as topological information identifying adja-
cent triangles. Triangles vary in size, with smaller triangles clustered in areas of rapidly changing
topography and larger triangles in areas of relatively smooth topography. Contour-based structures
consist of digitized contour lines defined by a collection of x,y coordinate pairs for contours of
specified elevation. DEM data sources are described in Chapter 3.

2.4 User Interfaces and Interaction Modes

A primary attraction of modern GIS is the user friendliness of the computer system interface pro-
vided by the various software vendors. Efficient retrieval of data depends not only on properly struc-
tured data in the database and the speed of retrieval, but also on well-designed interfaces and query
languages. The human–computer interface provides the environment that enhances human interac-
tion with the GIS. It makes it easy for the user to access data and analysis results, and to display these
data in understandable formats. Most traditional information systems provide limited presentation
formats, usually as text, tables, and graphs. While these formats are still useful, the spatial character
of geodata allows additional possibilities, including map formats and visualization techniques.
GIS software usability has progressed from command-line modes to menu and forms modes to
today’s graphical user interfaces (GUIs) (Martin et al. 2005). A GUI enables a user to interact with
the computer system by pointing to pictorial representations (icons) and lists of menu items on the
screen using a mouse. The use of icons facilitates the functionality of data selection, data presenta-
tion, and data manipulation.
18 Geographic Information Systems in Water Resources Engineering

Visualization is an extension of the traditional data-retrieval and -display concepts. It includes

techniques that aid in the interpretation of spatial data sets. A GIS is typically concerned with
analysis and interpretation, and it is the graphics-based nature of GIS that enables the perception
of spatial patterns and features of the information, extraction of parameters, and discrimination of
classes of objects (Worboys 2004).

2.5 GIS System Planning and Implementation

Consideration of organizational factors is important to successful GIS implementation and manage-
ment because of the critical role that information plays in an organization’s function. In most cases,
the design and implementation of a GIS is a long-term effort. Experience has shown that, as impor-
tant as technical issues of software, hardware, and database design are, it is the people problems
arising from access to the information and its use that determine whether a GIS will succeed or fail
(Aronoff 1991).
During the planning of a major GIS acquisition or development, it is important to consider cer-
tain organizational attributes that will impact the chosen approach. These attributes, generally
addressed in a needs assessment, should be evaluated in the broadest possible sense. In this way, the
goals, equipment, costs, etc., of all impacted departments will be included in the implementation
planning. Only after careful consideration of these attributes can the best possible implementation
strategy be chosen. The following are some attributes to consider:

• Overall organizational function and goals

• Sources of data available as input to the GIS system
• GIS hardware/software/databases and products that are currently and planned to be utilized
• Management approaches that will and have previously guided the GIS program
• Costs of implementation, both historic and planned
• Benefits of implementation, both tangible and intangible
• Procedure to be used in evaluating and comparing the costs and benefits
• Generation procedures—review internal, external, current, and potential procedures
• Quality assurance/quality control procedures (QA/QC) and any applicable data standards
• End-user interactions/training—consider how the GIS group will communicate with
its “clients”
• Evaluation/assessment procedures to be used to review the GIS implementation
• Legal issues pertaining to data distribution and ownership

Although it is difficult to quantify many of these attributes, it is a useful exercise to at least esti-
mate the worth of each one. For instance, many organizations consider a formal cost/benefit analysis
to be based on highly speculative information, although it is possible to measure the “goodness” of
intangible benefits on a relative scale. Further, as these types of organizational issues are discussed
during planning, a broader and more realistic picture of the resulting GIS implementation emerges.

2.6 GIS Software
A large number of GIS software options are available as open-source or commercial products.
Following is a brief summary of some of the more popular GIS packages. A large listing of GIS
software can be found at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS_software.

2.6.1 Proprietary GIS
• ArcGIS®: ArcGIS is the name of a suite of GIS software product lines produced by ESRI
(http://www.esri.com/). At the desktop GIS level, ArcGIS can include: ArcReader, which
allows one to view and query maps created with the other Arc products; ArcView®, which
Introduction to Geographic Information Systems 19

allows one to view spatial data, create maps, and perform basic spatial analysis; ArcEditor,
which includes all the functionality of ArcView as well as more-advanced tools for manip-
ulation of shape files and geodatabases; or ArcInfo®, the most advanced version of ArcGIS,
which includes added capabilities for data manipulation, editing, and analysis. There are
also server-based ArcGIS products as well as ArcGIS products for personal digital assistants
(PDAs). Extensions can be purchased separately to increase the functionality of ArcGIS.
• AutoCAD®: AutoCAD is a popular engineering CAD software produced by AutoDesk
(http://usa.autodesk.com/). AutoCAD Map 3D software is a leading engineering platform
that bridges the gap between CAD and GIS. When combined with Autodesk MapGuide®
technology, AutoCAD Map 3D provides a way to publish data to the Web or an intranet.
• Cadcorp®: Cadcorp (http://www.cadcorp.com/) is the developer of GIS software and
OpenGIS standard (e.g., Read/Write Open-Source PostGIS database). Products include
a Spatial Information System (SIS), which runs on Microsoft Windows and encompasses
desktop GIS modules, ActiveX- and COM-based developer kits, Web-based GIS software
(GeognoSIS), and a mobile data-capture solution (mSIS).
• ERDAS IMAGINE®: ERDAS IMAGINE is a raster graphics editor and remote-sensing
application designed by ERDAS, Inc. (http://www.erdas.com/). It is aimed primarily at
geospatial raster data processing that allows the user to display and enhance digital images.
It is a toolbox allowing the user to perform numerous operations on an image and generate
an answer to specific geographical questions.
• IDRISI®: GIS developed by Clark Labs (http://www.clarklabs.org/products/) at Clark
University, Massachusetts. IDRISI Andes is an integrated GIS and image-processing soft-
ware providing over 250 modules for spatial analysis and display. Originally developed
under United Nations sponsorship, the IDRISI is widely used worldwide.
• Intergraph®: Intergraph (http://www.intergraph.com/) provides software and services for
infrastructure management for the electric, gas, water, pipeline, utility, and communications
industries. Products include GeoMedia, GeoMedia Professional, GeoMedia WebMap, and
add-on products for industry sectors, as well as photogrammetry.
• MapInfo®: MapInfo (http://www.mapinfo.com/) GIS software products include the desk-
top GIS software, MapInfo Professional, MapXtreme 2005, and MapXtreme Java for Web-
based and desktop client mapping, as well as developer tools such as MapBasic.
• MicroStation®: MicroStation is a suite of CAD/GIS software products for 2-D and 3-D
design and drafting, developed and sold by Bentley Systems (http://www.bentley.com/). It
is used by engineering designers for transportation and for water and wastewater utilities.
Bentley also offers GIS-based water resources modeling software for water, sewer, and
stormwater systems (SewerCAD, WaterCAD, StormCAD).

2.6.2 Open-Source GIS
• GRASS: GRASS (Geographic Resource Analysis Support System) is a public-domain
open-source raster GIS developed as a general-purpose spatial modeling and analysis pack-
age (Neteler and Mitasova 2008). GRASS is a raster/vector GIS, image processing system,
and graphics production system. GRASS contains over 350 programs and tools to render
maps and images on monitor and paper; manipulate raster, vector, and sites data; process
multispectral image data; and create, manage, and store spatial data. GRASS uses both an
intuitive Windows interface as well as command-line syntax for ease of operation.

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