‘Then, in «reversal of traditional roles, he aise the British to zase the standard of. thie own English to that wl eld in ether parts of the world ‘in several pare of the world inching « number of Aftican-English «peaking counties, standardisation processes are currently underway, and it wil be some time before local standards ean be codified in home-grown grammars and dictionaries [Even when this has been achived, however, these standard Englishes are unlikely to attrac the Same prestige a5 their Counterparts in Britain, North America and even, howadays, Australia. This i because of tides held towards these varieties by many embers ofthe nner Cicele, both the general population and even some linguists Implicit n these atitudes isthe belie Wat the New Englishes are the result of pro cess known as fowllsation, In other words, the learning of English i sid have ‘ceased (or fossied) some way short of target lke competence, with the target being assumed tobe either Standard British or Stnard Amerlean English. Of course rom! ‘Lsocialingoistic perspective, however, the idea that the New Englishes shold have as ‘hie targe the standatd Englishes ofthe Inner Circles of dubious vali (MMMM: TH SPREAD OF ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LINGUA FRANCA [Not only has “Engish’ became ternational n the last half century, but scholar: ship about English has leo become international: the ownership of an interes in English has become international. We ate longer «language commensty which ‘8 associated with 2 national community or even witha family of nations Sach as the Conumonwelthsspted tobe, We ate an international comarun (Brum! 995: 16) ‘This quotation from Bram nestly encapsulate the changes hat took place tn the second half ofthe twentieth century, and that are beginning to impact on the way ‘English i rughe and spoken aroand the world inthe early year ofthe twenty-first century In A6, we will consider rly, Why is that English has assured the role of {he worlds mar iterationa! language and secondly, the most serio issue which Ina to be addressed inthe ight of tis role: the need to ensure mautualinteligiiity cross international varies of English. Why ie English the internationat lingua franca? Degpite the fact that most of England’ former eolonies had become independent sates bythe mid-twentieth centr they retained the Eglish langage to serve vat ‘ous interna functions (see Al). So, by virtue of ts colonial past, English was already ‘well placed to become one ofthe world’s main languages of international business fad trade. But in the postcolonial peiog, English has spread well beyond its use as second or addtional language inthe counties of the Outer Cree, to be adopted as fn mmernational agus franca by many couatees inthe Expanding Cirle for whos ew cat 1 performs no official internal functions (see AY and AS for numbers of speaker). Crystal (20035) accounts for the present-day international status of English as the result of two factor, the it being is colonial past, which we have already noted. The second reason, and the one which has ensured the continuing influence of English ‘throughout the teenieth century and beyond, ste economic power ofthe US ‘Te present-day world status of English is primarily the result of two factors: the ‘expansion of British colonial power, which peaked towards the end of the 19h ‘century, and the emergence of the United Stalesas the leading economic power of the 2th century. Is the later factor which continaes to explain the position af the English language todsy, (Crystal 2008: 106} Before we go on to consider the reasons why English remains the world’ first imer national language ito the twenty-first centary however, iis important to acknow: ledge that this is not univeraly considered to bea beneficial state of sas. Since the publiction of his 1992 book, Linguistic mpeviation, Robert Philipson has continued to argue agninst the desirability ofthe spread of English, especially where this spread thas the potential to jeopardise the learning of other languages and the ery existence of smaller languages (see unit onthe latter subject). Others ave argued along simi lar lines: fr example, following the events of 11 September 2001, Hilary Footit, Chait ofthe University Council of Modern Languages, wrote a follows (One of the cultural shocks of September 113 overwhelmingly, that English i simply not enough. We cannot understand the word in English, much es search fut intelligence, buld ever larger coalitions of friends, and heal some of thelong- standing wound: ofthe past. We need tobe aware as never befor of foreign an guages and of the ways i which languages identify ané represent their caltres. (Guardian Eeiacaion, 23 October 2001, p-5) “This isin direct contrast to the optimistic views regularly expressed by those wh. like Tela Gimenez, regard the spread ofan international language a whally postive [FJwing « common language helps us te see ourselves as human beings who live ‘on the same planet, and to that extent can be sido form one community. The value of knowing English les not only inthe ability to access materia! tings but als inthe postbiry i offers fr eating acceptance of and respect fot the Worlds diversity English allows wi ta advance toward global exchange al sli arity among the institutions ofl society, extending bonds between etizens far ‘and wide zeroes the globe Fr this teason, considering English asan international Jangage can cleo bring sense of posit in terms of strengthaning what might be called ‘planeiary citzenshig (ELT journal, ol, 5,903 aby 2001, p.297) Beneficial or not, forthe time being English as @ Lingua France (ELF), or English as si Inteationst Language (EIL) ar i ca sometimes known i fact aff And‘he implications of this situation for 2 English ace a ast beginning tobe addressed, ‘with even the British press finally acknowledging thatthe English of its non-native speakers may be galing aceptance ins avn right, stead of being considered ere: neous wherever it difers from native varieties of English. The Oserver newspaper, for example, in an article entitled "Foreign tongues spread the English word made the following point: "The accented Engi of font foreigners suchas Latino singer Ricky Marti or acwessJliete Binoche is usurping British and American English as the dominant: form ofthe language’ (29 October 2000, p.1).The writer rather spoils his case by going on to report thet tne Edocation and Employment Secretary wal tell 18 mecting of busines leaders on Tuesday (o capitalise on their advantage as native speakers, and even that ‘the drive to make English the global lingua franca comes irecty from Tony Blt [the British Prime Minister” and is known asthe ‘lai in ‘ative To the exten: that English isthe ‘global ingua iranca it is either tothe advan tage of ts mative speakers nor controlled by them, These axe both issues 10 which we wll recurn Interim strand 6, where we wil also lok in deal at what, precisely, the ‘Phenomenon of ELF is, andat the controversy ite research is causing For the moment, though, let us consider the possible reasons yy those for ‘whom English is not ther mother tongue should wish t lear it, noon Ln ‘countries such a India, ther tsa nativised language that perform ns tutional functions but increasingly in Expanding Circle counties such as Bran, China and tly. Crystal (2008: 107) provides the following reasons. Asyou read througi them, consider these two question: Which, n your view are most relevant to those who need or want to be able to communes nternotionalyin the English language! {Gre the scenarios that Crystal outlines ill the same as ey were in 2003 When his lst was published. or are you aware of any changing circun’- ‘stances in relation to your own and/or other countries? ] | Historical reasons | Becaosoftheingeyof esha Americ imperiaiem the coumsrys main | tosis may cary out their proceedings in Englah These incade the | governing body (eg palament) geverament agence, the cv serie (at | Testa senior seve th cours ration religous bois the schools, | and bigher educational inttons, along with their rated publistions {tetbooks, proceedings recordset). Internal political reasons ‘Whether a counry har mpertl antecedents r not, Engh may havea role | sn providing neutral sans of communication beter diferen etic | group as ito fr example in Indl. A dstntve eal variety of Egos ‘may also becomes syrabol of national unity or emerging nationhood. The use farther dimension of Engi in newapapara on radio or on teviion ad External economic reasons “The USAS dominant economic poson Acts a 2 magnet fr international business and wade nd organisations wishing to develo iterationel rar | te are thus under considerable presure to work with English. The tourist andadverting nds are priclny Fngish-dependet.tsx any al "ational business wll wish fo estab ofice inthe mor Engh speaking Practical reacone | English isthe language of international sir trac contol and is cureatly ‘developing roe in international maritime, policing and emergency serv- | eos. IL is the chit language of international Business and academic confer ‘ences, andthe leading language of international tours, Intellectual roasone ‘Most ofthe sient, techneloglel, and academic information in the work Is expressed in Englsh, and over 80 per cent of al the information stored | in electron retrieval systems is n English (but see AS for more recent | statstics}. Closely related to this is the concetn to have access to the philo- | sophical, cultural, religious and literary history af Western Buzope, efther iretly or through the medium of an Engish trazsation. In most parts of the world, the orl way most people ave acces to such authors as Goethe or Dante s through English. Lain performed a similar moe in Western Europe | for over thowsand year. Entertainment reasons English isthe main langoage of popular music (particularly hip hop), and permeates popular culture and is associated advertising, 138 also the main Innguage of satellite broadcasting home computers, and video games, st well | sof auch international legal nce ae pornography and drug. ‘Totixeabove points made by Crystal we could add personal advantage’ | prestige since n many cltures, the ably to speale English is perceived as ‘conferting higher status onthe speaker, (Crystal also aus a final section ‘Some wrong reasons: These concern Delis; thr English ic inherently « more logicsl or besuifl langage then others, easiee to pronounce simple in grammatical structs, or lager in vocabulary’ As Crystal points ox, tis kind of reasoning isthe consequence ‘ofuntiinking chauvinism or naive linguistic thinlang and ite impossible to compare languages objectively in such ways. English, for example, may have ‘ew inflection endings, but als has very complex syntax, and this has not prevented it rom being learned and used around the World So tied ques Son for you to consider | Why do you think beefs about the intrinss Hague superiority of| English povis? Soe‘The conflict between mutual intelligibility and group identity FEnglish is to full ts cole as the world international lingua franc ¢ goes with ‘ot saying that must be capable of achieving mutual intelligibility among speakers and writes from al fis languege backgrounds cho wish to communicate in English “The maln obstacle to such muual intelligibility i enti. Fr, as Crystal (20038: 127), ‘points ont, the need for inelligibihty and the need ce idemtityoften pall people ~ and ‘countries in opposing directions TInestence, the problem i this, Whi the increas in the numberof fst language (L1) groups who speak English a an international languige, the range of éiferences stiong thie Englises bas also inevitably increased, Thos differences are particularly ferident im the spoken language, and moreso in terms of pronenciation than atthe ‘other linguistic levee, ince ii on pronunciation that fst language trensfer has ts greatest influence ‘The demands of mutual intellighbity point wo » nee to decrease acceat dif ‘ences among speakers from diferent L1 backgronnds. Ths, however, does not ne: fesirily involve encouraging L2 learners to imitete a native speaker accent. Indeed, such attemprs have invariably faled. Accents may be closely bound up with flings fof personal an group identity, which means that people tend to resis suc atte. ‘whether consciously of sobeonseioly: They may wish to preserve their mother Tongue accent in thele L2 English of they may simply wish not to identify, through mimicking an Li English scent, with native speakers ofthe langage, And in the ase ‘of BLP (as contrasted with EFL), there is strong justification for net conforming to the accent (or even the lexicogrammar) of a native speaker group: the fact thatthe ELF community is by defiyson international rater than associated with ery one national speech community: As Démnyei et al (2006: 110) point out inthis respect, for a growing numberof learners English now represents the language ofthe “world at large” rather than the language of a well specifi target language comamonty’ They ‘observe that 't]his broadening view of wnership has had major consequences on 12 rmtivaion research becanse the lack of a well-specifed target language community tindermines the stitadinal bate of Gardner's (1985) raditional concept of integrative tivation’ (2006:9). Integrative mowwation involves the dese we come dose to the target language comrnunity, and even complete identication with it. One of the cutrent debates f0ing on among ELF researchers i the extent te which English used in ingus franca Contexts can be a language of iéetification and not simply one of communication. In other words, if ELF users no longer identify with an Inner Cele community of Eng: lish speakers, ie there a sense in which they identify instead wit their ows Ll group andlor wider ELF community? Later n strand 6 we wil consider ti ise as wel as ‘exploring possible ways of preserving intelligibility in ELE communication tha donot ‘nail deferring to native English vatieties, bat enable ELF speakers to project their wn identiies in thelr English they so wish aes sf tii nd eyo om gga | Ingexpeiens flows: you speak English ase second or subsequent agus {Have you ever given thooght to setaining your Li identity English? |B. Isitimportant to you to retain your Li ideniyin English? Gre you more concerned to be ineligible to native speakers of English ‘or to non-native speakers of English, odo you not distinguish between the two groups oflistener? Do you believe it isappropriate vo resin your Ll accent in your English forthat you shoul attempt to sound ‘atve-like’? Do you bekeveit is possibe to retain your La accent in English and stil be inteligibltonatve-speakerst/to non-native speakers? Ifyou speak English ase frst language and another languagelother languages «3 second subsequent languages |A_ Have you ever given thought 1 retaining your L1 identi in the other languagels) you speak? 2 Isttimportanc to you to retain your Lt density n the other languages) you speak Do you heliew it is appropriate to retain your Li English accent in your ‘other language(s) or thatyou should attempt sound like naive speak cexsof the language(s)? | De you believe i i possible 1 retain your LI accent in your other language(s) and stil be intelligible to native speaker ofthat language? ave you hed aay personal experiences that sopport your view? o | Foeboth groupe: __ What is your reaction to the following distinction which Prodromon makes between the leening/speakingof English and tht of other enodem | fonsign inguages such as Spanish? Do you agree or not? Whylwny not? you do agre, wast do you see a the most smporant implications for the speaking of English? Most people quite simply do not learn English to speak to native speakers. On the other hand, people learn Spanish, se 1am doing a present, becuse they ae interested in Hispanic eultre for some reason (wotk or pleasure) and will therefore waat a spoken ané written model ‘Which wil further this zim. Thece ia world of digerence between Eng lish and in facta other living languages a present, (Prodromou 1987-19)(MME THE ROLES OF ENGLISH IN ASIA AND EUROPE Asie and Europe: similarities and differences Jn A7, attention is ocused on rw large non-Inner Circle eons in which English spoken: Asia and Europe. In Expanding Gide Europe, wile change i taking piace fas, developments are several paces behind those ofthe Asian Outer Cale. the coy year ofthe tweny-fret century, Eusopean English, or Euo-English sti incresingly called sony just emerging a disnctive varity or more accurately, iroup of wares wit its om deny which ike the Onter Cle Asian Englishes, ‘ejects the concept of having to defer to British English or American English norms (ore D7). What has already become clear is tha! English 6 evobtng asa European Toga fonca not only nsesticted de sich ae busines comics, a 1 aide range of other contents of commanieaton incadng its ncessing ne as alan tang of sotalsation. The progres ofthe cool Asan Englishes ths indicts the key uraredeeiopment of Euro-English ‘A scond similarity bern Asien and Baro-Englses eta oth by defini, ac evolving within contents of bi- or tingustism, This bas implications not only forthe ways im whch Engl is esed by ns majoriy lings speaker alo for the wav in which its aught and tented (ge C3) ‘A tid sina sone that Aan and European Engies care wi all Don Inner Circle Englishes whether sstionlsed or not. That they ate “ngusic phan in search oftheir parents’ (Kachru 1992: 66) Kachr is wefering hte the sil widespread ~ i dow disinshing - bel tat pon-atve and ntivsed Zags, varieties are decent a unaccenhle by veto the local characteristics they hve cies in the proces of eng tanelanted. Sch ates turn deter speakers of otal and evn natvoed Eolas fram dealing wil and promoting {het own loc model Tis use willbe ten up ia the readings nD English as an Asian language ‘Asian Enishes can be categorised both regionally and functionally, Regionally they are typically divided into three groups. although the South-East and East Asian varieties ae sometimes grouped together (se Table 87.) Functionally, Asan Englishes are divided into to categories, depending on whether they ae institutionlised varices of the Outer Circle ce non-nstitutionalised -varietis ofthe Expanding Cirle sae Table A72), THE ROLES OF Table A7.1 Asian Englishes by region, South Asian variovios South-East Asian anct East Asian varie Peete varotios Banoiadesh Brune cna Bhutan Combodia Hong Kong, India Fa Japan ataives Indonesia Korea Nepat sos river Palestan Malayeie Sri Lanke Myanmar Phtippines Singapore Thilane Vietnars Table A7.2 Asian Englishes by use. Insttionaised varieties om instisionatised vertae (Outer Circle) Expanding Cirle) Banghadesh cambodia Bheten China Brune! Indonesia i Japan Hong Keng Koraa Inca Laos Malaysia Maldives Nepal Myaomer Pakistan Tolwan Potippioes Tnaiane Singapore Vietnam Sel Lanka Of the above territories, nambers of L2 English speakers with retsonable com petence range from India (200 million), tae Palippines (40 million) and Pakistan {17 milion), to Hong Kong, Singapore and Sri Lanka each with aroand two milion, Brunel with anly 134.000 and Bhutan with only 75,000 (figures from Crystal 20038, fce Al above). However, the figures diaguise the face that in some ofthese arcas the 12 variety of Baglish is spoken by a very large percentage of the total population, For «example, almost half of Singaporeans speak 12 English, bu this amount to only two nillion of population oF 4,300,000. Again, just over two million Hong Koagese speak sn 2 variety of English, but they constivue almost a thd ofthe total Hong Kong