Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100052

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X

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Spring water quality in the central West Bank, Palestine

Marwan Ghanem a, *, Waseem Ahmad b, Yacoub Keilani c, Farah Sawaftah c, Lennart Schelter d,
Holger Schuettrumpf d
a
Birzeit University, P.O.Box 14, Ramallah, Palestine
b
Ministry of Health, P.O.Box 1284, Ramallah, Palestine
c
Ministry of Agriculture, Ramallah, Palestine
d
Institute of Hydraulic Engineering and Water Resources Management, RWTH Aachen University, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Water scarcity and pollution are a threat to agriculture, public health and the environment, especially in semi-
Hydro-chemistry arid regions like the West Bank, Palestine. Therefore, a groundwater quality assessment study of the springs in
Water quality two central western catchments of the West Bank was carried out in October 2015. The suitability of 50 springs
Sarida Springs
for agricultural activities in the Sarida and Natuf catchments as well as their pollution were assessed by analyzing
Natuf Springs
Water type
physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the springs’ water. The results show that trace element
concentrations in most of the samples lay below the limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO). The
cations averages of Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and Na+ values were 91, 39, 53, and 26 mg/l respectively, while the anions
averages of Cl-, NO–3, SO2-
4 , and HCO3 values were 40, 5, 27, and 200 mg/l respectively. Microbiologically, 63% of
–

the springs were contaminated by fecal and total coliforms. All springs were characterized as earth alkaline water
with prevailing bicarbonate, while half of the springs were of the Ca-Mg-HCO3 type and the others were of the
Ca-Mg-Na-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl water types. The correlation of sodium absorption ratio and electrical
conductivity indicates that 68% of the springs were suitable for a wide-range of agricultural purposes, while 32%
of the springs were unfit for irrigation of crops or trees. The majority of the polluted springs lie within highly
populated areas.

1. Introduction vulnerable to degradation due to a variety of anthropogenic activities

Access to secure and reliable sources of fresh water cannot be taken
for granted in the Middle Eastern regions, in part due to the semi-arid
climate. Although the West Bank has scarce surface water resources
for potable water, the western aquifer provides a potential reserve of
groundwater. Compared to surface water sources, groundwater sourced
from springs is of relatively high quality (PWA, 2009). Some springs are
so productive, they create flowing streams that end in large water bodies
such as fresh water lakes or the ocean. The Sarida and Natuf catchments,
that form the study area, are located in the central west of the West
Bank. The catchments both provide seasonal flowing streams (Wadis),
sourced from springs, which have much higher discharge during the wet
season around October than during the dry season.
There are a total of 50 springs in the study area, 31 of which are
located in the Sarida catchment and 19 of which are located in the Natuf
catchment. Surface and ground water resources in the West Bank are
(agriculture, urbanization, and industries). Water quality differs from
one spring to another resulting in different uses of these springs by the
local residents, such as domestic, recreational, industrial and agricul­
tural purposes. The quality of the spring water depends on a multitude of
factors and interactions of the geology, the mineral composition of an
aquifer, weathering products, water–rock interactions, topography, cli­
matic conditions and anthropogenic activities (Todd, 2007; Mohapatra
et al. 2011). In addition, loading of hazardous substances may increase
due to sewage overflow and run-off due to heavy rains (Grimalt et al.,
2001). Wastewater could contaminate drinking water in different pat­
terns which could be originated from cesspits, partially treated waste­
water, sludge, and leakages in sewer lines by infiltrating into the ground
and polluting groundwater (Gothwal and Shashidhar, 2015). Permeable
constructed sewage tanks (cesspits), which are common in the two-
thirds of West Bank households not connected to a sewage network,
leak organic and inorganic nitrogen compounds which further degrade

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mghanem@birzeit.edu (M. Ghanem).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaesx.2021.100052
Received 15 December 2020; Received in revised form 17 March 2021; Accepted 17 March 2021
Available online 22 March 2021
2590-0560/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Ghanem et al.
the groundwater quality (Mester, et.al. 2019). A qualitative modeling
study (GLA method) conducted by Ghanem et.al. (2017) on Sarida and
Al-Natuf aquifers of West Bank classified the catchments into high and
medium sensitivity to pollution. This increases the importance of
studying the various pollutants in the region, especially affecting the
quality of groundwater such as raw wastewater.
Moreover, many of the diverse aspects of climate change also affect
the distribution and mobility of hazardous substances in freshwater
systems and so, the impact of climate change on water quality, biodi­
versity and the ecological status of the inland surface waters may lead to
an increased risk to human health and pose a threat to recreational water
use (Grimalt et al., 2001). It is also possible to link changes in water
quality to detrimental changes in multiple ecosystem goods and services
Fig. 1. The study area with two adjacent catchments: Sarida and Natuv. (All the 50 springs of this study are marked in the map).
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100052
(Silveira, 2010).
Land use and land management decisions, as well as factors such as
climate change and invasive species, have the potential to affect the
release and transport of many different contaminants into the local
sources of water (Bonnie et al., 2012). Therefore, a holistic management
of groundwater and land resources is required to ensure public health as
well as environmental and economic sustainability.
A necessary first step towards such a management system is a
comprehensive accounting of the current status of the water resources.
Therefore, the physical, microbial, and chemical parameters of the 50
springs in the study area have been determined and the interpretation of
the results provides a knowledge base on which to base first decisions
about how to handle spring water within the catchments. This study
M. Ghanem et al.
serves as a foundational assessment of the status quo in the central West
Bank in order to initiate and facilitate an informed management of
natural resources for the future.
2. Study area
The study area is composed of two neighboring catchments, Sarida
and Natuf, located in the central west of the West Bank (Fig. 1). The
landuse in this area is mainly rain-based agriculture, forests, Palestinian
communities and Israeli colonies. The geological formations of the study
area range in age from lower Cennomanian to Albian (Abed and Wish­
ahi, 1999) (Fig. 2). The area is mainly covered by sedimentary carbonate
rocks of Cretaceous period. Lithological composition of these formations
consists mainly of limestone, dolomite, marl, chalk, chert and alluvium.
The geological formations found in the study area are classified, from
recent to old, as follows (Table 1):
3. Senonian:
The exposed rocks of this formation are referred to Abu Dis group
(Mount. Scopus). This formation is part of the Eocene- Senonian ages; it
Fig. 2. The geological formations in the study area.
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100052
consists of chalk and in some places chert is found, which makes it an
aquiclude.
4. Turonian:
Jerusalem formation (Bi’na formation) is widely spread in the study
area; it is formed from hard white creamy limestone which makes it
useful for building material. It is highly karstified and thus has high
hydraulic conductivity.
5. Cennomanian:.
This age is divided into two parts; Upper and Lower Cenomanian.
Upper Cennomanian consists of Bethlehem formation (Kefar Sha’ul and
Wiradim), which is formed from chalky limestone and chalk and acts as
an aquifer. The Lower Cennomanian is divided into Hebron and Yatta
formations. Hebron formation (Ảmminadav) is characterized by se­
quences of limestone and dolomite and acts as a good aquifer with a
good permeability because of the conduits and karstic systems. Yatta
formation is formed from marl layers with some layers of limestone in
between, which makes it a good aquiclude.
M. Ghanem et al.
Table 1
Litho-stratigraphy column of the Western Aquifer Basin.
Age Formation Lithology
Senonian Abu Dees Chalk, chert, marl
Turonian Daliya Jerusalem Chalky marl
Cenomanian Undifferentiated Bethlehem
Talme Yafe
Albian Hebron
Yatta
Beit Kahel
Qattana
6. Albian formation:
The rocks of this age are divided into Upper and Lower Beit Kahil
formations. Upper Beit Kahil (Soreq and Kesalon) consists of layers of
limestone with marl layers in between. The presence of marl and chalk
in this formation makes it an aquiclude. Lower Beit Kahil Formation
(Kefria and Giv’at Ye’arim) is formed from dolomitic limestone, marly
limestone and shale and acts as an aquifer.
The western aquifer, which is the largest groundwater aquifer in
Palestine, underlies the study area and many seasonal and permanent
springs can be found in the region. There are two main streams flowing
in the study area, Natuf Wadi and Sarida Wadi. In addition, wastewaters
from Salfit city and the Israeli colony Ara’el are flowing in Sarida for
several kilometers and affect the economic, social, and public health
conditions of the 80 nearby communities throughout the area.
The spring water is the main source for agricultural and drinking
purposes for the majority of the human communities in the West Bank.
The springs of the two hydrological catchments are emerging from the
perched aquifer, which discharges their water sources from mature
Karstified aquifer for the majority of the outcropping areas of these
catchments. These springs are of highly vulnerable to the changing
environment through their direct and indirect recharge processes.
Groundwater quality is influenced considerably by the quality of the
recharge water source. Different natural and human activities reflect
spatial and temporal variations of the pollution sources for the aquifers.
The petrological aspects of the aquifer reflects the hydro chemical pa­
rameters of the related groundwater. Pollution sources are classified as
point and diffuse sources. Point sources are sources that can be clearly
identified and pinpointed; such as landfill leachate. Diffuse sources
cannot be pinpointed and are distributed over a large surface average
like application of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture (Goldscheider
et al., 2000). Nitrates and pesticides- infiltrate into the soil over an
extensive surface area and cause groundwater pollution in urban and
rural areas of the study area. Solid waste disposal from rapid urbani­
zation and industrialization as well as the dumping sites in and along the
Wadi length could cause pollution to the groundwater. In the study area,
groundwater pollution could be resulted from indiscriminate disposal of
municipal, extensive use of on-site sanitation systems and urban
agriculture.
The climate of the area is classified as semi-arid Mediterranean
climate with a long and dry summer season and short and wet winters
(Ghanem, 1999). From early November to late April, there are about 30
to 55 rainy days each year. Rainfall ranges from 540 to740 mm/year and
it decreases from East to West. The coldest month of the year is January
with a temperature maximum of 30.1 ◦ C and minimum of 6.2 ◦ C. August
is the month with the highest mean temperature of 39.1 ◦ C and mini­
mum mean temperature of 19.5 ◦ C (Khatib, 2008). However, these
conditions are influenced by many local factors like elevation, distance
from the coast and the environment of the sample location (Ghanem,
1999).
7. Methods
For the assessment of the water quality throughout the study area an
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100052
Hydrostratigraphy
Aquitard
Limestone Aquitard Upper aquifer
Dolomite, Limestone, Marl, chalk Aquifer
Aquitard
Chalk, marl, limestone. Lower aquifer
Dolomite, limestone, marl. Aquitard
Marl, clay
extensive sampling campaign of 50 springs (Table 2) was conducted in
October 2015 during the dry season. The springs were selected to
represent the entire groundwater catchment after several exploratory
field visits. During sampling, 50 spring water samples were collected
using sterilized 1-Liter glass bottles for microbiological analysis and 1-
Liter high density polyethylene bottles for hydro-chemical analysis.
The analysis for fecal coliforms (F.C) and total coliforms (T.C) was
conducted at the laboratory of Birzeit University for all samples, while
all other parameters were analyzed at the laboratory of AlQuds Uni­
versity. All water samples were analyzed for pH, total dissolved solids
(TDS) and electrical conductivity (EC) as physical parameters by stan­
dard methods. Regarding the hydrochemistry, major Cations (Na+, K+,
Ca2+ and Mg+2) were analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma
analysis (ICP), major Anions (NO3–, SO2- -
4 and Cl ) except HCO3 were
–
analyzed using Cooling Ion Analyzer (CIA), and the HCO3– parameter
was analyzed using the AOAC titration method. Trace elements Al, Ba,
Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, and Zn were analyzed by ICP-Mass spectroscopy
(ICP-MS). The results for major cations and anions were further analyzed
using the Aquachem 2014.2 software package, the other parameters
were processed using Microsoft Excel.
8. Results and discussion
Chemical, physical, and microbial properties of the spring water
were analyzed to describe the general water quality and determine its
suitability for different purposes like agricultural irrigation or domestic
use. The following will present and compare the results of these
analyzes.
8.1. Physical properties
The pH value of water determines its potency to dissolve metals and
to leach minerals from rocks it comes in contact with (Thompson, 2007).
Therefore, it is an important indicator of water quality and mineral
content. The mean pH value for all springs is 7.18 and ranges between
6.91 in Al-Balad spring in Atara village to 7.65 in Qiblia spring in Salfit
city, the median value is 7.2. According to Todd (2007), water that
contains less than 1000 mg/l of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is consid­
ered fresh water. Otherwise, the water is not suitable for consumption.
Fig. 3 gives an overview of the amount of TDS in the water of 11 springs
that were selected as a representative sample. The abnormal TDS value
of Atara spring is due to high concentrations of the major ions HCO3–
and Ca2+, which in turn may be dissolved form the aquifer rock
formation.
8.2. Chemical properties
During chemical analysis the concentrations of the cations Calcium
(Ca2+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Potassium (K+), and Sodium (Na+), the ions
CL-, NO–3, SO2-
4 and HCO3 as well as several trace elements were
–
analyzed. Results indicate that 64% of the springs exceed the limit for
Ca2+ concentration set by the World Health Organization (WHO) of 70
mg\l. This might be due to the small dilution factor of the groundwater
and the weathering processes of limestone and dolomite outcropping
M. Ghanem et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100052

Table 2
The 50 sampled springs in the study area were selected to represent the entire groundwater catchment.
# Spring Name # Spring Name # Spring Name # Spring Name # Spring Name

1 Abu Al-Enin 11 Sala’a 21 Al-Kaikaba 31 Al-Tina 41 Zarqa

2 Abu Al-Naji 12 Bitellu 22 Al-Matwi 32 Al-Zreik 42 Ein Sha’er
3 Abu Shaheen 13 Jifna 23 Al-Mgara 33 Bubeen 43 Fliflah
4 Abwin Balad 14 Qarawa 24 Al-Mgarba 34 Dahir lktan 44 Harrasheh
5 Ajoul 15 Qariout 25 Al-Qasab 35 Dirra 45 Id Al-Ashkar
6 A’kari 16 Singil 26 Al-Qous 36 Ein Arik Al-Fouqa 46 Id Al-wad
7 Al-Adas 17 Turmusa’ia 27 Al-Saloon 37 Ein Arik Al-Tahta 47 Jaloud
8 Al-Alaq 18 Talfit 28 Al-Shakhareek 38 Ein Haouoz 48 Jariout
9 Atara 19 Kafr Al-Dik 29 Al-Sufla 39 Ein Qiblia 49 Majour
10 Beit Sourik 20 Doura Al-Karia’ 30 Al-Tahta 40 Ein Salim 50 Rayya

Fig. 3. Variations of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Electrical Conductivity (EC) content.

geology. Mean concentration of Ca2+ for all analyzed samples is 91.64

Table 4
mg/l and ranges from 26.4 mg/l in A’kari Spring in Betillu village to
Overview of anion concentrations in the samples compared to the WHO
132.3 mg/l in Al-Balad spring of Beit Sourik village with a median value
standards.
of 79.62 mg/l (Table 3). This makes Ca2+ the most prominent cation by
concentration in all analyzed samples except for Atara. The higher cal­ CL- NO–3 SO2-
4 HCO–3

cium concentration is due to the aquifer recharge process through Mean [mg/l] 40 5 27.7 200.8
dominant outcropping carbonate rocks as well to the water rock inter­ Max [mg/l] 57.5 12.5 40.5 241
Min [mg/l] 28.5 1.9 15.8 156
action inside the aquifer limestone formation.Table 4.
Median [mg/l] 39.15 4.2 27.8 203
The second most prominent cation is Magnesium. Mg2+ originates WHO Standard [mg/l] 250 45 150 100
from dolomite or magnesium-rich limestone that is in direct contact with
groundwater. Based on the classification by Langmuir (1997), the
typical groundwater Mg2+ concentration should not exceed 7 mg/l. agricultural activities which use Na-based and K-based fertilizers, pes­
However, all the measured spring samples exceed this limit as shown in ticides, and insecticides that eventually percolate into the groundwater
Table 3. The WHO standard is set at 30 mg/l. Values of Mg2+ content when applied in excess.
range from a minimum of 15.56 mg/l in Al-Balad spring of Turmusa’ia About 8% of all analyzed samples exceed the WHO limits for K+ of
village to a maximum of 69.68 mg/l in Al-Balad spring of Atara with an 12 mg/l with an average concentration of 26 mg/l and median value of
average value of 39.25 mg/l for all springs and a median of 25.7 mg/l 0.6 mg/l. The minimum value of 0.2 mg/l is found in Jaloud spring and a
(Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). The higher Mg2+ concentration in the spring water of maximum value of 170.7 mg/l in Al-Balad spring in Atara. On the other
the study area is due to the dolomitic nature of aquifer bedrock, which is hand, Na+ concentrations vary from a minimum value of 11.1 mg/l in
dominant in the Upper and Lower Cenomanian aquifer where the ma­ Dirra spring of Doura Karea’ village to a maximum of 122.9 mg/l in Al-
jority of springs are emerging. Balad spring of Atara village with a mean value of 53.5 mg/l and median
Elevated concentrations of potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+) usually of 19 mg/l. All measured concentrations are well below the WHO limit
indicate excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides and this is likely the of 200 mg/l.
case in Atara and in Singel. These springs are surrounded by intensive Anions in freshwater can act as an indicator for water contamination
and an overview of analysis results are found in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7. Cl- can
exist as a natural dissolved element in water that originates from the
Table 3 chloride-containing geological formations that are in contact with the
Overview of analysis results for major cations in comparison to the standards of groundwater (Bartram & Balance 1996). There are other possible jus­
WHO. tifications for abnormal values of Cl-, mainly human activities such as
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ uncontrolled discharge of industrial effluents, urban runoff and sewage
Mean [mg/l] 91.64 39.25 53.595 26.031 discharges (WHO, 2017). The mean Cl- concentration for all analyzed
Max [mg/l] 132.3 69.68 122.9 170.7 springs is 39.9 mg/l with a maximum value of 57.5 mg/l in A-Balad
Min [mg/l] 26.48 15.56 11.12 0.204 spring of Atara and a minimum value of 28.5 mg/l. The median value is
Median [mg/l] 79.62 25.7 19.035 0.6235
39.15 mg/l.
WHO Standard [mg/l] 75 30 200 10

5
M. Ghanem et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100052

Fig. 4. Variations of Cations concentrations in the measured water springs (mg/l) (Part 1).

Fig. 5. Measured concentrations of cations in ten more springs in mg/l.

Fig. 6. Anion concentrations for 10 analyzed springs.

Nitrate (NO–3) concentration in the groundwater should not exceed
43 mg/l, otherwise, the water must be treated as polluted water (Hamil
and Bill, 1986). The mean concentration in all analyzed samples is 4.9
mg/l with a median value of 4.2 mg/l. All measured concentrations are
below the allowable limit of the WHO of 45 mg/l.
According to Langmuir (1997), the limit of SO2-
4 concentration in the
groundwater must not exceed 30 mg/l. However, 32% of the analyzed
samples exceed this limit. The mean SO2-4 concentration is 27.7 mg/l

6
M. Ghanem et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100052

Fig. 7. Variations of Anions concentrations in the measured water springs (mg/l) (Part 2).

with a median value of 27.8 mg/l and ranges from a minimum value of
15.8 mg/l in Bubeen of Deir Ibzea village to a maximum value of 40.5
mg/l in Harrasheh Spring of Mazra’a Qibliah village (Fig. 7).
Based on the classification by Hem (1985), the limit for HCO3–
concentration in groundwater is 200 mg/l, which is exceeded by about
half of the analyzed samples. Concentrations vary from a minimum
value of 156 mg/l in Harrasheh Spring of Mazra’a Qibliah village to a
maximum value of 241 mg/l in Rayya spring of Deir Nidam village. The
mean concentration is 200.8 mg/l with a median value of 203 mg/l.
Testing for trace elements showed that for most of the samples and el­
ements the standards set by the WHO are not exceeded (Table 5).
The concentrations of the trace elements cadmium (Cd), chromium
(Cr), nickel (Ni) and molybdenum (Mo) are below the detection limit for
all 50 springs. Copper (Cu) could only be detected in one spring,
Yanobou’ Salfit, at 32.85 mg/l. Al-Yanbou spring exhibits elevated
concentrations of Aluminium (Al) of 56.6 µg and Iron (Fe) of 35 µg (2
times more). Ba and Copper (Cu) content is also slightly above the WHO
limit while a Mn concentration of 7.7 µg is three times more and a Zinc
(Zn) concentration of 9.8 µg eight times more than the WHO limit. Eight
springs show Zinc concentrations above the WHO standard, such as Ein
Al Balad in Turmusaia (10x), Ein Elina, Al-Yanboub, and Jaloud (8x).
More than half of the samples show concentrations of aluminum (Al) of
two to three times more than the WHO standard. The majority of the
polluted springs lies within highly populated areas, which are likely the
source of these trace elements.
8.3. Microbiological properties
Water quality is affected by microbial contents which can serve as a
suitable indicator of water quality particularly for domestic uses. For
microbial assessment in this study the fecal coliform (F.C.) and total
coliform (T.C.) were analyzed. Total coliform, measured in colony
forming units per 100 ml (cfu/100 ml) is present in 100% of all samples,
fecal coliform in 63% of all samples (Table 6). Contamination with
coliform bacteria usually results from contact with untreated sewage
water, which is likely the case in this instance as many villages discharge
of their untreated wastewater in open drainage channels.
The minimum coliforms content was measured in the sample from
Al-Mgara spring where F.C. is 0 cfu/100 ml, the maximum pollution
with coliforms was measured in the sample from Jaloud spring where T.
Table 6
Simple statistics of the Microbial analysis in the measured water springs (cfu/
ml).
F.C T.C
Max [cfu/100 ml] 148 12,560
Min [cfu/100 ml] 0 390
Median [cfu/100 ml] 18.5 1940
WHO standard [cfu/100 ml] 0 0
C. is 12560 cfu/ml and 75 cfu/ml for F.C., which is considered unsuit­
able for drinking purposes. The Median value of F.C. is 18.5 cfu/100 ml
and 1940 cfu/100 ml for T.C. (Fig. 8).
8.4. Spatial distribution statistics
Spatial distribution of springs hydrochemical parameters that sur­
pass the WHO concentration limits are illustrated in Fig. 9. Most springs
surpass the limits for up to six parameters but there are three especially
polluted springs that surpass the limits for seven or more parameters.
These three springs are Al-Balad - Singel (9), Al-Matwi - Salfit (7) and
Yanobou’ - Salfit (10). All 52 samples surpass the WHO limits for total
coliform bacteria and for electric conductivity. Furthermore, Barium
and Calcium are exceeding the limits in more than half of the samples as
well as the fecal coliform bacteria (Fig. 10). Most other parameters are
well within the WHO limits for most of the springs.
The spatial distribution of the total coliform concentration is shown
in Fig. 11. It is obvious that springs with higher concentrations of total
coliform bacteria are located in close proximity to one another, sug­
gesting hotspots of pollution in that area like cess pits or located within
the recharging area of the wadi flowing wastewater in the study area.
The Electric conductivity is interesting to note that higher concentra­
tions of EC do not mean higher concentrations of fecal coliform as well.
This clearly shows that pollution is coming from different sources that
do not necessarily correlate with each other.
8.5. Water classification
To evaluate water samples with regard to their hydro-chemical type
and hydrological interrelations the measured data were plotted in a

Table 5
The WHO Limits of trace elements in ppm (WHO, 2017).
Al Ba Cd Cr Cu Fe Mn Mo Ni Zn

37.24 15.88 4.76 13.68 25.11 14.37 2.54 31.56 34.70 9.84

7
M. Ghanem et al.
Fig. 8. Coliform content in the analyzed water samples (cfu/100 ml).
Fig. 9. Histogram of the number of limits passed by individual springs. (Note that three springs are above the WHO guidelines for drinking water in eight or
more parameters).
Piper diagram using the Aquachem 2014.v2 Software Package. Major
cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+) and major anions (Cl-, HCO3–, and
SO2-
4 ) were plotted in the Piper trilinear diagram showing that 100% of
the springs can be considered as calcium sulfate waters and categorized
as earth alkaline water with prevailing bicarbonate (Fig. 12).
The Durov diagram further shows that 48% of the samples are of a
Ca-Mg-HCO3 water type, 28.8% are of Ca-Mg-Na-HCO3 type, 19.2% are
of Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl type, 0.4% are of Mg-Ca-HCO3 type and 0.2% are of
Mg-Ca-Na-K-HCO3 spring water type (Fig. 13).
Schoeller (1962) developed semi-logarithmic plots to represent
major ion analyzes in milli-equivalents per liter and to plot different
hydro-chemical water types on the same graph. This plot confirms the
spring water type results also shown in the Durov diagram, of calcium-
carbonate type (Fig. 14). This is likely due to the karstic nature of the
aquifers.
The suitability of the spring water for agricultural activities was
determined depending on the salt content of the water, proxied by the
electric conductivity (E.C.). Todd (2007) created a table using E.C.
values in order to judge the water suitability for the irrigation of certain
fruits and crops species. The results show that all the springs are fit to be
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100052
used for irrigation of all kinds of Fruits, Vegetables, and Field crops.
Wilcox (1955) used a combination of the Sodium Adsorption Ratio
(SAR), obtained by inserting Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ values into the gen­
eral SAR equation, and E.C. values. The results of this method applied to
the data of this study are plotted in the Wilcox diagram in Fig. 15 in
order to classify the water depending on its salinity.
According to the Wilcox diagram, all springs have a low sodium
hazard. About 68% of all samples have a medium salinity hazard (C2),
which indicates that the water is suitable for agriculture. The other 32%
in the high salinity zone (C3) with low sodium (S1) are only suitable for
very salt tolerant crops and trees.
9. Conclusion
A groundwater spring water quality assessment for the Sarida and
Natuf catchments in the western West Bank has been accomplished in
order to evaluate their suitability for agricultural activities and domestic
use in. Physical, chemical, and microbial parameters for the springs
were determined. The Total Dissolved Solids of the springs is less than
1000 mg/l and some springs show abnormal values of K+ and Na+ due to
M. Ghanem et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100052

Fig. 10. How often has each limit been passed?Coliform bacteria, electric conductivity and the concentrations of Barium and Calcium are the biggest polluting
factors in these springs.

Fig. 11. Map overview of the springs. The total coliform concentration is marked by the color of the dots while the label corresponds to the electrical conductivity of
the springs’ water. (Note that these two parameters do not correlate very much).

the intensive agricultural activities around these springs. The high
concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg+2 in the springs is due to the geological
nature of carbonate rocks in the study area. All springs are microbio­
logically contaminated with Total Coliforms (T.C.) and 63% of them
with Fecal Coliforms (F.C.), which is due to the cesspits and untreated
discharge of sewage water into the wadies from the nearby villages.
The concentration of the hydrochemical parameters indicates that
the springs are of good quality and suitable for irrigation and other
agricultural uses. The majority of trace elements concentrations are
below the standard limits of WHO. Durov diagram shows that half of the
springs are of a Ca-Mg-HCO3 water type and the other springs are of a
Ca-Mg-Na-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl water type. Piper triliniar

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M. Ghanem et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100052

Fig. 12. Piper Trilinear Plot for springs of the study area Combined.

Fig. 13. Durov diagram of all analyzed samples.

classification shows that all springs are falling in the earth alkaline with
prevailing bicarbonate category. The majority of the polluted springs is
situated in densely populated areas and the cesspits and sewage
discharge of these villages and communities might be the main source of
pollutants for the groundwater in the area.
10. Credit authorship contribution statement
The study was designed by MG. The fieldwork was done by MG, WA
and was planned and performed by JK and FS. The results and the an­
alyzes were performed by MG, WA, HS. The manuscript was written by
MG, WA, LS and all authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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M. Ghanem et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X 5 (2021) 100052

Fig. 14. Schoeller plot shows different hydro-chemical water samples of the study area.

Fig. 15. Wilcox diagram showing the correlation between SAR and EC for the measured springs.

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M. Ghanem et al.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Ministry of Agriculture in Palestine for its
support, collaboration and funding the laboratory costs of water quality
analyzes.
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