Faculty of engineering and the build environment

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mechatronics and Industrial Design

Compressor Laboratory Experiment

for

Thermodynamics III

COMPILED
BY
MR. SM NGALONKULU
2017

REVISED
BY
MR. SM NGALONKULU
2018
TDN321T Compressor Experiment

Table of Contents

1. Aims .......................................................................................................................... 3
2. Theory....................................................................................................................... 3
3. Calculations .............................................................................................................. 4
3.1. Polytropic work ................................................................................................... 4
3.2. Isothermal work .................................................................................................. 4
3.3. Mechanical Speed, Torque and Shaft Power ..................................................... 4
3.4. Airflow................................................................................................................. 5
3.4.1. Volumetric Flow............................................................................................... 5
3.4.2. Mass Flow ....................................................................................................... 5
3.5. Efficiencies ......................................................................................................... 5
3.5.1. Volumetric Efficiency (v) ................................................................................ 5
3.5.2. Mechanical Efficiency (m) .............................................................................. 6
3.5.3. Isothermal Power and Efficiency ..................................................................... 6
4.1. Procedure A – Setup .......................................................................................... 9
4.2. Procedure B – Mechanical Loss Torque............................................................. 9
4.3. Procedure C – Performance ............................................................................... 9
5. Results Table ....................................................................................................... 10
6.1. Results Analysis ............................................................................................... 10
6.2. Energy Balance....................................................................................................... 10
6.3. Performance and Efficiency Curves ........................................................................ 10
6.4. Mechanical Losses ................................................................................................. 11
6.5. Efficiencies .............................................................................................................. 11

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1. Aims
 To find the losses, the performance and the efficiencies of the compressor at
different speeds and pressures.

2. Theory
A reciprocating air compressor works by inducing a certain volume of air into the cylinder.
The air is compressed according to a polytrophic compression process. During
compression, the pressure and temperature of air increases. The compressed air passes
through the spring loaded disc valve into the discharge system when the cylinder pressure
is slightly in excess of the system pressure. The discharge of air continues until the piston
reaches the top dead centre. As the piston moves down the cylinder the next volume of
air is induced through the spring loaded inlet disc valve and the process is repeated.
According to Boyle’s law, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume, so
the reduction in volume of the air increases its pressure. However, to move the piston, the
compressor must receive an input of work. The amount of work input needed relates to
the force on the piston and the distance it moves.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 x 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 x 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛) x 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒) x (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟)

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠: 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a reciprocating compressor.

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Figure 2: p-v diagram for a single cylinder reciprocating compressor.

Figure 2 represents the ideal processes that take place in a single cylinder, the actual p-v diagram is
different from this. (See chapter 12, Eastop and McConkey, 1995).

The thermodynamic processes that take place in a compressor are neither adiabatic nor
isothermal. The compression process and re-expansion process follows a law
pvn = constant; and n is between 1 and 1.4.

3. Calculations
3.1. Polytropic work

Work needed to compress a fixed mass of gas is given by:

(𝑛−1)
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑚̇ {𝑛−1 𝑅𝑇1 {(𝑃 ) − 1}} (1)
1

3.2. Isothermal work

For isothermal compression of a fixed mass of a gas between absolute pressure 1 and 2:
𝑃
𝑊 = 𝑚̇𝑅𝑇1 ln (𝑃2 ) (2)
1

3.3. Mechanical Speed, Torque and Shaft Power

Speed
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 0.5 x 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑁
𝑁𝑐 = 2𝐷 (3)
Torque and Shaft Power
The Motor Drive of the Universal Dynamometer automatically calculates and displays the
mechanical shaft power at the dynamometer. It measures the torque and multiplies it by
the speed to give the power, so that:

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 x 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

Where speed = radians per second,
Alternatively:

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(𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑥 2𝜋 𝑥 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = (4)
60

Where speed = rpm

3.4. Airflow
3.4.1. Volumetric Flow

Equation 2 gives the airflow in cubic meters of air per second (volumetric flow).
1
2
2∆𝑝1
𝑉̇ = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴1 { 𝐴 2 } (5)
𝜌( 12 −1)
𝐴2

Inlet diameter to orifice = 27.2 mm, and orifice diameter = 12.5 mm.
𝐶𝑑 = 0.61
Where the density of the air is its pressure divided by the Gas Constant and temperature:
𝑃0
𝜌= (6)
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇3

Where Po = pressure before orifice at temperature T3

= (𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒) = 𝑃4 + 𝛥𝑃1

3.4.2. Mass Flow

Mass flow is simply the volumetric flow multiplied by the air density:
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉̇ (7)
Note: To convert the mass flow to litres of air per minute (also volumetric flow), needed
for comparison with other readings, multiply the answer by 60000 i.e. 60 minutes x 1000.
3.5. Efficiencies

3.5.1. Volumetric Efficiency (v)

The piston never actually reaches the top of the cylinder because it has a small clearance
volume (to prevent damage). This means that for each piston stroke, a small amount of air
is never delivered. So, the actual volume of air moved is less than the swept (theoretical)
volume.
So, the volumetric efficiency is a ratio of the actual volume flow of air that the
compressor pushes out in a given time (or cycle) against the theoretical volume of air
that it should move.

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑣 =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 (𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡) 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑉̇
𝑣 = x 100 (8)
𝑁𝐶 𝑉𝑆

Where: 𝑉̇ = litres per minute (because NC is in rpm)

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𝑉𝑆 = 0.18 𝐿/𝑟𝑒𝑣

3.5.2. Mechanical Efficiency (m)

Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the actual power used by the compressor to compress
air, to the input shaft power applied to the compressor (from the Universal Dynamometer).
It allows for all power losses:
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑚 = x 100
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑊𝐷 − 𝑊𝐿
𝑚 = 𝑊𝐷
x 100 (9)

Power loss is mainly due to two things: Mechanical Power Losses and Heat Losses, so
that:
WL = Mechanical Power Losses + Heat Losses
Mechanical Power Losses (Torque)
You use the mechanical loss torque (measured when the compressor is not doing useful
work) and multiply it by the dynamometer shaft speed at test to find the mechanical power
losses, so that:
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑥 2𝜋 𝑥 𝑁1
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = (10)
60

During the experiments you measure the torque when the compressor runs slowly and is
not doing any work compressing the air. It is the torque needed to overcome the ‘slipping
friction’ during mechanical movement. It is a constant factor through the tests, but the
power losses caused by this mechanical loss torque increase, because speed increases
(power = torque x speed).
Heat Transfer Power Loss
These are the heat losses from the compressed air, to the compressor and out to the
surroundings. To measure them, we find the energy that causes the heat loss. This
calculation only works when the system is stable (when it reaches thermal equilibrium).
𝛾−1
𝑃2 +𝑃4 𝛾
𝑊ℎ = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑣 {𝑇1 ( ) − 𝑇2 } (11)
𝑃4

As the specific heat ratio for air () = 1.4, and the specific heat capacity of air at constant
volume (Cv) is 718 J/kg K.
3.5.3. Isothermal Power and Efficiency
Isothermal Work Done (Power)
This is the work done to increase the air pressure. It is a product of the air mass flow, its
initial properties and the pressure increase. It does not allow for the internal energy
increase of the air.
𝑃2 + 𝑃4
𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝑚̇𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇1 ln ( ) (12)
𝑃4
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Note that the pressure increase is with respect to absolute atmospheric pressure (P 4).

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Overall Isothermal Efficiency

This is a measure of how efficient the compressor is at turning input (shaft) power into
work done compressing the air. It is an overall efficiency of the system, including all
losses.
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
𝑂𝑖𝑠𝑜 = x 100
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜
𝑂 = 𝑊𝐷
x 100 (13)
𝑖𝑠𝑜

Isothermal Efficiency
This is similar to overall isothermal efficiency, but allows for mechanical losses. It is a
ratio of work done over the actual power used to do the work. Therefore, Isothermal
efficiency is usually higher than overall isothermal efficiency.
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
𝑖𝑠𝑜 = x 100
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜
𝑖𝑠𝑜 = x 100 (14)
𝑊𝐷 − 𝑊𝐿

or, as the power losses (WL) directly affect the mechanical efficiency ( m) (refer to Equation
9):
𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜
𝑖𝑠𝑜 = x 100 (15)
𝑊𝐷 x 𝑚

Where m is a fraction (not a percentage).

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4.1. Procedure A – Setup

 Check that all pipes and cables are correctly connected.

 Check the oil level in the compressor if is correct.
 Make sure that the Universal Dynamometer speed control is set to the minimum
(fully anticlockwise).
 Switch on the main switch on its motor drive.
 Allow a minimum of five (5) minutes for the instruments to “warm up” and stabilize.
 Gently rock the dynamometer to remove small effects of friction. Set the Torque
reading to zero by pressing and holding the button on the front panel of the motor
drive.
 Set pressure readings on the pressure instrument to zero by pressing and holding
the button on its front panel.
 Note the readings on the temperature instrument. They will vary slightly at room
temperature, because some inputs have a different sensitivity, for accurate results.

4.2. Procedure B – Mechanical Loss Torque

 Make sure that the drain tap (under the receiver) is shut.
 Fully open the outflow valve.
 Use the Universal Dynamometer Motor Drive to start and slowly increase the compressor
speed to approximately 100 rpm (200 rpm dynamometer speed).
 Note the torque value, then reduce the speed back down to zero and press the stop
button. The torque value is approximately the value lost as friction. The compressor turns,
but is not doing useful work. If you are using VDAS, enter this value into the software.
Caution – During this experiment, always adjust the outflow valve slowly.
4.3. Procedure C – Performance

1. With the outflow valve still fully open, use the Universal Dynamometer to slowly
increase the compressor speed to 1000 rpm compressor speed (2000 rpm
dynamometer speed).

2. Slowly shut the outflow valve for a few seconds until the receiver pressure reaches 1 bar.
Slowly open the outflow valve to set the flow rate to keep the pressure at 1 bar. Recheck
the compressor speed and readjust if necessary (±10 rpm).

3. Note the compressor outlet temperature (T2) - when this is stable, the system is stable

4. Record all of the results into the table. If you are using VDAS, click on the record data values
button, to automatically record all data.

5. Again, slowly shut the outflow valve until the pressure reaches approximately 2 bar, then
slowly open the valve to give a flow rate that keeps the pressure at approximately 2 bar.
Recheck the compressor speed and readjust if necessary. Record all readings when the
system has become stable.

6. Repeat this procedure at pressures of 3 bar, 4 bar and 5 bar.

7. Stop the dynamometer and slowly shut the outflow valve to keep some pressure in
the receiver.
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5. Results Table

Test Speed (rpm):

Mechanical Loss Torque (Nm):
Mechanical loss (W): Atmospheric
pressure (P4):

Delivery
Pressure Shaft Flow Flow
(P2) Power P1 T1 T2 T3 𝑽̇ 𝒎̇ Wiso Wh
(bar) (W) (Pa) (°C) (°C) (°C) (L/min) (kg/s) 𝒗 𝒊𝒔𝒐 𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒐 𝒎 (W) (W)

Table 1: Results table

6.1. Results Analysis

Use your results, the data in table 1 and equations in the theory section to calculate the
mechanical power loss at the test speed. Also, for each line of your results, find:
a) Volumetric Flow Rate
b) Mass Flow Rate
c) Isothermal Power
d) Volumetric Efficiency
e) Overall Isothermal Efficiency
f) Isothermal Efficiency
g) Mechanical Efficiency

6.2. Energy Balance

Explain how the system divides the input shaft power into other types of energy. Comment
on:
a) how the values of the different types of energy change with pressure.
b) how the values of the different energies relate to the efficiencies.

6.3. Performance and Efficiency Curves

Create a compressor performance chart with delivery pressure as the horizontal axis,
power as the left vertical axis and volumetric flow rate as the right vertical axis. On your
chart, use your calculations to create curves of isothermal power, input (dynamometer)
power and volumetric flow rate.
Create a compressor efficiency chart, again with the pressure on the horizontal axis and
efficiency as the left vertical axis. On your chart, use your results to create curves of
volumetric, isothermal, overall isothermal and mechanical efficiencies.

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6.4. Mechanical Losses

In the experiment, you use the torque at a low speed to find the mechanical losses. You
can also find these losses from your chart of pressure and power. Extend the curve of
input power until it crosses the power axis at 0 (zero) pressure. Within sensible limits, is it
similar to your other value from the experiment?

6.5. Efficiencies

a) What effect does the one-way valve have on the flow rate and volumetric
efficiency?
b) Why does the volumetric efficiency decrease as the pressure increases? How will
this change with the long term use of the compressor?
c) Is this compressor an efficient machine, if not why not? Think about scale and
economy.

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