Exercise 3

3. MAP PROJECTIONS

Introduction
The locations of spatial features on the Earth’s surface are described by a three-dimensional coordinate reference
system. The spherical reference system that is already in use for more than 200 years is known as the Geographic
Reference System and describes locations on the Earth’s surface by latitude and longitude (Lo and Yeung, 2002).

If you want to produce a map of features on the Earth’s surface, you need to transform the spherical surface to a flat
map. This transformation from three-dimensional surface onto a two-dimensional map is called projection.
Mathematical expressions convert data from the angular, geographical coordinate system of a sphere to a linear,
orthogonal projected coordinate system of a flat map. This transformation requires several steps.

From the Earth’s surface to a 3D reference surface

First, a mathematical three-dimensional reference surface, which models the Earth’s physical shape, has to be
defined: the ellipsoid. The ellipsoid is a smooth surface. The actual surface of the Earth, represented by the ‘mean
sea level’ (geoid), is not smooth. This means that there are always discrepancies between the ellipsoid and the ‘mean
sea level’ surface, the geoid.

If you want to establish a 3D reference surface for a particular area (state, country, continent) you have to adjust the
ellipsoid for these discrepancies so that the reference surface fits the actual surface of the Earth as closely as
possible. A datum is an ellipsoid that is adjusted so that it matches the actual shape of the Earth of a particular region
as well as possible. The datum serves as the 3D reference surface for calculating the geographic coordinates of a
location.

From the 19th until halfway the 20th century ellipsoids were only fitted to the Earth’s shape over a particular country
or continent (Snyder, 1987). These ellipsoids were determined by ground measurements. Datums based on these
local ellipsoids fit the Earth’s surface only in a particular area. Examples include the datum ‘Amersfoort’, which
closely fits the Earth’s surface in the Netherlands and the datum ‘NAD27’, which fits to the Earth’s surface in the
North American continent. These datums are based on the Bessel 1841 and Clarke 1866 ellipsoids respectively.

Since the space age, satellite-determined ellipsoids have become available that represent the closest fit of the entire
surface of the Earth. The most widely used ellipsoid is WGS84. Because this is already the best approximation of
the shape of the Earth no adjustment based on the difference between the ellipsoid and actual shape is needed.
WGS84 is both ellipsoid and datum. Be aware that although global ellipsoids give a better overall approximation of
the shape of the entire Earth than local ellipsoids, they do not generally give the best fit for a particular region
(Snyder, 1987). This makes the WGS84 datum less suitable for regional mapping purposes.

From a 3D reference surface to a 2D map projection plane

By using a set of mathematical functions, the geographic coordinate system of a spherical (3D) reference surface
(the datum) can be transformed or projected to a projected coordinate system of a (2D) projection plane. The
outcome of this transformation is a map projection, which can be defined as a systematic arrangement of parallels
and meridians on a plane surface (Chang, 2012). Projected coordinate systems describe locations by Cartesian
(X,Y) coordinates and linear map units.
Map projections allow areas on the surface of the earth (spherical) to be represented on a map (flat). However,
expressing a three-dimensional surface in two dimensions involves distortion of geometric properties shape, area,
distance, and direction. No projection can preserve all these properties, although some combinations can be
preserved, such as shape and direction (the Mercator projection). As a map maker, you must choose a map
projection according to the properties you want to preserve in your map. This clearly depends on the purpose of your
map.

Remember that ArcGIS has an extensive help system that contains much information about projections and
coordinate systems, which can help you to clarify concepts discussed in this exercise if necessary.

In this exercise:

 Defining a projection for an unprojected dataset

 Reprojecting a dataset
 On-the-fly projection
 The effect of different map projections on geometric properties

Objectives

After having completed this exercise this part you will be capable:
 to understand the basic theoretical framework of map projections;
 to project and reproject datasets in ArcMap;
 to understand the influence of the Data Frame on map display in ArcMap;
 to describe the geometric distortions that are associated with different projections.

ArcMap document: Map projections.mxd

Projecting spatial datasets

Defining a projection

You can use the Define Projection tool when your dataset does not have a projection defined. If your dataset does
not have a projection defined, the coordinate system will be listed as ‘Undefined’ (Figure 1), in the box that displays
the Source information of your dataset (Layer properties window).
 Figure 1. Under the Source tab you find information about the map projection of the dataset.

If you define a projection, you can choose between two coordinate systems:
 Geographic coordinate system
Spherical (3D) reference system. Locations described by latitude and longitude. Map units: angular
(decimal degrees).
 Projected coordinate system
Planar (2D) reference system. Locations described by an X and Y coordinate. Map units: linear (meters,
miles etc.).

If your dataset has a geographic coordinate system but no projected coordinate system, you can still display it on
your map. ArcMap draws the data by simply treating the latitude/longitude coordinates as planar (x,y) coordinates.

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Open ArcToolbox. Click Data Management Tools Projections and Transformations Define
projection.
2. Click the Input Dataset or Feature Class dropdown arrow and select the unprojected dataset.
3. Click the button next to the Coordinate system box. The Spatial Reference Properties window opens. Click
Select. You can choose between geographic and projected coordinate systems.
4. Browse to the coordinate system you want to assign to the dataset. Click Add.
5. Click Apply and OK. The Spatial Reference Properties window closes.
6. Click OK to run the tool.
1.

Open ArcMap document ‘Map projections.mxd’. Activate Data Frame ‘Unprojected’.

a. Open the Layer properties of dataset ‘Netherlands_rd’. Click the Source tab to confirm this dataset does not
have a projection.

b. Project this dataset. Choose the projection ‘RD New’, the Dutch reference system. This is a projected reference
system. The projection file is located in the ‘National Grids / Europe’ folder.

c. Open the Layer properties window of dataset ‘Netherlands_rd’. The source information contains now a list with
projection parameters. Confirm this dataset references locations using a projected coordinate system. On which
geographic coordinate system (datum) is this projected coordinate system based?

d. What is the linear unit of the projected coordinate system?

Reprojecting spatial datasets

When you collect datasets from different sources to build a GIS application you will often end up with datasets that
have different map projections. With the Project tool you can change the map projection of your dataset. The tool
creates a new output dataset with the newly defined coordinate system, including datum and ellipsoid.

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Open ArcToolbox. Click Data Management Tools Projections and Transformations Feature
Project.
2. Select the Input Dataset or Feature Class you want to reproject.
3. Define name and location of the output dataset (the reprojected dataset).
4. Click the button next to the Output Coordinate system box. The Spatial Reference Properties window
opens. Click Select. You can choose between geographic and projected coordinate systems.
5. Browse to the coordinate system you want to assign to the dataset. Click Add.
 6. Click Apply and OK. The Spatial Reference Properties window closes.
7. Click the Geographic Transformation dropdown arrow and select a transformation. This is only necessary
when there is a datum conversion involved. For example, when the input datum is ‘Amersfoort’ (in case
of the projection ‘RD New’) and the output datum is WGS84 (in case of the Mercator projection).
8. Click OK to run the tool.

2.

In this exercise you will use the Project tool to transform the map projection of dataset ‘Netherlands_rd’ from ‘RD
New’ to ‘UTM’ and ‘Mercator’.

a. Change the map projection from ‘RD New’ to ‘UTM’.

- Give the new dataset the name ‘Netherlands_utm’ and save the dataset in your workspace directory.

- Use projection file: Projected coordinate systems \ UTM \ WGS84 \

Northern Hemisphere \ WGS 1984 UTM Zone 31N.

- Click the Geographic Transformation dropdown arrow and select:

‘Amersfoort_To_WGS_1984_2’.

b. Change the map projection from ‘RD New’ to ‘Mercator’.

- Give the new dataset the name ‘Netherlands_mercator’, save the dataset in your workspace directory.

- Use projection file: Projected coordinate systems\ World \ Mercator (world).

- Click the Geographic Transformation dropdown arrow and select: ‘Amersfoort_To_WGS_1984_2’.

c. Display the three datasets in the View Window. Zoom to full extent. Why do the 3 datasets not overlap?
Explain your answer.
Projection of the Data Frame

On-the-fly projection

ArcGIS uses On-the-fly projection to display datasets that have different projections. This means that dataset
projections are automatically displayed as if they have the same projection, so that datasets with different
projections can be displayed within one Data Frame. For example, a country map based on the Mercator projection
will overlap a map of the same country with the UTM projection, within a Data Frame. The user can visually
compare, analyze and print maps without having to bother about projections.

What determines the common projection?

When you add a new Data Frame to an ArcMap document, the coordinate system of the Data Frame is not yet
defined. The Data Frame automatically takes the coordinate system of the first dataset added to the Data
Frame. If you choose to add more datasets after the first, then these datasets are displayed as if they have the same
coordinate system as the Data Frame. For example, if the first dataset has the Mercator projection, then all other
datasets present in the same Data Frame, are displayed as if they have the Mercator projection. Even if they have
another map projection defined!
This means that datasets that represent the same area with different projections, still can overlap.

Why did the datasets used in exercise 2 not overlap?

The first dataset added to Data Frame ‘unprojected’ (exercises 1 and 2) was not projected, which means
that the Data Frame remains unprojected (Data Frame coordinate system is set to ‘Unknown’) so that
datasets with different projections are displayed at different locations in the View Window.

Remember about on-the-fly projection:

 The common coordinate system is by default the coordinate system of the first dataset that is added to an
empty Data Frame!!
 Be aware that on-the-fly projection does not change the coordinate system of a dataset!! It only changes the
way a dataset is displayed in the View Window!!
 If the datasets to be used in spatial analysis have different coordinate systems, you should convert them to
the same coordinate system in order to obtain the most accurate result and to avoid processing errors!!

Map unit and coordinate system of the Data Frame

The Data Frame Properties window contains several tabs under which various kinds of properties are stored. These
property settings determine how your dataset is displayed, not the properties of the dataset itself. The most important
tabs in the context of map projections are General and Coordinate System.

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Right-click the heading of a Data Frame to open its properties window.

2. Click the General tab. In the Units frame you can set the map and display units. The map units (units of the
coordinate system) are used to calculate geometric properties of the dataset such as area and perimeter of
features and to derive the coordinates of a location. Display units are used for visual display. They are
shown at the bottom of the View Window. They are used if you use the Measure tool to measure distances
in the map.
 3. Click the Coordinate System tab (Figure 2). The top frame shows the current coordinate system of the Data
Frame. This coordinate system is used to project all datasets present in the Data Frame. If you want to
change the coordinate system of the Data Frame, select a projection from one of the folders in the bottom
frame. Note that the new coordinate system applies to all datasets present in the Data Frame.

Figure 2. The coordinate system of the Data Frame.

3.

Activate Data Frame ‘Unprojected’. Zoom to full extent. Open the Data Frame properties window. Set the projection
of this Data Frame to ‘RD New’.

a. Explain what happened to the orientation of the datasets in the View Window.

Activate Data Frame ‘Projected’.

b. Open the Data Frame properties window. What is the current coordinate system of this Data Frame?

c. Drag dataset ‘Netherlands_mercator’ from Data Frame ‘Unprojected’ to the empty Data Frame ‘Projected’.
 What is the coordinate system of this Data Frame now?

Add datasets ‘World’, ‘Alterra’ and ‘Cities’ to the Data Frame. Click OK when a warning appears.
d. Measure the distance between Alterra and Buenos Aires with the Measure tool.
Change the Data Frame projection to Robinson: Projected coordinate systems \ World \ Robinson (world).

e. Measure again the distance between Alterra and Buenos Aires. Does the distance differ from the previous
measurement? Explain your answer.

Geometric distortions
When you project a spherical surface on a flat plane, you will create distortions of the geometric properties area,
shape, distance and direction. Different projections cause different types of distortions. We can distinguish four
projection types:
 Conformal projections
Conformal projections preserve local shape. To preserve individual angles describing the spatial
relationships, a conformal projection must show the meridians and parallels intersecting at 90-degree
angles on the map.
 Equivalent projections
Equivalent (equal-area) projections preserve the area of displayed features. To do this, the other properties
(shape, distance and direction) are distorted. In equivalent projections, the meridians and parallels may not
intersect at right angles.
 Equidistant projections
Equidistant maps preserve the distances between certain points. Distance is not maintained correctly by any
projection throughout an entire map. Distance is often only true when measured parallel to the meridians.
 Azimuthal projections
Azimuthal projections preserve direction, which means that direction measurements made on the ground
are the same as direction measurements made on the map. Azimuthal (planar) projections retain certain
accurate directions, while conformal projections, such as the Mercator projection, are true-direction on the
whole map.

Figure 4 shows the effect of different projection types on the shape and size of The Netherlands. Table 2 gives
projection details, the length, width and area of The Netherlands for each projection. Figure 4a represents The
Netherlands in RD projection. This is a local projection, especially developed to represent The Netherlands on a flat
map with minimal distortion. The RD projection is a planar projection which preserves shape and direction.
Distance and area are distorted. However, because The Netherlands covers a relatively small area, distortions are
very small (e.g. maximum miscalculation of distance is 10 centimeter per kilometer). We assume that the RD
projection gives the most realistic estimation of the size and shape of The Netherlands. Figures 4b, 4d and 4f
represent The Netherlands using conic projections designed for use on continental (European) scale level. Figures
4c, 4e and 4g represent The Netherlands using cylindrical projections designed for use on global scale level.

Figure 4c shows a conformal projection (Mercator) designed for use on global scale level. The shape of the country
is preserved. Size distortion is severe compared to the RD projection: the area increase is 268%, the length and
width increase with 162%. Figure 4b shows also a conformal projection designed for use on continental scale level.
The shape is preserved, length, width and area are distorted but the distortions are less severe compared to the
Mercator projection.

Figure 4e (equivalent projection on global scale level) shows a deformed country: squeezed in northsouth
direction and stretched in East-West direction. The area however, almost equals the RD area. Figure 4d shows The
Netherlands using a continental equivalent projection. The area is almost identical to the area of Figure 4e, but shape
and distances are better preserved.

Figure 4g shows a global, equidistance projection of The Netherlands. The length of the Netherlands is given
accurately. Shape and area are distorted. The country appears squeezed in east-west direction and the area is 19.5%
smaller than the RD area. Figure 4f shows an equidistance projection on continental scale level.

This example shows the accuracy of a map projection is scale level dependent. This means that you have to be
careful when projecting your dataset. If you working on local scale level, then do not choose a map projection that is
designed for use on global scale level. Distortions can be severe. Second choose a map projection that does not
distort a geometric property that you might need for your research. For example if you are doing research in which
area is important (e.g. quantitative land use changes) make sure the map projection of your datasets is equivalent.
 Figure 4. The Netherlands represented in seven different projections.

Table 2. Seven different projections of the Netherlands result in seven different distances and areas.
In the next exercise you will investigate how different projections of a world map influence distances between cities
and the areas of countries. Use the Measure tool to measure distances between cities and the Identify tool to retrieve
area information.

4.

For this exercise you need Data Frames ‘Mercator’, ‘Equivalent’ and ‘Equidistance’. Each Data Frame contains a
world map with a different projection, the location of the Alterra building and the locations of the world’s largest
cities. When you retrieve area information make sure you use the F_Area field!!!

Activate Data Frame ‘Mercator’.

a. Measure the distances between: Alterra – Johannesburg and São Paulo – Jakarta. Retrieve the areas of the USA,
the Dem. Rep. Congo (Zaire) and the (continental part of the )world. Write down your findings in Table 3.

Active Data Frame ‘Equidistant’.

b. Measure the distances between: Alterra – Johannesburg and São Paulo – Jakarta. Retrieve the areas of the USA,
the Dem. Rep. Congo (Zaire) and the (continental part of the) world. Write down your findings in Table 3.

Active Data Frame ‘Equivalent’.

c. Measure the distances between: Alterra – Johannesburg and São Paulo – Jakarta. Retrieve the areas of the USA,
the Dem. Rep. Congo (Zaire) and the (continental part of the) world. Write down your findings in Table 3.
Table 3.Distance and area comparison using different projections.