Clean and Renewable Energy Course Overview

INDEX
S.No. Topic Page No.

WEEK- 1
1 1
Introduction
2 Coal as a Source of Energy 17
3 Characterization of Coal 35
Conventional Route for Energy Production from
4 52
Coal
5 Tutorial 1 67
WEEK- 2
6 Cleaner Route for Energy Production from Coal 81

7 Gasification of Coal -1 100
8 Gasification of Coal -2 118
9 Direct Liquefaction of Coal 135
10 Tutorial 2 151
WEEK- 3
11 Petroleum as a Source of Energy 168

Characteristics of Crude Oil and Petroleum
12 187
Products
Characteristics of Crude Oil and Petroleum
13 205
Products
14 Conversion of Intermediate Products 222
15 Tutorial 3 241
WEEK – 4
16 Impurities Removal from Liquid Fuels 253
17 Residue Upgradation 1 271
18 Residue Upgradation 2 288
19 Heavy Crude Oil Processing 310
20 Tutorial 4 328
WEEK – 5
Gaseous Fuels: Properties and Routes for Energy

21 343
Production
22 Syngas Production from Natural Gas 359
23 Syngas to Liquid Fuel Production 376
24 Hydrogen Production from Natural Gas 394
25 Tutorial 5 410
WEEK – 6
26 Solar Energy 1 423

27 Solar Energy 2 440
28 Wind Energy 1 456
29 Wind Energy 2 474
30 Tutorial 6 488
WEEK – 7
31 Hydro Energy 1 499

32 Hydro Energy 2 514
33 Geothermal Energy 529
34 Tidal and Wave Energy 544
35 Tutorial 7 558
WEEK – 8
Energy from Biomass and Wastes 1 (Biological

36 567
Route)
37 Energy from Biomass and Wastes 2 (Chemical 586
Route)
Energy from Biomass and Wastes 3 (Physical
38 605
Route)
39 Energy Conservations 622
40 Tutorial 8 637
Technologies for Clean and Renewable Energy Production
Prof. Prasenjit Mondal
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology-Roorkee
Lecture-01
Introduction
Hi, friends I welcome you all to the course “Technologies for Clean and Renewable Energy
Production”. This is the introductory module of this course and I will give you some introduction
about this course. What are the topics will be discussed? What energy is? What is the importance
of energy? What is clean energy? And what is renewable energy? And how we can produce these
energies and how we can use efficiently this energy.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:10)
So, that will be the topic of discussion in this course and the contents of this module are energy
as an indicator of development, world energy scenario including energy consumption, type of
energy and future perspective, Indian energy scenario, energy consumption, type of energy,
future perspective, the need of clean and renewable energy. Then routes for clean energy from
fossil fuels and then routes for renewable energy production and energy conservation.
So, energy is considered as an indicator of development and we can say it is the currency of
civilization. So, if a person does not have any currency he or she cannot be considered as a rich
person on the similar way a nation cannot be developed if its energy utilization is very less.
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If we see here in the graph we see it is it is very clear to us that developed countries like USA,
Canada, Japan, UK, France, Australia, Germany all these countries the GDP is very high and
they are also consuming more energy per capita. But if we see for our case in India we have very
less GDP with comparison to these countries as well as the per capita energy consumption is also
very less.
So, if we want to develop we need to increase our energy production. But if we produce more
energy at the same time the more pollution is also generated. So, growth that is the GDP, GDP
and the efficient use of energy that its energy efficiency are being considered in recent years as
the indicator for sustainable development. Now we will see what GDP is?
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GDP is gross domestic product and this is the monetary value of all finished goods and services
produced within country on annual basis. So, GDP is equal to C + G + I + NX. So, here C is the
consumer spending, G is the sum of government spending, I is the sum of all country's business
spending and NX is the net export that is export minus import. So, GDP is very important to
assess the economic condition of a nation.
Similarly, the new indicator which is being considered that is energy intensity which also gives a
measure of the energy efficiency of a nation and it is defined as the energy consumed per dollar
of GDP produced that is mega Joule per dollar unit.
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An energy efficiency is a dollar of GDP produced by the unit amount of energy. Now if we see
this graph, it is very clear to us that the developed countries like say Canada, Us, Australia,
Belgium, Netherlands, Sweden even G7 countries including Japan, UK, Germany, France, Italy
all these countries are not that energy efficient. They are not able to use the energy in more
efficient way but we in India we are under moderately energy-efficient country.
And highly energy-efficient countries are Philippines and Bangladesh as got from this graph. So,
on the basis of this information it is clear to us that as a moderately energy-efficient country we
have a scope to produce more energy and to increase our energy efficiency. Now we will see the
energy scenario in the world.
World energy scenario; if we see this graph, it clearly shows that energy utilization will increase
around the world in near future. However, it is very interesting that Europe and America they are
not going to increase much energy utilization in future. Whereas the Asian countries where the
energy utilization is expected to increase significantly in near future up to 2040, the forecast is
available here.
So, as India as an Asian country the energy production and utilization in India will also increase.
And what type of energy will be used in higher extent in near future?
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This slide gives us that idea it is very clear that petroleum and other liquids, coal, natural gas and
renewable will be used for the production of energy in higher extent along with some nuclear
energy production. And it is very interesting that renewables are expected to increase gradually;
in 2018 we are here, but we will be reaching up to this point, as per this graph.
Now we will see the Indian energy scenario. In Indian energy scenario if we consider on the
basis of 31st March 2017 so 326832.53 megawatt installed electricity production capacity the
country is having. Out of these electricity production 59% is from coal 13.5% is from hydro
energy and 7.7% from gas and 17.5% from renewable energy. And if we see this renewable
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energy, the wind is 9.8% solar is 83.8% bio power is 2.5% and small hydro is 1.3% and waste to
power is .03%.
So what is the need of the clean and renewable energy? If we consider the facts which we have
discussed just now then it is very clear that India is dependent on coal 59% of utilization for
energy production by coal. But with increasing population growth energy demand is increased
and pollution load is also being increased. So, we need some technology which will supply us
sufficient energy in cleaner route.
Then scarcity of fossil fuels, their degraded quality and emissions is also a reason to consider the
cleaner routes for the production of energy. And then sustainability issue, the in 21st century
sustainability is a major issue, we are under threat of environmental pollution, energy security,
and public health. So, we need to produce more energy to supply to everyone in a cleaner way
and we need to use the renewable resources, so that the non availability of fossil fuels will not
make any impact to the supply of energy in sufficient amount.
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Now if we see this graph the world population we are here 7 million so now it is going to be 9
million and world energy consumption is continuously increasing. And at the same time the
pollution is also increased.
If we see the graph here the carbon dioxide concentration is gradually increasing see 1955 and
60, if we consider it was below 330 ppm, and in 1992 was around 350 ppm and now in 2015 it is
more than 400 ppm. And the recent data as on July 26th 2018 carbon dioxide in air that is 408.29
ppm, this is global data; not only the carbon dioxide, the Sox, NOx, methane are also increasing
day by day.
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If we see the carbon dioxide production by different countries so this figure gives us some idea
that China and USA are the major carbon dioxide polluting country. In India we are here we do
not produce much carbon dioxide but still we have to work to reduce the carbon emission. Then
the scarcity of fossil fuels as you know that crude oil reserve is limited and the quality of the
crude is also not good in the recent years.
Its quality is degraded in terms of more sulphur more s content and more viscosity. So, we need
to develop new technology for the accommodation of these variations in the composition. And
coal is sufficiently available in India but its quality is also not superior; it has high S content.
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So, new technology or cleaner route is required to use this low quality coal, and natural gas
reserve is also limited, so we need to use more renewable in that respect to meet the energy
demand. Now this table shows us that the conventional route in which the coal or fossil fuel is
burned in furnace and the fuel gas is used for the production of steam and then steam is used in
the steam turbine to produce electricity.
And this steam production basically takes place in subcritical condition where the carbon dioxide
NOx Sox and particulate matter emissions are higher. So, there is a good scope to change the
technology and if we produce the steam in supercritical condition then the emissions can be
reduced significantly from 926 to 835, 2.22 to 2.0, 6.82 to 6.16, 0.17 to 0.15.
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Now sustainability; I have mentioned just now that we need to produce electricity for everyone,
as population is increasing so more energy is required. So, we have to explore the renewable
energy as this is the social need. And for clean energy we need to use the cleaner routes so that
the pollutions will be less. So, clean energy for environmental variability and then energy
conservation is very important to use less amount of energy to perform the same amount of work
so that we can preserve some amount of fossil fuels for our future applications, so that is the
concept of energy Conservation's and these are related to sustainability issues. Now we will see
different routes through which the clean energy can be produced from fossil fuels. So, clean
energy is basically related with the utilization of fossil fuels in a cleaner route.
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And here if we consider the conventional route, the combustion based process, I have just
discussed that it is used in furnace then fuel gas is formed which is used to produce steam. And
then steam is used to produce electricity so that way high emissions and environmental effects
we can get. So our objective here to explore the technologies which are available or which can be
implemented to produce energy with less emissions and environmental effects.
So, how this can be done? Basically by modification of conventional techniques or introduction
of newer techniques. So, what are the modifications of conventional techniques? The feedstock
cleaning; feedstock cleaning that we have seen that the feedstock’s like say coal may have
sulphur, may have ash. So, we can remove these sulphur and ash from the feedstock so that
during processing steps it will not produce much pollution.
Process and design modification; so we can take one example of heavy crude processing.
Conventional refineries are suitable to refine the light crude having low sulphur. But if it has
more sulphur then we need to change the refinery configuration. So, the new plants which are
coming up those are able to accommodate inferior quality of the crude. Then introduction of
treatment systems; although we are taking actions to reduce the emissions but still there will be
some emissions.
So, we need to introduce some treatment technology for the removal of the pollutants which is
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emitted. Now if we think about the introduction of newer technologies, one is your gasification.
So, you can replace the combustion based technology by gasification based technology in that
case controlled amount of oxygen will be used and we will be getting a chance to capture carbon
dioxide in between.
Oxy-fuel combustion; in this case we can use pure oxygen in place of air for the combustion. So,
that eighty percent of nitrogen in air will not be used here only oxygen will be used, as a result
we will be getting more carbon dioxide concentration, more than 90% even in case of flue gas.
So, it will be easy to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas after extracting heat from it.
Then chemical looping system; chemical looping is another concept the people are working and
new techniques are coming up.
In this case some oxymetal oxides are used, some oxides are used which give oxygen in the
reactor for the combustion purpose. After the reactions then these oxides are again reduced in
another reactor and after reductions again oxidized in another reactor and then again used in the
combustion chamber. So, this is the chemical looping system so chemical looping system is also
helping by reducing the use of air or nitrogen.
So flue gas volume will be less and carbon dioxide concentration will be higher so this is the
beauty of the chemical looping. And direct liquification is another method in which coal can be
converted to liquid directly. This method is also being investigated widely around the world and
it is expected to have cleaner route for the production of energy from coal. Now if we think
about the utilization of crude oil.
Then crude oil after refinery we get vacuum residue so that vacuum residue can be upgraded so
that good amount from the vacuum residue can be converted to usable liquid fuels. So,
Visbreaking, delayed coking and solvent deasphalting, these are the technologies through which
the vacuum residue can be upgraded and liquid fuels can be produced. And the remaining part
which will be having coke, that coke will be converted to valuable products like say needle coke
or can be used for the gasification to produce syngas.
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And otherwise reforming and DME synthesis, natural gas if we use directly then there will be
chance of leakage of it. It is also a global warming gas and so if we convert it the methane or
natural gas to singas through reforming then this route may be cleaner route and the syngas can
be converted to methanol, the basic chemicals and DME which can be used as a liquid fuel.
So these are the cleaner routes which we can use and extensive research is going on, some
technologies have come up and we will discuss these in consecutive chapters or topics.
And then important routes for renewable energy production; if we see, the solar energy, hydro
energy, biomass and waste to energy, tidal and wave energy, wind energy and geothermal
energy, these are the important energy sources which we can use to produce renewable energy.
The solar energy; as you know Government of India had initiated Jawaharlal Nehru solar mission
in 2010 with an expectation to produce 20,000 megawatt by 2022.
But in 2015 on the basis of success of this mission the government has revised it and it is
expected to produce 1 lakhs megawatt of electricity from this solar energy source. Hydro energy
also as mentioned we have good contributions in the country through the hydro energy in
renewable energy sources. And biomass and waste, India has some biomass to electricity
production facilities.
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But waste to energy conversion is very less but this area is being developed gradually. Tidal and
wave energy; this is not widely used but we have scope, it is not used in India but we have scope
but there are some issues we will be discussing these. And wind energy; already India is focusing
on the development of more wind energy and we have already some capacity in the country. And
geothermal energy; this is also another type of energy renewable energy which uses the hot
springs or temperature available under the earth to convert it into usable energy.
India has some potential but we have not yet explored. Now we are coming to energy
conservation; so what is energy conservation? This is nothing but a practice by which we can
optimize the utilization of energy. We can reduce the wastage of energy and how this can be
achieved? This can be achieved by using renewable energy. How? Because when we are using
renewable energy at the same time we are saving our fossil fuels.
So, one way this is helping us to conserve our energy security. Efficient systems: We need
efficient systems; if the efficiency of a system for the energy conversions is increased obviously
we will be able to produce more energy in useful form. For example, I have given one, that the
subcritical and supercritical condition, if we use supercritical steam then obviously we will be
getting more energy efficiency.
So, same amount of coal will produce more amount of energy when we are using the
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supercritical boiler. We need some guidelines and practices and we also need some regulations.
So, already people are working on this, so new technologies are being developed which are more
efficient in terms of energy efficiency. So, here some example is traditional bulb, ordinary bulb,
and CFL and LED. See, compare these three types of technologies, then we see cost is different
we also see to give same amount of intensity of light different number of bulbs are required. And
their lifespan is also different.
So, if we compare here to get the same amount of light intensity we can use 1 LED, we can use 3
CFL, we can use 22 traditional bulbs. And you see the energy consumptions for 2500 lumens we
need 150 watts in case of traditional bulb but it needs 30 to 35 watts for CFL and for LED it is 25
to 28 watts. So, if increases the efficiency of the system we are able to reduce the use of energy.
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Another example is your power consumption of AC fans and EC fans. If we compare, so this is
our EC fan power consumption and here this is AC. So, this much of energy we can save. how it
is possible? By the improvement in the technology, you see here EC stands for electronically
commutated and combines voltage of both AC and DC. Bringing the best of both technologies
together to form EC, another is we are talking about the regulations and guideline.
So, in that aspect Government of India has taken initiations, bureau of energy efficiency has been
created. And nowadays some regulations are also available so you see here India's first five-star
rating form. So, all electronic appliances have been given star rating and below 3 stars it is not
supposed to use it in houses, it is not allowed to use in government buildings and many other
applications.
So, on the basis of the discussion it is clear to us that there is a need of the production of clean
and renewable energy to ensure the energy security and sustainability in the 21st century and we
will be discussing all those topics with greater extent with more explanation in consecutive
modules, thank you very much.
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Technologies for Clean and Renewable
Energy Production
Lecture 02
Coal as a Source of Energy
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic coal as a source of energy, as discussed in the
previous module, it is clear to us that coal is mostly used in India for the production of
electricity, around 60% electricity is produced from the coal. Now, you will see why the coal as
energy resource, what are the properties and what are the composition of it, what is the
availability and how the coal is formed, all those things will discuss in this module.
And the contents of this module are; coal and its composition, origin of coal, its rank and energy
content, availability of coal and energy possibility from it, types or grades of coal, properties of
coal, coal pricing and coal for energy production, some issues in India. Let us see what the coal
is? As you know that it is a solid fossil fuel, which is available under the earth crust and it has
been originated from plant bodies.
So, partially the plant body was decomposed and which has been converted to coal to geological
actions at high temperature and pressure for millions of years long reactions. This is a black or
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brown brownish sedimentary rock normally occurring in rock strata in layers, which is called
coal bed or coal seam.
It is composed of carbon along with hydrogen and some amount of other elements like nitrogen,
sulphur, etc. So, from plant body to coal formation, this has taken place to different stages. So,
we can get different type of coal. Let see Peat, which is not considered as coal the first stage of
coalification process, then lignite, then we get bituminous and then higher quality is anthracite.
So, this process through which the plant biomass has been converted to coal is called
coalification process.
And different types are lignite, bituminous and anthracite; these are also called as the rank of
coal. And the bituminous category, this is also divided into sub bituminous and semi bituminous,
if we see the compositions and the properties, then we see that carbon content is different from
one and to other rank and higher the carbon content we get higher the heating value, which is
desirable for energy production. So, in short, we can classify the coal in high rank coal and low
rank coal.
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High rank coal includes bituminous and the anthracite whereas low rank coal includes lignite and
sub bituminous. If we see here, this figure if we consider, it is very clear to us that in coal
number of aromatic rings are available. So, it is a complex structure having large number of
aromatic rings. And finally, ketonic and nitrogen containing compounds are available in it. If we
go to higher rank, or more the age of formation of the coal, will get more carbon, more heating
value.
But if we go to the lower age or the low rank coal, then we see that moisture content and
volatiles are higher so it follows to have more volatiles and more moisture. So, virtually this
reduces with the higher rank of coal. Here for lignite, we have carbon content 25 to 35% for sub
bituminous it is 35 to 45 and bituminous 45 to 86% and anthracite 86 to 98%. This is a typical
example of the coal composition.
Similarly, oxygen is starting to 20% for lignite and 20 to 10% for sub bituminous 10 to 5% for
bituminous and two to 1% for anthracite and we see the heating value; anthracite is having the
highest heating value more than 35,000 kilo joule per kg whereas the lignite the lowest one 9000
to 19,000 kilo joule per kg and ash content is also different, there is very interesting to see here
the bituminous coal available in India is having very high ash content.
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And that is a major issue we have to consider and we have to develop some techniques
indigenously for the utilization of Indian coal. But in India, coals are mainly bituminous or
lignite and ash content is very high. Now, we will see what are the theories available on the
production of coal from the plant biomass.
There are two theories; one is In-situ theory and another is drift theory. So, In-situ theory
supports that the coal is produced from the plant biomass which are grown in swamps or bogs
and subject to widespread submersion of the huge amount of these plant biomass, the
sedimentary deposits took place and it converted to coal. And drift theory says that coal is
formed largely from the terrestrial plant materials growing on dry land not in swamps or bogs.
And the original plant debris was transported by water body and deposited under water in lakes
or in sea by flood or tsunami like situation with very high wind speed or the high velocity that is
your 800 kilometer per hour. And over time, the chemical and physical property of the plant
remains widely changed by geological action. And it has been reported that 15 to 20 meter of
plant depth is converted to one meter of coal seam.
But in India, we have 30-meter seam. So, it is expected that around 600-meter plant biomass
layer was formed at the starting of this coal and the coalification time is as high as far 220
million years which is required and the earth is 4.6 billion years old. So, this is that different
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theory on the production of coal. Now, with the increasing the rank of the coal, what we can see
that carbon content is increased.
This table shows us the carbon content is increased from cellulose to graphite, graphite is
completely carbon 100% carbon and anthracite is 91%. And if we see the relative amount of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, then also we see that hydrogen and oxygen gradually decrease as you
go from cellulose to anthracite, as a result, the heating value increases. So, if we want to produce
energy, obviously, will be preferring the high heating value containing coal. So, price will also
be different for different types, of coal, so, we will discuss this later on.
Now, we will see the availability of the coal. Is the coal available everywhere equally across the
globe? or not? This table gives us that information. It is very clear that coal is available in higher
amount in specific regions. In some in some countries, as mentioned here:
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Important countries are Eastern USA, United Kingdom, Germany, Poland, Russia, China,
Australia, India, South Africa, Western Canada, Western USA, and Colombia. So, these are the
different geological age that 25 to 320, some odd cites 50 to 70, somewhere 50 to 150 is
available. So, in India, we are having 250 to 280, as per this report, the age of the coal is 250 to
280 for India. But another report says that we have some less moisture coal also. I will give you
that information.
Here we will see the availability of coal in India as per 2014 report, which is devoted by
Geological Survey of India, GSI. India has 3001.56 billion tons coal and out of this coal we have
different types that is prime coking coal 5.313 billion tonnes, medium and semi coking 28.76
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tonnes, coking 266 and Tertiary coal 1.49, this tertiary coal has ages less. And when the coal is
available in India? These are the states where it is available.
See if we see this table, it is very clear that Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal within
these states most of the coal is available in the country, other states where it is available that is
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh , Maharashtra and the amount of quality available in the
country that can serve electricity for 600 years. And this coal if we see in India, one is 250 to 325
million years old that is called Gondwana coal and another is tertiary coal that is 10 to 16 million
years.
And we will be using the coal, we need one reactor system for the utilization of coal, for its
converts into energy we need a specific particular size and we need its mechanical strength, but
coal does not have much mechanical strength and it can be broken down into small dust and
particles. So, for its use in furnace coal is converted to coke in some applications. So, that coke
are the solid carbonaceous materials derived from destructive distillation of low ash, low
Sulphur, and bituminous coal.
So, why from bituminous coal or not from others, because it contains the bituminous contents,
bitumen type material which helps to bind and give strength to the coke. if we classify the coal
then you can classify it on the base of rank that I have already discussed. Apart from that, we can
classify based on coking properties, whether it has coking property or not, whether we can
produce coke from the coal or not, or semi coking, it may be coking it may be semi coking or it
may be non-coking.
And on the based on age also just we have discussed that is Gondwana and tertiary. Apart from
these, some coals are there around the world, which are not conventional coal, for these the seam
is very limited. Where scattered and less amount of coal is available. And that is also not very
high quality. So this is an unconventional coal.
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One is Cannels and another is Torbanites. cannels are found rarely. And the high hydrogen
content it has and burns with smoke and bright flame and does not fall in any category. And the
Torbanites, this is known as Boghead coal also, it is named after Torbane Hill of Scotland and
this is rich in paraffin oil. Now, how can you create the coal we need coal for different
applications? We may use it for simple energy productions in thermal power plant or we may use
it for steel production in steel industries.
So, when we are interested to use it, in steel industry, then it requires more strength, more
density and we can we can classify steel grade one and steel grade two.
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And that classification is based on ash content if the ash content is less than equal to 15% then it
is steel grade 1. If it is 15 to 18%, then it is steel grade 2 and washery grade which is used for the
energy production in thermal power plant, then we can get grade 1, grade 2, grade 3 and grade 4.
and grade 1, we have 18 to 21% of ash in the grade 2 we have 21 to 24% of ash grade 3 we have
24 to 28% of ash and grade 4 we have 28 to 35% of ash.
Now grading of non coking coal; so, non coking coal grading is done not only basis of ash, it
also consideres the moisture content. And this moisture content is determined at 60% relative
humidity and 40 degrees centigrade as per BIS standard.
So we can classify non coking coal into grade A, grade B, grade C, grade D, grade E, grade F
and grade G, and ash and moisture content total will not exceed in 19.5 for A category, which is
having heating value around 6200 kilo calorie per kg and for B category the ash and moisture
falls in 19.6 to 23.8. And its heating value falls between 5600 to 6200 kilocalories per kg. For C
category the ash and moisture content is 23.9 to 28.6%.
Similarly, the energy the heating value is 49 40 to 5600, and D category the ash and moisture
content 28.7 to 34% whereas the heating value is 4200 to 4940 kilocalories per kg. For category
E the ash and moisture content is 34.1 to 40% and then heating value 3360 to 4200 kilocalories
per kg. So, F category its ash and moisture content is 41.1 to 47% whereas, the heating value is
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2400 to 3360 kilocalories per kg and for G category the ash and moisture content is 47.1 to 55%
and useful heating value 1300 to 2400 kilocalorie per kg.
So, in this case, if we go down, then heating values decreasing and we see here the moisture and
ash is also increasing. So, this will be having different applications and different price.
Now, grading of semi coking and weekly coking coal, we can have grade 1 one and grade 2 that
is also on the basis of ash and moisture content. So, if the moisture content is not exceeding 19%
grade 1 and if it is 19 to 24%, it is grade 2.
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Now in thermal power plant we produce flue gas by the combustion of coal in presence of air,
but if we do not apply air, just heat it in absence of air, then coal will be converted to three
products, one is your coke and others coal tar that is liquid and another coal gas. So, solid liquid
and gas will be getting, this coke which is produced here that will be having superior quality with
respect to coal and can be used for steel production.
And this coke is a grey, hard and porous material and it is used as a fuel and reducing agent in
smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. iron oxide is converted to iron, metallic iron here , and coal
tar ; it is a liquid product which is produced by heat application on coal in absence of oxygen.
And here the liquid product contains different types of organic compounds variable mixtures of
phenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHS and hetero cyclic compounds.
There are around 200 substances in case of coal tar and it is a black liquid an extremely highly
viscous and it smells naphthenic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Then coal gas contains some
combustible gas and non combustible gas; it may include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, metal and
volatile hydrocarbons also. So, this way we can get different product from coal and which can be
used for different application.
We can also use it in thermal power plant through combustion or we can also use it through
gasification to producer gas. So, for the application of coal in different routes, we need to
understand the quality of the coal which I know be suitable for which applications so, different
types of properties are tested and the values are compared and the coal is selected.
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So, the properties of coal; I mentioned here that is caking and coking properties, heating value
that is very important for energy application, moisture content, volatile matter content, fixed
carbon, mineral metal or ash content and the chemical compositions that is elemental analysis
CHONS oxygen sulphur phosphorus iron and etcetera, particle size and porosity, caking index,
swelling index and petrographic analysis.
As I mentioned that particular sizes and porosity is important for the operation in reactor system.
Now we will see the caking and coking. What is caking and what is the coking? If we apply heat
to coal in absence of oxygen it swells some of the coal soils and it leaves coherent residue this
property of the coal is called a caking property and in some caking coal the remaining residue is
coherent. And it has middle cluster as well as all properties of the commercial coke.
And that coal is called coking coal. So caking coal and coking coal if we compare all coking
coals are caking coal, but all caking coals are not coking coal, necessarily, some of the caking
coals will produce coke. So, all coking coals are caking but the reverse is not always true. Now,
we will discuss on heating value. So, if we use coal and combust it to release heat that will be
used for any heat application.
Now amount of energy will be in usable form from unit amount of coal is it heating value. So,
what is happening if we think about the electricity production? we are combusting coal, then coal
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flue gas is produced then flue gas is used to produce steam from the water and then steam is
again used for the electricity production in steam turbine. So, what is my available energy,
available energy in terms of electricity? in terms of heat here?
So, when the steam is pumped, that steam may be at higher temperature, that steam may be at
lower temperature at ambient condition. So, when the steam is converted to ambient temperature,
the water will condense and the usable energy which we are able to extract from the steam will
be higher and the maximum and that is called higher rating value or gross heating value. But net
heating value in which condition we are using it the net amount of energy we are getting from it
that is called low heating value.
So, how can we consider and make the relationship between high heating and low heating value?
Obviously, the latent heat of vaporization of water is playing role. If we reduce this one from the
high heating value, we can get the low heating value of the coal. We will make more discussion
in next chapter, our next lecture how to determine the heating value.
Then we have mineral matter that is converted to ash and fuel coal is having volatile matter and
fixed carbon and it also have some moisture that is total moisture. So moisture may be available
at the surface of the coal or it may be available in pores inside it that is general property of this or
it may be available in microstructure of it.
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So, we can get different types of moisture, surface moisture, which is available at the surface of
the coal is called surface moisture. And Indian coals are having more surface moisture because
the inherent moisture, which is available inside the coal and which is an integral part of coal
seam in its natural state, that includes the water in pores but excludes that in macroscopic visible
fractures.
This inherent moisture in Indian coal is less and surface moistures is high because water is added
for its transportation and storage. And then another equilibrium moisture; equilibrium moisture is
determined as per BIS standard 1350 and we have to heat the coal sample at 40 degrees
centigrade under 65% relative humidity and moisture content is determined is called equilibrium
measure. So total moisture TM is equal to inherent moisture plus surface moisture, we get
another is your equilibrium moisture.
So 3 types of moisture so I've got surface moisture, inherent moisture and equilibrium moisture
and residual moisture in term, it remains in coal after air drying a sample and minor heating in a
moisture oven to 10 to 15 degree centigrade above the ambient temperature. What are the basis
for reporting coal properties, data and their combustion? that we are going to discuss now. So,
coal which we have got from the coal seam, it has come to the laboratory, we are analyzing it
and we are getting the compositions and that is as received basis.
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But we can air dry, measure the composition's again, we will get air dried basis and dry basis;
this compositions are measured after drying the coal sample at specific condition, and then dry
an ash free basis; it will be dried and then ash had to be removed from it during the calculation of
the percentage composition, and dry and mineral matter free basis, compositions are expressed in
percentage excluding the mineral matter and moisture. So, the value of any compositions in as
received basis is lesser than any other basis.
Here some example is shown here. So, we have a coal with proximate analysis Moisture is 1.1%
ash 5.63% volatile matter is 37.26% and fixed carbon 56%. So, we want to convert it into dry
and ash free basis. So, here in this case, we see moisture and ash we are having 1.11% + 5.63 so
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6.74% we are having moisture and ash, so we have to reduce it, we have to leave it, since if we
leave it, so remaining will be having fixed carbon and volatile matter. so 56 divided by these
volatile plus fixed carbon we are getting 60.04% , we can also get it by these 56.0 into 100
divided by 100 minus this 2 moisture and ash that is 6.74. So, that is also welcoming 60.04% and
similarly the volatile matter content is getting 39.95 and 39.95%.
Other properties caking index. So caking indexes keeps an indications how suitable the coal is
for caking, really we say 20-24 and minimum index should be 13 and maximum should be 24.
And under property swelling index, it also gives some indications the how suitability for coke
formation. So, swelling index 2 to 5 is ideal one and the high swelling index value is not
desirable, it will create problem during operation.
Petrographic analysis and reflectance; this is one property which indicates how the coal will be
able to produce coke. Coking coal should have 60% of the virtrain which contributes on the coke
formation and 40% is a non reactive constituent. And this will 1.3 to 1.5 of these petrographic
analysis reflectance values is suitable and it and coking poverty develops in coal when this value
is .9 to 1.3.
And pricing of coal; Pricing is very important and depends on the quality. So pricing is done on
the basis of equilibrium moisture. So that moisture is considered.
32
And with the increase of more moisture the price decreases because the gross calorific value
decreases with moisture content, this is the empirical relationship which shows that with 1%
increase in TM total moisture the ΔGCV, the changes in gross calorific value, is 6.1 + 0.01 into
gross calorific value.
Now, we are coming to some issues for the coal use in India. So, Indian coals are mainly
bituminous lignite type it has, high ash content and high moisture content high surface moisture,
but low inherent moisture. So, these are the basic problems for Indian coal less inherent moisture
33
makes it difficult to operations, imported coals are having high inherent moisture, and they are
not having surface moisture.
So, this is easy to transport it is easy to operate, but Indian coals are having difficulty with
respect of moisture as well as ash content. So, we need our own technology for its application.
And it has some contamination also mercury contamination 0.1 ppm, arsenic 1.4 to 71 ppm,
selenium 3 ppm in coal. So, these are the drawbacks of Indian coal. We need our own technology
for its application.
Apart from these we also have groundwater and surface water contamination issues from the
coal. So all those things we have to take into consideration for developing any new technology or
application of Indian coal in cleaner technology routes. Thank you very much.
34
Energy Production
Lecture 03
Characterization of Coal
Hi, friends now we will discuss on the topic characterization of coal. In introductory module we
have discussed about the different properties of coal and we have seen that some of the
properties are very important to fix its price. And as we are interested to use coal as an energy
source so heating value is very, very important. And this heating value is dependent on carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, present in it and it also depends upon the ash content, moisture content etc.
So, in this class we will see what are the different methods that can be used to measure the
properties of coal like say what is the moisture content what is the fixed carbon? What is the
volatile matter content? And what is the carbon hydrogen nitrogen sulphur oxygen present in
coal? And ultimately we will see how the heating value is determined.
So, the content of this class is the approximate analysis, ultimate analysis and heating value
determination. Now we will see what is proximate analysis? This is a standard method which
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gives us the procedure through which we can analyze the moisture content of coal, ash content of
coal, volatile matter content and fixed carbon.
So, these 4 properties moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon are determined by
proximate analysis. So, how it is possible? We have to take small amount of sample and then we
will heat it under certain condition that is prescribed in the method, that is 105 degree centigrade
for 24 hour, then the mass loss is equivalent to moisture content.
And after the loss of moisture the dry material if we put it in a crucible and cover it with the lead
and then put it inside a furnace at high temperature for small period of time then the volatile
present in the coal sample goes off and the difference between the initial mass and remaining
mass will give us the measure of volatile matter present in the sample. In this case the condition
is given as 950 °C for 7 minutes in absence of oxygen that is why we have given the lead on it.
Then we will take this material and heat in presence of oxygen so that the carbon, hydrogen
present in it will be converted to CO2 and H2O so that carbon and hydrogen basically is from the
volatile matters. During this process in presence of oxygen if we heat for a longer period at
moderately lower temperature maybe that it is given here 750 °C and half an hour duration so
that all this carbon and hydrogen will be converted to CO2 and H2O and the remaining part
which we will get that is nothing but ash content.
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So, after that we can determine the fixed carbon by the difference that is 100% minus the
percentage of ash minus percentage of volatile matter and minus percentage of moisture. Now
we will see the volatiles fixed carbon as a moisture content of some materials like peat, lignite
sub-bituminous, bituminous and anthracite. So, from this table we see the volatile matters is
decreasing gradually with the increase of rank.
Fixed carbon is increasing gradually but for moisture and ash there is no such specific trend
because as you know that volatiles and fixed carbon these are the inherent properties, these are
present in the plant biomass and it is converted to coal through coalification process. So, with the
stage of maturity these two are changing, volatiles is reducing and the fixed carbon is increasing
as discussed in the introductory module.
But moisture and ash these two are not the inherent property every time. So, it also depends upon
the exterior external factors like say how we are handling the coal, how we are storing it so all
those things and where from we are getting it so all those factors, that is why there is no specific
trained on it. Now we will see how to determine the elemental composition of coal that is called
ultimate analysis, sometimes it is also called CHNS analysis, C for carbon H is for hydrogen N
for nitrogen S for sulphur.
So what is the mechanism for this analysis? What do you do in this case? The full sample is
combusted at higher temperature, the specific temperature is given here that is 990 °C
temperature, when we heat it the carbon is converted to CO2, H is converted to H2O, N is
converted to NOx, S is converted to SOx. So, now we are getting a mixture of gas components.
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So, if we put the material in small container and then we apply oxygen and heat it here, then the
gas will be available in this container. So, now we need one carrier gas so this carrier gas will
carry the gas and it will mix well the components and then we will use the methodology for the
separation and identification of these gas molecules which is possible by using a gas
chromatography.
But in this case we see we have carbon dioxide H2O, N2 and SO2 so if I want to separate we need
the variation in the retention period of the different gas molecules in the GC column that means
the interaction of these gas molecules with the stationary phase of GC column should be
different that is why NOx is reduced to nitrogen prior to its entry into the GC column. So, one
silica tube packed with copper granules is used in the path of this gas.
So, carrier gas along with the components passes through this and NOx is converted to nitrogen
by reduction then the mixed gas is going through this separation stage in the GC and detection
stage. So, you see here, sample carrier gas, combustion, then reduction for NOx reductions and
then mixing, then separation and detection. So, these are the different steps and mechanism for
the analysis of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and Sulphur.
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Now you see this figure is giving us different peak for nitrogen, CO2, H2O and SO2 because of
the variation of the interaction of these gas molecules with the stationary phase of the GC
column. So, retention period is different as nitrogen is inert so its retention time is less then
carbon dioxide, then H2O, then SO2. So, these peaks area gives us the relative concentration of
these different gas components.
So, we calculate how much carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, Sulphur is present in the original sample.
Now we will see some example of the ultimate analysis of different types of material including
peat, lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous and anthracite. Here also the hydrogen content is
decreasing gradually, oxygen content is decreasing gradually, and carbon content is increasing
gradually. But for nitrogen, sulphur there is very less changes, 0.5 to 1.5 so these small changes
may be because of the limit of analysis or the instrument error limit.
Here we see ash content also does not have any specific trend because it also depends upon the
external factors and the handling of the material. Now we are coming to heating value so what is
the heating value? That is most desirable parameter of the sample, we need higher heating value
so that we can get more heat. So, if we take a coal sample and then combust it in presence of
sufficient amount of oxygen then it will release Heat, C+O2, CO2,
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And if hydrogen is available H + O2 is H2O so these are the basic reactions which generates heat
and that heat we are interested to get in useable form. So, heating value is obviously the amount
of heat energy released per unit amount of sample due to the combustion. Then here we can get
two types of heating value as we have discussed in our introductory module also, one is your
higher heating value or gross heating value and another is your lower heating value or net
heating.
So, what these two are? After combustion we are getting flue gas and during the machine heat is
released so flue gas is having high temperature it may be more than 600, 500 like this degree
centigrade. That high temperature of flue gas is used to produce steam from the water and then
the steam will be available in different temperature as per the need of the application in
downstream. So, one possibility is that the steam is condensed, now the flue gas which is
produced to the combustion that is cooled down to atmospheric temperature.
So the heat recovered from this flue gas will be the maximum that is called high heating value
and low heating value is the difference of the heat required to vaporize the water available in the
flue gas.
So, low heating high heating value and lower heating value the difference is;
40
We have to subtract the energy required to vaporize the water, now how this heating value can be
expressed what is the unit of it? Unit may kilo Joule per kg, kilo Joule per mole or kilocalorie
per kg, BTU per pound and there are some conversion factors kilocalorie per kg 2 mega Joule
per kg if we want to convert this relationship we can use. So, people have tried to find out the
relationship between high heating value and lower heating value and it is found that HHV high
heating value is equal to low heating value plus H v into number of H2O out by number of fuel.
This number of means number of moles of water produced during the combustion and number of
moles of fuels so this divided by this n H2O per mole of fuel that will be the mole of water
produced and if we multiply it with the heat of vaporization of water. So, this amount of heat if
we add with the lower heating value then that will give us higher heating value. Now let us see
how you can determine it.
41
For the determination of higher heating value we use bomb calorimeter and bomb calorimeter
has been shown, in this figure you see this is the calorimeter and inside this calorimeter we have
water bucket and then in the water bucket we put bomb inside the bomb we put the material in
this crucible and then fix it and then with the electric devices we ignite this one, the coal sample,
and it combust inside it in presence of excess amount of oxygen.
Then it releases heat during the combustion and that heat is taken up by the water put in this
water bucket as well as this bomb of the calorimeter. Now what is the principle? The amount of
heat released due to the combustion of the material inside the bomb is taken up by the bomb
material as well as the water kept inside the water bucket. So, this is the principle for the
determination of heating value in the bomb calorimeter.
Now what type of heating value this is? High heating value or low heating value? Obviously it is
high heating value, why? Because inside this bomb we are putting the material and we are
putting oxygen inside it in sufficient amount at higher pressure. So, we are assuming that
complete combustion is taking place and when the combustion will take place the local heat will
be very high. But that heat is being released through this material of the bomb wall the heat will
also come to the water inside the water bucket.
42
And there is some starring arrangement so there is some change in the water temperature. Now if
the sample is very small so this variation in temperature may not be very high, it will vary within
small range. So, what is happening during combustion? Moisture is formed and again it is cooled
down to atmospheric temperature. So, that is why we are able to get complete heat released by
the material that is why it is high heating value. So, from bomb calorimeter we can determine
high heating value.
Now I will explain the steps. What we will do at first? We will take 1 to 1.5 gram of material in
the crucible and then we will be using some thread or wire to ignite it and after ignition we will
be getting the temperature change. How the temperature is changing and what is the equilibrium
temperature what is the difference between equilibrium temperature and initial temperature.
Then we will do the energy balance. So, how do we do the energy balance?
Here we have heat released by this equal to say we have taken M amount of material. so M into
HHV heating value, that amount of heat is released and that is taken up by the calorimeter, that is
equal to mass of calorimeter say M bomb mass, MB into CP or bomb MCPΔT, this is the heat
taken up by the bomb and the heat taken up by the water that is W x CP x w x ΔT. so this is the
total heat taken up by the system.
43
And this is the total heat released by the material. So, if we ignore any other type of corrections
then this is the basic formula. Now MbCp and this from this relationship we can get Mb Cpb + w
x C pw x ΔT this whole term is replaced by w that is water equivalent of the calorimeter and this
is the property of this material whatever material it is taking and in short the properties of the
calorimeter. So, we are getting w into ΔT this is the heat gained by the calorimeter bomb as well
as the water body.
So this is the basic principle and on basis of which we determine the HHV value excluding the
correction factors. But here when you are using the coal and we are using some wire for the
ignition, then that will also release some amount of heat so that correction is required. And if the
coal contains some sulphur and nitrogen then that SO2 will be formed and then a SO2 will be
converted to H2, SO4 or NO2 can be converted to HNO3.
So these acid converts and they will also contribute some amount of heat in this process so that
has to be excluded to determine the HHV of this sample. Now I will show you a video which is
self explanatory.
(Video Start: 20:54)
Which explain us how the bomb calorimeter is used to determine the heating value of coal or any
other solid sample. So, now you see the crucible part is getting ready, the wire connection is
being made. Now the sample is pulled into the crucible and the sample is put inside the bomb
and it is present with the lead. Then we will put oxygen inside it the bomb is connected with the
oxygen supply line from the oxygen cylinder.
Now oxygen will go, it is started to go and set the bomb and pressure will increase, pressure is
increased. So, this high pressure is basically needed to ensure that all the samples will be
combusted. Now the bomb will be put inside a bucket and water will be filled in the bucket. This
video is made for demonstration purposes only, the water has to fill so that the bomb will be
completely immersed in the water.
And then electricity connection is provided and the calorimeter is covered. The temperature
measurement device is inserted and studying arrangement is made. Now we have to provide
44
electricity inside it and this is the device which provides electricity and also measures the
differential temperature. The temperature difference now I have to put auto zero so difference
has to be made zero first, now you see 0, gradually it will reach the equilibrium point.
The temperature difference will be fixed, you see here 0.683°C, this is the equilibrium
temperature difference that t1 - t2 the initial and final temperature difference we are getting point
683 it is now constant it will not change. So, that way we can get the Δt value. Now we are
taking the recording, recorded, we are recording the value.
(Video Ends: 28:17)
So, this is the video for demonstration for the measurement of heating value using bomb
calorimeter. So, from this video it is clear to asses, after the process we will be having some
parameters or some values.
Like say temperature at the temperature at time of firing and final maximum temperature. See in
our case we do not have two different but we have Δ so you are already getting the difference in
the temperature during the process. And then C1 we get milliliter of standard alkali solution used
in acid titration. So, what will be happening after the reaction? After the completion of this will
release the oxygen from the bomb and will take the sample out, there will be no sample
theoretically.
45
But in some cases some soots may be available, in that case this run is discarded, not considered.
Then it is washed, the wall is washed with water and that is titrated with alkali solution to get the
acid deposited on the wall of it and how much acid is formed. That way we get how much how
many milliliters of alkali solution is required that we can measure, and then we can get
percentage of sulphur in the sample that we should have some idea about the elemental analysis
of the sample.
And then what is the length of the wire which was fused during this process that we have to
determine initially we take 10 centimeter then after this process how much is left that we
measure, the balance is used we assume. So that this value we get and mass of sample how much
sample you have taken that also it is known to us. Now, on the basis of this information we can
proceed further to determine the heating value of it.
And as I discussed that without incorporation of any error the energy balance formula we have
discussed but now there will be some error.
So, heat of formation of nitric acid heat of formation of sulphuric acid and heat of combustion of
fuses so these three correction factors we have to consider and this H2SO4 this is basically we
measure from the presence of sulphur in the sample and HNO3 heat how much can be released
that is measured on the basis of acid titration value the titration value how much milliliter NaOH
46
KOH or Na2CO3 is used. Heat of combustion of fuse wire also is determined. And the supplier of
this manufacturer of this instrument they provide the E3 value or corresponding how to calculate
E3 value.
So how can we calculate E1, E2 and E3? E1 it is nothing but dependent on the C1 value, what is
C1? That is the milliliter of alkali solution used to get that titrate value of the wall wash of the
bomb and then E2 we can calculate by this formula 13.7 x C2 x M so C2 is the percentage
concentration of sulphur in the sample and M is the amount of sample I have taken in gram. And
E3 is measured through different equations for different types of fuse wire used. So, nickel
chromium if you use then this formula 2.3 x C 3.
If we use iron 34 B and ash gauge iron then 2.7 x C3 or if we use 34 gauge platinum wire then is
equal to 0. So, these are provided by the manufacturer of the bomb calorimeter. Then how we
will get the gross heating value? gross heating value into mass of the material that will be the
heat released and that is equal to ΔT into W that is equal to water equivalent into the temperature
difference minus the amount of energy is released due to the formation of nitric acid that is E1.
Due to the formation of sulphuric acid E2 and due to the heat released by the combustion of the
fused wire. So, this is the formula through which we can calculate the gross heating value. Then
this w value that is the water equivalent value of the bomb calorimeter that is the property of a
47
calorimeter so we need to determine it. So, the same process is followed but in this case we use a
known sample the heating value of the sample is known to us.
So one such example is benzoic acid, so benzoic acid does not have any sulphur so G2
component will be 0 so E2 will also be 0 so in that case we will be getting W x T that is equal to
H x M + E 1 + E 3, E 2 is 0 see if we use this formula so now H is known heating value of the
benzoic acid is known, how much benzoic acid you have taken that is known, E1 we can
calculate from the titer value.
And E3 we can calculate on the basis of the length of wire fuse wire used during the combustion
in centimeter unit and we can calculate the W value. Then this way we can calculate gross
heating value or high heating value then how can we calculate the net heating value?. So, some
formula is given H in negative value is equal to 1.8 x Hg that is high heating value and gross
heating value minus 91.23 x H where H is the percentage of hydrogen.
So, this formula is in this unit BTU per pound but if we want to get it in kilocalorie per kg we
have to convert it and this relationship we can use for the conversion of for the determination of
net calorific value. Then people try it to find out some relationship of these two high heating
value and low heating value with the amount of hydrogen, oxygen and moisture present in it. So,
this is one empirical relationship which is provided.
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So, what we have come to know on the basis of this discussion that to measure the heating value
we need to perform it limit. So, it requires time and investment of manpower and money also.
So, for general purpose for the comparison of different types of coals we may use some
empirical relationships which have been reported by different researchers.
And provided in this table different researchers they have provided different empirical
relationship for different types of coal and some are based on approximate analysis some are
based on ultimate analysis basis. So, these will not be used to determine the actual calorific value
of whole sample and to fix its price but it will be useful they will be useful to screen coal
samples when it is needed.
If we have number of coal samples we can screen it that can be a suitable one by these applying
this formula.
49
Then I will give you some example so a coal sample with 1% sulphur is combusted in a bomb
calorimeter. The temperature of the bucket water increases from 25 to 28 °C. The water
equivalent of the calorimeter is 2402 calorie per °C, 1 gram sample is used for the test and power
45 CT no wire is used for ignition. Out of the 10 centimeter wire 2.6 centimeters are unused. To
titrate the calorimeter washing 24.2 ml of 0.0709N sodium carbonate is required this is
equivalent to N by 10 NOH.
So, calculate the gross heating value of the waste consider the thermometers are working
perfectly. So, here there is no correction for thermocouple or thermometer is required. So, if we
want to calculate the gross heating value obviously we will use the formula just we have
discussed. So this is the formula Hg equal to (T x W – E1 – E2 – E3)/ M. Now we will see how
can you get the value of E1, E2 and E3 in this case.
And what is the M, T and W value. So, here we have W value is given, M value is given that is 1
gram and temperature difference Ta and Tf it is also given so difference temperature we are
getting now T is 3°C, W is equal to 2402 calorie/°C, E1 how can you calculate? The value of E1,
E1 is dependent of C1, so C1 is given how much it is given 24.2 ml.
So, this will be E1 will be 24.2 calorie then what is E2? E2 dependent sulphur content so we have
1% sulphur so we will use the formula E2, 13.7 x 1 into how much sample you have taken 1 gram
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so 13.7 calorie is our E2 value and E3 value is dependent on the wire which we have used that 7.4
centimeter power 45C10 wire so E3 will be 2.3 x 7.4 = 17.0 calorie so we have to subtract this
with the TW.
S,o Hg is T x 2402 – 24.2 - 13.7 – 17, so we are getting 7150 calorie per gram. So, this way we
can measure the heating value. So, in this module we have discussed how to determine the
approximate and ultimate analysis. How to determine the concentration of moisture, volatile
matter, fixed carbon and ash and also how to measure the heating value of the coal sample, so
thank you very much for your patience.
51
Energy Production
Lecture 04
Conventional Route for Energy Production from Coal
Hi friends now we will discuss on the topic conventional route for energy production from coal.
In the introductory module we have discussed that coal can be used through different routes like
say combustion, gasification or direct liquification for the production of energy. Out of these
routes the most conventional one is combustion based thermal power plant. So, in this module
we will be discussing what is the flow sheet and what is the mechanism for the production of
electricity in a thermal power plant? What is its efficiency? What are the thermodynamic cycles
and what types of reactors are used?
And the contents of these are combustion based power generation flow sheet then
thermodynamic cycles for power generation, then overall plant efficiency, factors influencing
power efficiency, performance of coal based power plant and conventional reactor process
conditions and efficiency. Now we will see the flowsheet, the conventional flowsheet.
52
Here we have combustion chamber from which the flue gas goes into heat exchanger or boiler
where combustion takes place. So, heat is released, high temperature flue gas goes to heat
exchanger then from heat exchanger water comes and it forms steam. So, steam goes to turbine,
steam turbine coupled with generator so power to Grid that is one way we get the electricity. And
this flue gas which is going into the boiler after exchanging the heat it will go to the environment
as exhaust gas.
And the steam which is coming out from turbine that will be of low pressure, that steam is
condensed and condensed water is used for the production of steam again or some part of it can
be sent to the process in a cooling tower and heat recovery can be possible. So, this is
conventional process. And on energy perspective if we think, then pulverized coal we have
thermal processing then we get flue gas and solid residue then flue gas heat transfer in boiler and
steam and electricity production.
Now we can use gas turbine also or we can use the heat of the flue gas for the production of heat
only by heat exchanger for heat application or we can produce steam only or we can produce
electricity only or we can do the combination of these things. So, we may have some options;
coal combustion then boiler, the flue gas is going to boiler, it can give a steam and steam to
electricity that is one route.
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Another is steam to heat exchanger then hot air for space heating. There is also one option, this is
our combination of both, heat and steam then electricity. So, steam is coming to steam turbine,
we are generating electricity and supplying it to grid and this steam is also used in the process for
heating purpose. So, this is called co-generation when we are using both electricity as well as
heat in a plant.
Now this steam turbine can also be replaced by gas turbine, air after coal combustion, it can go to
gas turbine and gas turbine to exhaust of the gas turbine, it can go to heat exchanger and then it
can increase the temperature of air which can be used as a preheated air also and then it goes to
vent. And when the turbine runs then it is connected with generator and produces electricity. So,
number of possibilities are there; we can use for the production of electricity or other type of
energy for its application.
54
On the basis of these different possibilities we have different types of cycling, that is
thermodynamic cycles, that is topping cycle, bottoming type cycle and combined cycle. What is
the topping cycle? We have fuel, air then we are using it in furnace and flue gas is produced at
high temperature then it is used in turbine for electric power generation then the exhaust from the
turbine is further added with some supplementary fuel and that is combusted and temperature of
this stream is also increased and then it is used in heat exchanger for steam generation.
So, in this case at first we are getting mechanical energy then heat recovery so that is why it is
called topping cycle. But for bottoming cycle we are producing heat here then that is first heat
recovery taking place in the first case whether you are using water to produce steam and then the
turbine then electricity so this is called bottoming cycle. Now in combined cycle it is a hybrid
cycle and contains both topping and bottoming cycles.
Now how the cogeneration helps? cogeneration means we are producing electricity as well as we
are producing steam for different types of applications. So, in that case we can reduce the loss of
energy and we can get more efficiency of the process.
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cogeneration indicates combined heat and power generation and tri generation concept is also
developed that is combined cooling heat and power, heat application cooling applications and
electricity generations so by that way the people have seen that the efficiency can be improved.
Now this efficiency is equal to in this case electric power output plus heat output plus cooling
out divided by total heat input so, that way we can calculate the efficiency.
Now this table gives us some example. That how we can get overall efficiency, higher overall
efficiency by using suitable combination of different types of energy utilisation. If we use it for
heat only application then recovery is 80% and overall efficiency 80% steam only there is also
80% power only 35%. So, power is the most usable form of energy so that is our major concern
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but here our efficiency is less 35%.
But if we combine these power applications with steam application or steam + power + cooling
application then we will see that this 35% can be increased to 35 to 75% or in some cases it is
85%. So, that is why the cogeneration and tri generation concepts are being implemented. Now
on the basis of this discussion it is clear to us that we can use steam turbine or we can use gas
turbine or we can use both turbines for the production of electricity from the coal. So, for the
steam turbine is governed by the thermodynamic cycles that is called Rankine cycle.
So, here we will see the Rankine cycles, how the entropy and temperature changes as per the
Rankine cycle. And here it has the 4 steps the steam turbine has four steps, the step 1 adiabatic
compression, what happens in this case? the pump is used to compress the water in the boiler.
And then step 2 isobaric expansions, that the pressure is constant and then we produce the steam
here. And then adiabatic expansion, the steam is going to the turbine and expansion is taking
place, the adiabatic process.
And then isobaric compression, after that that is condensed, condensed air is sent to condenser
and this transform vapour to liquid in a constant pressure heat transfer process. So, these are the
four processes of steam turbine and Rankine cycle is shown here. So, what we see from this? we
see that an ideal condition can be achieved when no fluid friction and heat loss is considered so
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this is the case dotted line.
But this is the ideal one but this does not happen in reality because of loss due to the friction. So,
friction, fluid frictions in the boiler and pipe lines etcetera reduces the energy and we need to
provide additional energy to maintain it.
Now as per this Rankine cycle efficiency, thermodynamic efficiency is equal to ratio of net
power output to heat input and Carnot cycle efficiency is 1 minus cold temperature by hot
temperature TC = 1 - cold temperature / hot temperature. Now if we increase the temperature hot
temperature then the efficiency is more that we have discussed in the introductory module also
that supercritical conditions if we can use then we can enhance the efficiency.
But how much? that is guided here if we use steam turbine NT temperature is typically around
565 degree centigrade and steam condenser temperatures are around 30 °C then Carnot
efficiency is 63%. But actually overall thermal efficiency up to 42% is available it is possible
with modern coal-fired power station. In the previous slide I have shown you it is 35%
subcritical conditions but the supercritical conditions which may be increased.
So, thermal Carnot cycle efficiency is 63% that is a maximum but so far there is no turbine with
the steam turbine with this much of efficiency this is up to 42% as you put it here. Now we will
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see the Brayton cycle who did used to explain the gas turbine.
So, it also has 4 steps in this case what happens now air is used and compressed so then it is sent
to the furnace for the heat exchanger to heat it up and then basically the combustion chamber so
it is the isobaric process so it expands. So, expansions and then we are going for step 3 that is
isentropic process, the heated and pressurized air then gives up its energy in the turbine blade so
that is the case expanding to the turbine.
And then isobaric process, heat rejection in the atmosphere so these are the steps of the gas
turbine cycles and efficiency is = 1 – T1/T2 just like Carnot cycle efficiency or T1 by T2 can be
replaced by P1/P2 the power 1 – γ/γ already we have discussed we studied this in
thermodynamics subjects and here gamma is the heat capacity ratio. So, what we can guess from
this relationship? If we can increase the temperature then we can get more efficiency. But how
much?
We are using the air in a combustion chamber and then in the combustion process the material
which you are using that that will be having some resistance power so maximum is a 1500 to
1800 °C can be used or we can convert the pressure ratio change the pressure ratio P1/P2.
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By pressure ratio change we can change the efficiency of it and it has been reported that the
pressure ratio of gas turbine ranges from 11-16. So, pressure ratio as well as operating condition
temperature both influence the performance of the gas turbine. But in actual case the Brayton
isentropic process is not applicable we get adiabatic process, adiabatic that is compression then
isobaric process heat addition and adiabatic process expansion in turbine and then isobaric
process heat rejection.
So, these are the different steps of the thermodynamic cycles of steam and gas turbines. Now we
will see now what is a performance of a coal based power plant how can we define it and how
this will be influenced by other factors obviously we are using coal.
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So, if we have high heating value then the performance will be higher and the thermal
conversion units which we are using, the combustor in some cases, the combustion or the furnace
and boiler are combined in some cases, 2 are different units. So, there are variations in the
technology and the heat recovery is also different. So, that way the efficiency of the thermal
processing unit will also influence the overall efficiency of the process.
And then thermal efficiency of the boiler, the thing as I already discussed, and then efficiency of
the turbine and generator, in the boiler we are getting steam and then that steam is used in turbine
and generator. So, all those units’ turbines and generators have their own limitations and
efficiency so that will also be considered into the overall efficiency of this, it will influence.
Then energy requirements of the air pollution control systems as I have shown after the heat
recovery from the flue gas it is allowed to go into the atmosphere the exhaust gas.
So this exhaust gas temperature at which temperature we are releasing it and what type of fluids
we are using for the heat exchanger purpose all those things will be influencing the performance
of the power plant as just we have discussed, that if we use the cogeneration or tri generation
then I have sensible increase. So, all those factors influence the performance of the thermal
power plant, coal based thermal power plant.
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And overall efficiency can be expressed as that is efficiency of boiler efficiency of turbine
efficiency of generator and emissions of works; works efficiency. Now it is found that full
heating value and what is the size of the plant that will influence the economy or the
performance of the process.
Apart from this, notice the pressure, the steam is produced that will also influence just we have
discussed, the pressure ratio. So, pressure it is used that will also influence the performance. The
type of condensing device air or water so heat transfer coefficient is different so more the
transfer coefficient more efficient to the heat transfer or recovery, so that also influence the
performance of the process in the heat source to preheat combustion air that will also if we are
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using recovering some amount of energy or not.
Actually 60 to 80 degree centigrade, this temperature stream in the industries are very poorly
utilized. So, if we can have some arrangement to utilize this heat then also increase the
efficiency. And steam or energy recovered from flue gases, the number of boilers and turbines,
that we have discussed whether it is a bottoming cycle, topping cycle or combined cycle. The
combined cycle will give us more efficiency.
Now we will discuss the performance of coal based power plant. The performance of a power
plant can be expressed by heat rate as well as thermal efficiency. So, what is heat rate? heat rate
is nothing but it is the ratio of the energy input to electrical energy output. So, HR a heat rate is
heat energy input supplied by the fuel to the power plant for a period so that we can calculate in
kilocalorie divided by energy output from the power plant in that period that is kilowatt hour.
So, heat rate is this one the heat energy input supplied by the coal, that how much fuel you have
used during this time and what is the heating value of it. So, MC how much fuel we have used
and CV calorific value of it, that is the heat used and then how much we are getting that energy
generated into time. How much time the plant is running and during this time how much energy
is produced, that is kilowatt hour.
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Now what is the thermal efficiency? Thermal efficiency is the inverse of this, your heat recovery
that is 100/HR x kilo calorie/kilowatt hour. So, thermal efficiency is defined as the energy
generated into time by amount of fuel used into the calorific value of the fuel. Now how much
energy we're getting per unit amount of heating value of the fuel, that is an energy efficiency. So,
thermal efficiency is equal to 100 divided by, we are getting MC into CB divided by energy
generated into time.
So, here we see MC divided by energy generated by time is nothing but the HR so we can get
100 divided by HR, so this is kilo calorie per kilowatt hour. But this if we want to get in
percentage then these two units have to be same. So, the unit conversion is indeed, we know that
one kilowatt hour is equal to 859.846 kilo calorie so we can put this value here and this is a
relationship for the determination of thermal efficiency in percentage.
So we will put the value HR in kilocalorie per kilowatt hour and multiply and we put this in
numerator and denominator heat rate in kilo calorie per kilowatt hour then we will get the
thermal efficiency in percentage. So, I will show you some example, if the average heat rate of a
power plant in 2018 is 2611 kilo calorie per kilowatt hour then calculate the average efficiency
of the plant. So, how we can do it? thermal efficiency we know 100 divided by MC into CV
divided by energy generated into time.
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So, 100 divided by heat energy inputs applied by fuel to the power plant for a period by energy
generated for the period. So, what is in our case? HR is given 2611 kilocalorie per kilowatt hour
we will be using this formula 859.5856 divided by HR so 100 into 859.8456 divided by 2611 as
given in the statement, it is coming to 33%. Now we will see whatever reactors are used for the
production of electricity in a thermal power plant using coal.
The conventional reactor type is fixed bed type and in some cases we also get fluidized bed. so,
fixed bed and fluidized bed , these are mostly used reactor type in thermal power plant.
And in this case what is the condition of the boiler operation? it is mostly in sub critical
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conditions and some advanced plants are using supercritical boiler and also getting more
efficiency than the subcritical boiler. And direct use of coal without washing so the coal is
having high ash and sulphur content. If so we need to remove the ash by washing, after washing
we will be using it for thermal power plant. And then in this case the efficiency is around 43%.
So, up to this in this class thank you very much for your patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-05
Tutorial 1
Hi friends. Now, we will have a tutorial class and in this class we will solve some numerical
problems based on the topics discussed in the last 4 classes.
Our first problem statement is; the proximate analysis of the coal sample and its heating value
are as follows. Moisture 2.9%, volatile matter 29.4%, fixed carbon 58%, ash 9.7% and gross
calorific value 7650 kilo calorie per kg. Calculate approximate analysis and calorific value on
moisture free basis and dry ash free basis. So, this is the problem statement. So you have to
calculate approximate analysis and calorific value under 2 conditions. One is moisture free and
dry ash free basis. It is given the moisture, volatile, fixed carbon, so all the proximate analysis
values are provided on as received basis. So you have to convert it to moisture free basis and dry
ash free basis and accordingly the calorific value also, you have to convert.
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Let us see, we have different compositions; moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon ash and
calorific value as received basis. It is given in the statement. Now if I want to convert these
values in moisture free basis that means we are excluding the moisture. So, this moisture will not
be available in this case. So, how much we are having total mass will be this one; out of a 100
we will be having a 100 - 2.9 so 97.1.
For the moisture free basis, volatile matter will be 29.4 x 100 / (100- 2.9) = 97.1. So that is equal
to 30.28 and similarly fixed carbon will be 58 x 100 / (100 - 2.9) = 97.1 that is equal to 59.72 we
are getting here. Similarly ash content will be this into this divided by this, and what will be the
calorific value? Calorific value is equal to 32023 into how much? 100 divided by 97.1.
So this is equal to 32979 kilo Joule per kg. This is for moisture free basis. Now for dry ash free
basis, we will not be having moisture, will not be having ash, so you are getting this + this, so in
this case, volatile will matter will be 29.4 into 100 divided by 100 minus, this is 100 – 2.9 – 9.7,
so that is equal to 100 – 12.6, that were getting, so that value is converting to 33.64, for fixed
carbon we are having 58 x 100/ (100 – 12.6) so 66.36.
In order with the calorific value obviously 32023 into 100 divided by 100 - 12.6, that we are
getting? 36640 kilo Joule per kg.
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So, the problem is solved now our second problem. It says during a boiler trial the coal analysis
on mass basis was reported as carbon 62.4%, hydrogen 4.2%, oxygen 4.5% nitrogen 0.4%
sulphur 0.2% moisture 14.4% ash 13.9% and assume average molecular weight of ash is equal to
56 then determine the molecular formula of the coal and the heating value on as received basis
and dry basis using the following.
So, these are the relationship, it is given for HHV, that is equal to 0.3516 into C, that is the
percentage of carbon, +1.16225 into H, H is percentage of hydrogen and 0.1191 into O,
percentage of oxygen, and 0.00628 into N, percentage of nitrogen, + 0.10465 into S, percentage
of Sulphur. And LHV in mega Joule per kg is equal to HHV - 0.0244 into W – 9H, W is the
percentage of moisture and H is percentage of hydrogen.
It is given, so we have to determine the molecular formula of the coal and the heating value as
received basis as well as dry basis.
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Then what we will do? Obviously we will write the different parameters on as received basis. So
as received basis is the percentage of carbon we are having as per the statement 62.4 then
hydrogen 4.2, oxygen 4.5, nitrogen 0.4, sulphur 0.2, ash 13.9 and moisture 14.4 that is in
percentage. So, if we assume that a 100 gram of material; so carbon is 62.4 gram, hydrogen is
44.2 gram, oxygen 4.5 gram nitrogen 0.4 gram, sulphur 0.2gram, ash 13.9 gram and moisture
14.4 gram.
Now, what are the molecular weights of the elements? Carbon has 12, hydrogen is 1, Oxygen 16,
nitrogen-14, Sulphur 32, ash 56 and H2O 18. So how many moles are present in this amount of
material? Then you can get 62.4 divided by 12 that is equal to 5.2 for carbon. Similarly 4.2
divided by 1 for hydrogen that is 4.2 and for oxygen we are getting 4.5 divided by 16 that is 0.28,
for nitrogen we are getting 0.4 divided by 14, 0.028.
And for sulphur we are getting 0.2divided by 32 that is 0.0062 and for ash we are getting 13.9
divided by 56 so 0.248 and for moisture we are getting 14.4 divided by 18 that is equal to 0.8. So
these are the moles present in this total 100 gram of the sample. So we can write the molecular
formula C 5.2, H 4.2, oxygen 0.28, nitrogen 0.028, sulphur 0.0062 and ash 0.248 and is H2O 0.8.
Now one part we are getting the molecular formula. Then we have to calculate the heating value
both in as received basis as well as in dry basis. So, we have to convert these values, percentage
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values, from as received basis to dry basis. So, how can you do it? So dry basis means it will not
be having any moisture. So here we are getting 62.4 into 100 divided by 100 - this moisture that
is 14.4. See it is coming to 72.89 similarly we are getting hydrogen it is 4.2 into 100 divided by
100 – 14.4, so 4.91.
Similarly oxygen will be 5.26 that is equal to 4.5 into 100 divided by 100 - 14.4 and here also
will get 0.4 divided by 14.4 and here also sulphur 0.2 into 100 divided by 100 – 14.4 and here
will be getting 13.9 into 100 by 100 – 14.4. So these are the dry basis compositions we are
getting for different elements.
Then what we will do? Heating value we have to calculate so heating value formula is given
which is equal to this, formula is given, now we have got the value of C H O N S. So we will put
those values C is equal to 62.41 as received basis, hydrogen is 4.2, oxygen is 4.5, nitrogen is 0.4,
Sulphur is 0.2. So by this formula, we are getting the HHV is equal to 28.26 Mega Joule per kg
and LHV this formula is also given, which is LHV equal to this 28.26 -0.0244 into W, is the
moisture content 14.4 and 9 into H equal to 4.2.
So, that we are getting 26.98 Mega Joule per Kg, on which basis as received basis. But if I use
this formula on dry basis, this value will change percentage of C, percent of O, percentage of
nitrogen, and percentage of Sulphur. So, accordingly our HHV value will also change.
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As seen here this is the formula so carbon content is changed to 72.89 so we will put it here
hydrogen is 4.91 will put it here and oxygen is changed to 5.21, so we will put it here and
hydrogen is 0.47, so we have put here and then sulphur is 0.23 and the value is coming 30.81
Mega Joule per kg and low heating value is equal to? Again we have formula but what is the
moisture in this case? It is dry basis.
So we will not have any moisture. So the W equal to 0 and H is equal to 4.9 as it is converted
that is 4.9 we can write then LHV is equal to this one, as this one, so it is coming 29.75 Mega
Joule per kg. So now we are able to solve the problem. We have determined the molecular
formula. We have determined the heating value low heating value and high heating value on the
basis of as received basis and dry basis.
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Now, we are coming to problem number three. The statement is; to determine the water
equivalent of a bomb calorimeter 1.1651 gram benzoic acid sample high heating value 6318
calorie per gram was used. The experiment produced a net corrected temperature rise of 3.077 °C
the acid titration required 11.9 ml of standard alkali and 8 centimetres of Parr 45C10 nickel-
chromium fuse wire was consumed in firing. So determine the water equivalent of the bomb
calorimeter.
This is our problem statement. So you have to determine the water equivalent of the bomb
calorimeter.
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We have some formula that is equal to, water equivalent is equal to high heating value into M
mass of sample taken then E1 + E2 + E3 divided by ΔT. We have to identify the values of each
term in this expression. So what is the H in this case H is given in the statement that is 6318
calorie per gram. What is this M? It is given 1.1651 Gram we have taken it. Then what is E1? E1
can be calculated on the basis of C1. So what is C1? Alkali, amount of alkali solution required in
ml for acid titration, it is 11.9 ml.
So E1 is equal to 11.9 per ml into one calorie per ml it is 11.9 calorie. Then what will be E2? E2
will come from C2, we have C2, there is no sulphur as the statement you see here in the
statement, there is no sulphur as benzoic used there is no sulphur so that is a C2 is equal to 0.
And then E2 is equal to 13.7 into C2 into mass of this. So that is equal to 0 and E3 is coming from
C3. So 2.3 into C3 as it is say 45C, we are using 45C10 nickel chromium fuse wire. So for this,
expression is applicable, 2.3 into 8 centimetre, it is used so 8 into this, 18.4 calorie.
Now, we have got all those values and ΔT value is also given so what will be the W? This into
this one + this one + this one divided by ΔT, so I getting 2402.1 calorie per °C. So this is the
water equivalent of the calorimeter.
Now our problem statement is for a coal fired utility boiler; the temperature of high pressure
steam would be about 540 °C and T cold the cooling water temperature. The cooling tower water
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temperature would be about 20 degrees Celsius then calculate the Carnot efficiency of the power
plant. Very simple, if we see what we have to do, we have to convert this centigrade to Kelvin
and then 540 °C converted to Kelvin and 813 and then T cold equal to 20 °C. It is equal to 293
Kelvin.
Then what is the Carnot cycle? We have some formula and epsilon equal to 1 – T cold by T hot
into 100. So what is T cold? 293, what is T hot? That is a 13 so we will put this value and will
getting the 64% efficiency. In this connection , one problem we may discuss here also, that
thermal power plant is producing electricity throughout the year, so, in winter and in summer, in
which case the thermal efficiency will be higher.
So if we use this equal to 1 - T cold T H hot so as the thermal power plant is the same,
technology you are using say boilers a supercritical technology or subcritical whatever may be, T
H is fixed. So, efficiency summer T S, T cold that is related to cold that is ambient temperature
we are using for this. If it is so T summer and if it is for winter we are getting winter. So Ts is
greater than Tw so when TS will put here obviously the efficiency will be lesser and we will put
TW here we will get more efficiency then that when you put TS in case of T cold. So, that is why
in winter the efficiency will be higher.
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Now the problem statement number 5. Here we have to solve this problem. It is given that a
conventional Coal Fired power plant cost dollar 1200 per kilowatt to construct and have an
efficiency of 34% advanced plants use the clean-burning integrated coal gasification combined
cycle that is called IGCC integrated gasification combined cycle in which the coal is subjected to
heat and pressure to gasify it while removing Sulphur and particulate matter from it.
Currently the construction of IGCC plant cost about dollar 1,400 per kilowatt, but the efficiency
is about 45%. The average heating value of coal is about 2 crores 80 lakhs kilo joule per ton that
is 2 crores 80 lakhs kilo Joule of heat is released when one ton of coal is burned. If the IGCC
plant is to recover its cost difference from fuel-saving in 5 years determine what the cost of coal
should be in dollar per ton. The time value of the money may be ignored.
So what we have to calculate we have to calculate what will be the price of the coal so that the
excess amount of money which is being invested in case of IGCC plant that can be recovered
within 5 years period. So, this is the problem, but normally what happens, 5 years means there
will be some changes in the value of the currency money also, so that part we know to consider
time of value, time value of money may be ignored so that is told.
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So, now let us see as it is given that we need not to consider the time value, so directly we will
consider the time 5 years’ time, it is provided. So, what is the construction cost difference the
conventional power plant and IGCC that will? We will see as 1400 - 1200, that is dollar 200,
dollar 200 costlier the IGCC than the conventional one for 1 kilowatt capacity. So, to 5 years,
within 5 years how much electricity will be generated with the capacity of 1 kilowatt? That we
can calculate.
Then that much of energy is required in terms of electricity, electric energy. So for that certain
amount of heat energy is required that is related to efficiency of the power plant. And then we
will calculate that, then that amount of energy is coming from the coal basically, heating value of
coal is known. So how much coal is required for both the cases with having different efficiency
that will calculate and then on that way that we have to see that the dollar 200 is recovered by the
use of IGCC by saving of the power or the production of the more electricity.
So that, what we are going to do; so, what is our first objective? We have to determine how
much amount of electricity can be generated with 1 kilowatt capacity for 5 years. So, for 5 years
that will also depend in many factors may be the plant is operating with high load or say
throughout the year or it may have some breakdown, anything may be, but we will be assuming
the full load is there and headed 100% utilization is possible.
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So in 5 years, we will be getting 365 days into 4 + 1 leap year so 366 days. So, this 4 into 365+
366 days into 24 hours that is totally 43824 hours we are getting. So, one kilowatt is running for
43824 hours so total kilowatt hour we are getting 43824. So this is the energy which is produced
if the plant is used in full capacity. Now this is the electrical energy which is produced but we
have 2 different plants. So one plant is having less efficiency other is having higher efficiency.
So we will be finding out the coal requirement to produce this amount of electricity in 2 different
routes to different plants and what will be the coal requirement? How much heat divided by
heating value of the coal, how much heat present in the coal? What amount of energy we are
using here? Kilowatt hour that is electric energy. So, that equivalent of heat energy you have to
get it.
So, mass of coal there is equal to heat energy divided by heating value of the coal. But this Q w
has to be correlated with the electrical energy that is related to the efficiency of the power plant
so W by efficiency will be in place of Q H now M coal equal to this expression we are getting W
by efficiency into H V Coal efficiency for the conventional method is .34 and H V is equal to
given 2 crore 80 lakhs kilo joule per ton and then W is also given this much of electricity we
produced we need the plant can produce with full load.
So, to produce this amount of electricity we need this amount of coal that is 16.57 tons of coal is
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required which are the conversion, why this 3600 second? Because you are having kilowatt and
Joule it is given in kilo Joule. So watt has to be converted into Joule so that is a joule per second
so that hour has been converted to second. So that is 3600 second has been put here? So this is
our 16.57 tons we are getting.
But for the second case for IGCC plant. What will be the coal requirement? That is also same
formula Q H by H V coal and then W by H into H V Coal, in this case efficiency is .45 other
parameters are same so here because of this higher value of this, our coal requirement is less that
is 12.52 tons. So, for 16.57 - 12.52 is equal to the coal saved. We are getting by the use of this
IGCC plant. So this coal saved means we are using less amount of money that should be
equivalent to how much investment we have made for the installation of the IGCC plant.
So that is equal to 4.05 tons, of coal can be saved over the 5 years for one kilowatt of plant
capacity for one kilowatt of plant capacity. So what will be the cost of it? So, that will be 200 we
have to save from this that is the 4.5, 4.05 tons. So, dollar 200 by 4.05 tons that is equal to 49.37
dollar per ton so that was the question which was asked so we have solved it now. Now it can be
possible that plant is not running with full load.
So with the; how much efficiently it is running that will vary that will also influence this one. So
one another case just I have shown you that is if it is a if the plan only produced 75% of the
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maximum possible kilowatt hours over a given 5 years then saving will be 4.05 into 0.75 that is
equal to 3.04 ton. In this case the dollar 200 has to be recovered from this so 200 divided by
3.04. So price of the coal will be so the price will 65.83 dollar. Okay, so now we have solved all
the problems. So thank you very much for your patience.
80
Energy Production
Lecture-06
Cleaner Route for Energy Production from Coal
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic cleaner route for energy production from coal. In
the last class, we have discussed on the conventional route for energy production from coal and
we have seen that combustion based thermal power plant is the most conventional route for
energy production from coal. And in this process, coal is burnt in a furnace and then flue gas
which is having high temperature is passed into the boiler for the production of steam, and then
the steam is used in turbine for electricity production.
Now, here we will discuss what are the possibilities to make more cleaner energy than the
conventional one, because in the conventional process, we have seen that the emissions are
higher, the SOx, NOx and CO2 emission are higher. So, if we want to reduce the emissions,
what can be the possible routes, that part we will discuss in this class. As you know prevention
and control these are two important philosophy for the management of something or to achieve
our target quality.
So, in this case, we can try to prevent the emission level or we can take measures to control the
concentration of the pollutants present in the flue gas by its cleanup. So, one is our prevention
that means, that is related with feedstock that is the coal which we are using we may clean it or
during the process of combustion when the flue gas is forming at that time, we can take some
modification in the process, so, that we can get less emission through this process.
Or we can also use some alternate techniques in place of combustion. So, that way we can
control the emission level.
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Now, these are the contents of our discussion, that pre treatment of; the pre treatment of coal
that means here we are interested to clean the coal before its application and modification in
process, we can use the different types of reactor, improved reactor and then the boiler device
that can be of supercritical type and flue gas cleanup. And we can use some advanced
techniques like oxy-fuel combustion, chemical looping combustion, and then gasification direct
liquefaction and underground coal gasification.
Now we will see this is the conventional flowsheet, say, here coal is burnt in the furnace and
then flue gas is going and here we are recovering the heat. Then it is going for clean up section
and coal is put here. So, this is a conventional process. Now, what we can do, we can clean the
coal in higher extent, we can use more efficient furnace or we can use more efficient heat
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recovery system or we can use more superior quality of gas cleanup processes or some
advanced techniques.
As shown here these lines are related with oxy fuel combustion. Oxy fuel combustion, another
method which is the replacement of the combustion process. So, here nitrogen is separated at
first from the air and so, only oxygen we can use. So, if we use more oxygen, the flue gas will
be having more carbon dioxide it will not be having nitrogen. So, once it is not having nitrogen,
its capture will be very easy.
So carbon dioxide capture we can get here and the whole process will be more cleaner. So,
these are the scopes, which we have to improve the cleanliness of the process or to reduce the
emission level. So, we will discuss all those things. At first we will see how the coal is cleaned
As of today in the conventional process also coal cleaning is performed to remove the ash and
sulphur. So, we have to take more action, if we can reduce the pollutants level like say sulphur,
ash content, nitrogen content in the coal.
And what are those methods used, we will be discussing now, if you consider the sulphur; then
sulphur is present in coal in terms of inorganic and organic form. In the inorganic form
basically it is pyrites FeS2 and some others are also there that is ZnS, PbS, and FeS2 this is this
is your marcasite and another is your pyrite. So, pirate and marcasite, these are 2 minerals are
having same formula, but they are different in their crystal structure.
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So, these are the source of sulphur. So, we can remove this sulphur from the sources by
different methods, one is physical and chemical and biological. How we can remove in the
physical method, we can use the help of jigging we can use the tabling we can use the dense
medium processing, hydrocycloning and air classification. So, in the jigging we take the
advantage of the difference in the initial acceleration when different particles start to fall from a
certain place from its rest position then initially they possess different velocity.
So, that will be utilised to remove the different particles with different densities and size
etcetera, that is the jigging operation and dense media processing, in this case, we use certain
slurry that is having certain specific gravity, now coal is heterogeneous sample and it will be
having ash, carbon and etc. So number of particles if it has then that will be having different
density, say, ρ. Say, different densities are there for coal, say, ρ1, ρ2 ρ3 ρ4 etc.
So, different particles have different density, if we use one slurry solution that is the specific
gravity is equal to say ρ3. So, in that case, the lighter than ρ3 that will float and heavier than ρ3
will fall. So, this is a way we can get if ρ4 are higher than this ρ3 then ρ4 will come at the
bottom and this will be at the top. So, gradually if we take another solution, which is having
lesser density, so, more lighter particles will also come up.
So that way we can clean the coal from the impurities like say, ash contents, mineral contents
basically mineral contents which are having higher specific gravity than the coals particle. So,
now the chemical methods, these methods the physical method are suitable to remove the
minerals, but it is the sulphur which is available in organic form, those are not very easy to
separate by this method so chemical methods are used in this case.
So, some examples are oxy desulfurization process, in this case, oxygen in dissolved form in
some solution aqua solution at elevated temperature and pressures are used. So that the sulphur
of the pyrites is oxidised or organic sulphur can also be oxidised to some extent and then hydro
desulfurization where if we supply hydrogen and at high temperature control, if we have good
control on it, so, we can get some conversion of the sulphites to the sulphur dioxide.
So, next is caustic treatment. So, SOx as you know it is acidic in nature. So, if we use some
alkaline solution, caustic solution in control amount, so, some sulphur can also be removed and
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then biological methods, some microbes are used for the degradation of the sulphur compound,
some example are some thermophilic or mesophilic bacteria.
Now, we are coming to the changes which you can have during the process, one is Fluidized
bed reactor. If fluidized bed reactor is used then we can get more reaction, possibilities of more
reactions, how because if you see here it is a fixed bed and these are the fluidized bed. So, in
fixed bed the particles are very close and in a fluidised bed the particles are not very close it is
separated. So, coal combustion is a solid and gas phase reaction.
So, when the solid particles will be surrounded by more gas molecules, so, there will be good
chance of the reaction. So, that that is why we get more chance of reactions in case of fluidized
bed reactor and in this case the particle sizes are also less. So, once the particle size is small,
then one way we can reduce the loss of the fines of the coal particles, fine coal particles and
secondary we can get more interaction of the solid particles with the gas molecules and more
rate of reaction.
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Apart from this, this fluidized bed reactor can also give some; gives us some other advantage
like say we can add limestone here with the feedstocks. So, feedstocks and limestone is coming
here. So, all our solid particle are fluidized and then in situ SOx capture is possible. In situ SOx
capture, so, the limestone will react to this SO2 and it will be settled here. So, there is one
additional advantage and if the fine particles are coming here and it is also getting some
recycling possibilities.
So, more conversions of the carbon we will get here in this fluidized bed reactor, but if we use
fluidized bed reactor, then we need smaller particles. So, during crushing we have to use more
energy. So, on economic aspect this process may have some less efficiency or it may cost more
than the conventional one.
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Now fluidized bed size we have in market that is up to 320 megawatt power plant is possible by
this technology.
And now we will come into boiler part, conventionally sub critical boiler is used at 171
atmosphere and 540 °C. So, in this case we get 35% net energy efficiency and heat rate is 9,751
Btu per kilowatt hour. If we use supercritical, then operational be 250 atmosphere and 565
degrees centigrade and here 37% efficiency we are getting if we use advanced supercritical then
336 atmosphere and 600 °C, we can get 42% efficiency.
If we use Ultra-supercritical 393 atmospheres at 760 °C, then we can get 44% energy
efficiency, but you see heat rate is decreasing. So, it is very clear to us, we can improve the
efficiency of the process, if we replace the sub critical boiler to advance or ultra supercritical
boiler.
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In this case, we can improve the emission level like the in case of sub critical CO2 926 and a
supercritical it is 835 gram per kilowatt hour emission in case of carbon dioxide for NOx are
also here. So it is very clear that for all the cases, we are getting some reductions in supercritical
boiling condition. Now we will come to flue gas clean up, what we can do with the flue gas
cleanup. Now, conventional methods also have some cleanup, but we have to apply more
advanced technique for the more efficient removal of the pollutants from the flue gas.
One example is say, duct injection versus FGD, Flue Gas Desulphurization. So, what happens
in case of duct injection, we also use some material that is, sorbent is used in duct. Dry sorbent
is injected in the duct and then it is humidified by the water downstream of the injection and
upstream of the preheater from the particulate collection equipment. So, this is the conventional
method. But replacing this if we can use flue gas desulphurization where spray takes place, so
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scrubbers are used in that case, the efficiency improves for the removal of SOx from the flue
gas.
Regenerative and non regenerative reagents, we can use the reagents which are regenerative in
nature, so that it will help the economy of the process wet and dry methods are there. So, wet
method, flue gas cleanup and dry method is also developed in recent years. So, if we want to
use the wet process, then we have to reduce the temperature of the flue gas and in dry process,
it can remove the pollutants at high temperature also, that is why there will be some variation in
the economy also.
The improved reagent reactivity, the reagent reactivity can be more if we can select a suitable
reagent, the reactivity will be more so less reactant requirement will be there. An improved
mixing design to lower calcium is to sulphur ratios. So just fluidized bed reactor if we can
change the design say, circulatory fluidized bed reactor, so calcium is to sulphur ratio can be
reduced and larger reactor vessels also helps to get more removal of pollutants.
And design removals steadily improving up to 98%. So, an example is given here and average
flue gas desulphurization emission rate is 0.34 pounds sulphur dioxide per MMBtu. So, this is
one; these are some examples, where we have some possibility to improve the efficiency of the
cleanup system.
Now, this is one example of flu gas desulphurization process taken from this reference. So, here
we see flue gas is coming. So, we have lime stone slurry, so it is pumped and sprayed here. So
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we are getting clean flue gas and then this slurry part of it is taken back for thickening and then
from this we can get gypsum. And the supernatant from this thickener it is again recycled back
to this to reduce the water use. Then after SOx removal, the particulates removal is also
important.
So, particulates are removed, different types of devices are used to remove particulates. And in
case of coal based power plant, mercury may exist as particulate form. So, that removal is also
very, very important. And mercury can be available in oxidised form, in elemental form and in
particulate form.
And these different forms of mercury have different solubility, this is water soluble oxidise
mercury and elemental non water soluble. So, the techniques to remove this mercury will also
be different. So, we will try to develop effective systems for the removal of complete mercury
from the flue gas. And some examples are given here, some configurations on ESP and the hot
side ESP, cold side ESP, fabric filter and cold side ESP plus spray drying, cold side ESP plus
wet flu gas desulphurisation.
Fabric filters plus spray drying, fabric filter plus wet flue gas desulphurization and ESP plus
WFGD plus SCR. SCR is selective catalytic reduction. So, these methods have been used for
different types of samples and these are the removal level. Now, we will be discussing on the
use of advanced techniques in place of conventional combustion method.
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So, one example is oxy fuel combustion. In oxy-fuel combustions as the term says we will be
using oxygen in place of air. So nitrogen will be separated from the air first then oxygen will be
used. So, nitrogen is separated from the air and oxygen is used. So, this nitrogen may not be
completely removed. So it is used for the combustion process and then the flue gas is formed.
So, fuel is added here then flue gas forms it is going to condenser for heat recovery.
So then the flue gas is again recycled back. So, by this recycling partially, we are able to enrich
the carbon dioxide concentration in this case. So more than 90% carbon dioxide we can achieve
here. So it is very easy to sequester. So, that is why this process is very attractive, but research
is going on, the commercial plants are yet to come and then another method is chemical looping
combustion.
So in this case, some metal are oxidised in one reactor and in other reactor, metal oxidised
reacts with the feedstocks, carbonaceous feedstocks to convert it into CO2 and H2O and metal
oxide is reduced to metal again. So, if we can use two reactors in a cycle, then that can meet our
requirement for the production of energy from the carbonaceous materials in one reactor and
other its regeneration, regeneration of the metal to metal oxide.
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So, this is one reduction and another is oxidations. In this oxidation air is used and metal is
converted to metal oxide and in reduction metal oxide is reduced to metal and fuel is converted
to CO2 and H2O. So this is the chemical looping systems, it is very clear to us in this case, when
the reaction is taking place, we do not need any air. So, nitrogen is not required and only metal
oxides are helping for the conversion.
So, in that way that will be more cleaner. So, what happens the metal is oxidised, an example at
700 to 900 °C. So, 2MeO say, Me is the metal and then MeO is the metal oxide and then metal
oxide reacts with carbon gives CO2 and metal it reacts with hydrogen gives metal and H2O
these are the basic reactions. So, we can represent the phenomena in this figure that this is our
fuel. So, this is our metal oxide.
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So, it will give us H2O + CO2 and this metal is coming here and air so it is it is giving us
oxidation and we are getting metal oxide. So, this metal to metal formation, this is exothermic
process, overall the process is exothermic and here it is endothermic process. So, these two
types of processes are going in a cycle. So, we can get some efficiency of the cycle and that can
be presented by this that is the Qhot, the amount of heat which is released here and Qcold, overall
energy used in this process.
And Q, this is released heat and this is work done during this. So, this is energy balance and we
can get this relationship that Qhot is equal to Qcold plus Qo plus W, What is this Qo? Qo is equal
to T into ΔSO. So, there may be some entropy change, so, that is equal to T into ΔSO is equal
to Qo.
So, this is the chemical looping combustion and different types of metals and metal oxides are
used like copper, iron. When copper is used this reaction takes place in your oxidizer that is, Cu
+O2 gives 2CuO and CuO + H2 gives Cu + H2O in the fuel reactor and 2CuO + C gives 2Cu +
CO2 in the fuel reactor. Similarly, for Fe2O4 these are the reactions which take place in fuel
reactor and this is in the air reactor. So, this chemical looping system is not yet commercialised
in a bigger scale, but demonstration has taken place.
And total you see 34 pilots of 0.3 to 3 mega watt has done in more than 9000 hour and this is
the technology was demonstrated in 2003 and later with solid fuels in 2006. Initially, it was
demonstrated with gas fuels and 2006 it was demonstrated with solid fuels. And from this data
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on the demonstration plant, it is very clear that this can be used in commercial scale for the
conversion of coal.
Now, this slide gives us an example of chemical looping applications in thermal power plant.
So, this is in Spain, Germany, Taiwan, US and this is also US. These are the capacities and
these are the features. So it is clear this one we are having calcium based looping system. Here
we are having limestone based chemical looping system. And this ITRI Taiwan is also using
limestone sorbents and with spent CaO. And Alstom, U.S they are using CaS CaSO4 system
and Ohio state university is using iron oxide based high pressure syngas chemical looping. So,
that is for gasification applications.
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Now, we will see one problem on this. So, calculate the amount of work done in the burning of
carbon in a nickel based chemical looping combustion, when the change in entropy is 356 J/K
and working temperature is 300 K. So, this is our cyclic process, it is given we have to calculate
the work done. These values we have to calculate. So, now if we have nickel based chemical
looping, so, what will be the reactions or what will be the reactions here or what will be the
reactions here that we will consider first.
So, here nickel will be oxidise to NiO the ΔH equal to -396 KJoule and in this carbon will be
reacted to NiO(s). So, then CO2 + 2Ni(s) So, this reactions is 136 kilo joule. Then how will get
Qhot that is equal to Qcold + Qo + W as we have discussed. So, Qhot is equal to ΔH exothermic
that is 396 kilo joule and Qcold ΔH endothermic 136 kilo joule and what is Qo? T into ΔSO ΔS
value is given, T value is given. So, you can calculate the Qo T ΔS that is equal to this one so,
this joule you are getting.
So, then we have the relationship that is Qhot is equal to Qcold + Qo + W and by rearranging W is
equal to this much. So, now, we are able to find out the work done during this process. Next is
gasification, another replacement of combustion is gasification. In combustions we use excess
amount of oxygen, in gasification we use controlled amount of oxygen.
So, R that is equal to oxygen by coal ratio, mass by mass ratio, for combustion it is greater than
2.5 and for gasification it is .68 to 2.5 and another is pyrolysis, there is no oxygen in that case
we can get R equal to 0.68. So, if we use this gasification method, then what we will get, we
will be getting CO and H2 but in case of combustion we are getting is H2 CO2 which is also
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available in gasification plus oxygen. So, CO H2 which we are getting here, so, CO2
concentration will be less. So, carbon dioxide production in gasification plant will be less.
And we are having CO + H2 rich gas that can be used for the production of electricity as well as
for the production of different types of chemicals. So, we will be having an opportunity to
capture carbon dioxide in situ in between and also to make the syngas in more economical way.
So, I will discuss this in next classes in more detail.
Now, direct liquefaction, another replacement of oxidation can be direct liquefaction. How it is
because you see in coal, we have seen in our introductory module that it contains very complex
structure containing number of aromatic rings. So, if we can break this aromatic ring and can
make some hydrogen addition, so, we can get number of organic compounds with aromatic
rings and that is available in conventional liquid fuels.
So, direct Coal liquefaction can be possible, may be possible if we use higher pressure and
hydrogen and required temperature. So, this is done and efforts are going on to get more scale
up version of DCL, already one plant has been commercialised in China and I have discussed
this in detail. Next is underground coal gasification, another technology possibilities is
underground coal gasification, in this case, gasification will take place.
But that will not take place in any gasification plant on the surface, but it will be taking place
underground. So, by that way, we can remove the possibilities of emissions etc. So, that is a
philosophy of underground coal gasification.
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So, in this case, air or oxygen and steam can be sent underground, where coal is available and
this coal will be combusted and ash will form and the syngas will form, so that syngas will goes
up. So, it will come out as CO2, CO, H2, CH4, Steam and tar. So, this is the concept and people
have studied on it mostly on simulation based studies. And some plants are also available for
the underground coal gasification around the world.
I will discuss that. But now I will see what are the advantages of these and what are the
disadvantage. So advantages over conventional processes are, no reactor to be manufactured,
low dust and noise, no ash handling at power stations, no coal stocking and transportations,
larger coal resource exploitation, it converts sulphur to H2S and nitrogen to NH3 instead of SO2
and NOx.
And it has some disadvantages that are, a potential for surface subsidence, possible aquifer
contamination and expensive drilling and well linking technologies.
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So, on the basis of the data, that people have walked on it, it is evident now, that coal seam is
more than two metre thick. In that case, this technology is feasible. It also requires seam depth
more than 300 metre and seam has more than 100 metre vertical separation from aquifers.
These are the requirement for the UCG and these are some example of the UCG based plants
where the seam depth is provided, thickness of the seam is provided and quality of the coal is
also provided.
So, it is very clear that this method can be used for any type of coal, the quality of coal does not
matter. So, that is the advantage of this technique.
But we have some challenges in India that is we lack of understanding of the technology and
unavailability of proven track record and implementation guidelines, then regulatory framework
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governing UCG operations in the formulation stage and the lack of understanding of the
environmental impact of UCG and concern over the safety. So these are the issues related with
underground coal gasification. So this is not a commercialised one. It is it has some issues also.
So far, we have discussed the possible options to produce cleaner energy from the coal. Thank
you very much for your patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-07
Gasification of Coal -1
Hi friends now we will discuss on the topic gasification of coal. We will cover this topic in two
classes and in the first class we will discuss on and the contents of the first class are definition
and basic chemistry of gasification, gasification reaction schemes and steps then syngas
production and efficiency and factors influencing gasification, advantages of gasification, typical
process flowsheet and utilization schemes for gasification products, gasifier types, advanced
gasification and some coal based gasifiers.
Now we will see what is gasification, as we have discussed in the introductory module in the
previous class also, the gasification is the process which uses controlled amount of oxygen and
converts carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide and hydrogen rich gas that is called
syngas. See in this process sometimes steam is used, for coal steam is used but for biomass steam
requirement may be very less. Because coal is having more carbon so steam is required for this
process with the coal.
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And the syngas can be used for various applications including the liquid fuel production through
the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and if air is used in this process in place of oxygen then the syngas
contains more amount of nitrogen and that is called a producer gas.
As we have already discussed in the previous class that for oxygen and coal ratio for gasification
is within .68 to 2.5 and in this case these are the products but we increase the R then what will
happen, we will be getting more CO2 and we reduce the R-value will we get more CO and H2.
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So, this is the basics of the gasification process now we will see the chemistry, the reactions what
happens in whatever reactions takes place in case of gasification process, so we have here
feedstocks coal we have oxygen and we have steam. Now these schemes show us the elemental
reactions the coal is having carbon it is having hydrogen it is oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen etcetera
but we are considering the major components of the coal that is carbon we are considering in this
case.
So, the first reaction carbon plus half O2 controlled amount of oxygen so CO where we are
terming it as gasification with oxygen so heating value is -110.5 kilo Joule per mole. Combustion
with oxygen can take place C + O2 then CO2 so this is again exothermic reaction. So, these two
reactions are exothermic reactions which provides us heat which are required for other reaction
say gasification with carbon dioxide C+ CO2 so that is 2CO, it is endothermic reaction and C +
H2O that will also give a CO + H2 again endothermic reaction.
And gasification with hydrogen that is exothermic reactions but this heat is very less. So, C +
2H2 is equal to CH4 and at the same time under the same condition some water gas shift reaction
takes place CO + H2O reacts to form H2 + CO2 and some methanation also take place that is CO
+ 3H2 gives CH4 + H2O, these two reactions are also exothermic in nature. So, overall if we see
it is having both exothermic and endothermic reactions.
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So, initially we need to provide oxygen the reactions that energy will be released that will be
used for these reactions.
Now what are the composition of the syngas and producer gas, here it is provided hydrogen CO
CO2 CH4 these are the ranges for syngas hydrogen is 20 to 30% and producer gas 13 to 19% CO
for syngas 40 to 60% and producer gas 18 to 22% CO2 5 to 15% for syngas and 9 to 12% for
producer gas and CH4 0 to 5% for syngas and 1 to 5% for producer gas. Heavier hydrocarbon
may be present in this and nitrogen in case of syngas 0.4 0.5 to 4% and here 45 to 55% water
vapour 8 to 12% for syngas and 4% producer gas.
Now the heating value which is most important in our case. So, for syngas it is 9.3 to 14.9 mega
Joule per meter cube where it is 4.5 to 6 mega Joule per meter cube in case of producer gas. Now
we will see the mechanism of the gasification, how the gasification takes place? What is the
mechanism? If we apply heat and controlled amount of oxygen then what type of changes are
going to take place?
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See if we have feedstock then initially you are heating so then will be char and volatiles
formation, volatiles will be going off. So, that volatiles will be further gasified, char will be
further gasified and ultimately it will give us syngas. So, how these gasification taking place, the
representation of this process is your CnHm + 1/2 nO2 that is 1/2 mH2 + nCO and char
gasification, charge gasification means it will be having carbon hydrogen oxygen we are
ignoring other impurities in this case.
So, then it will give this is an empirical formula this is a formula so which is explaining that this
will be hydrogen production and this will be the CO production from this char.
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Now you see what is happening will be trying to understand more inside the mechanism on the
mechanism okay so this is the gasifier, we are putting feed here and we are putting oxygen or air
and steam here. So, gradually feed is getting down and gas goes up. So, here is a grate, this grate
is there, so solids are falling and it is getting in contact with hot gases and different types of
processes are going on changes are going on and ultimately ash is formed and ash is stored on
this grate or something.
It is passed through the opening of this grate and here ash collection takes place. And what are
the different types of changes on the on the coal, when it is getting entry here it is coming in
contact with gradually increasing temperature why because oxygen is provided here so
maximum oxygen is available in this zone. As you go up oxygen concentration reduces. So, once
oxygen concentration reduces then there will be less combustion the temperature will also fall.
So, temperature is highest in this case oxidation zone high temperature and then the temperature
is gradually reducing. So, oxidation after this say it is stopped then reduction will take place if
oxygen is not available then heat is available endothermic reaction will go on and then reduction
will take place. And here pyrolysis will take place high temperature is there oxygen is not there
so pyrolysis take place and here we will be having drying, only the moisture will goes up
volatiles will goes up and then this volatile will be gasified.
And char will be gasified at this temperature and here char gasification, volatile gasification will
take place so this is a different types of phenomena which is going on inside the gasifier that is
drying, devolatilization and pyrolysis and then reductions, then oxidation and ash cooling. So,
unlike incineration in case of gasification what is happening the volatiles are not completely
converted combusted because the volatiles are produced here say so it is going off it is getting
less chance to be converted more.
So, for fixed bed type of reactor fixed bed type of gasifier the flue gas is sorry the syngas which
is coming out that will not be of that pure it will be having some volatiles.
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So, tars will be available with this. In 2006 Valero they have presented this phenomenon nicely
considering the presence of ash as well as sulphur nitrogen etcetera they have given the
molecular presentation of the coal that is CHhOoNnSsZ + aO2 and this is converted to CO2 CO
H2O H2S N2 and Z, Z is our ash. So, this is the reactions they have proposed and they have
shown the mass balance and how to calculate a; how to calculate h o n s Z etc.
So, this is one reaction that is your reactions with oxygen then reactions with carbon dioxide
similar presentation they have provided and then reactions with steam, steam gasification, these
are the proposed reactions and then reactions with hydrogen so these are the proposed reactions.
So, if we use this scheme of reactions we can predict the compositions completely what is the
H2S compositions what is nitrogen compositions what is CO what is CO2 etc.
And important gas phase reactions which take place here that is your H2S + CO2 COS + H2O is
formed. Now we will discuss about the syngas production and efficiency.
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What is the syngas production? What will be the fuel gas productions or syngas production? that
can be calculated on the basis of nitrogen balance and the expression is fuel gas production
normal meter cube per kg is equal to air flow rate in normal meter cube per second into .79
divided by 1 - CO + CO2 + H2 + CH4 + C2H2 by 100 into feeding rate. Now we are assuming that
the syngas is containing these gases only it is not having any sulphur or any nitrogen in that case
this formula we are using.
So what is this 1 - this by this that equal to 100 that is equal to 100 - CO - CO2 - H2 - CH4 - C2 H2
divided by 100 that means this is nothing but the nitrogen available in this as we are providing
controlled amount of oxygen. So, we are assuming that all oxygen is consumed so remaining will
be nitrogen. So, 100 minus this is equal to nitrogen so this is the percentage of nitrogen. So,
percentage of nitrogen into we are getting feeding rate and here flue gas production is given.
So that will be the nitrogen available in the fuel gas and this is the nitrogen available in the
feedstock. So, nitrogen balance is there we are assuming that 79% is nitrogen. So, that way we
are getting this relationship. Now we can determine the yield of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
as hydrogen yield is equal to hydrogen atoms in the syngas divided by hydrogen atoms injected
in the feed and CO yield that is carbon atoms in the formed CO by carbon atoms injected.
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Now we will see the efficiency, efficiency is related with heat so obviously LHV of cold gas that
is kilojoule per normal meter cube into fuel gas production that is normal meter cube per kg /
LHV of the coal treated + all thermal power by coal flow rates that means for unit amount of
coal how much energy associated with this process is required. For example say for size
reductions for grinding is required so that energy is needed so that is also considered here.
So, all thermal energy divided by coal flow rate so this is the expressions of the efficiency of the
syngas production process. The conversion efficiency of thermal power plant is between 30%
and 40% for a single cycle steam power plant as you have discussed in our previous class. And
this can be increased up to 60% for a combined cycle gas turbine power plant also we have seen
that this is the thermodynamic limit thermodynamically that is 63% efficiency can be increased.
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Now we will see the factors which influence the gasification process, the type of feed injection.
What type of feed we are injecting? So, coal may be at the top feed or maybe side feed. So, if we
change the feeding coal feed positions then efficiency will be change because it will be getting
different time to be in contact with the hot gas. And the gasification agent air or oxygen may be
used as you have discussed that if we use air more nitrogen will be available in the syngas
resulting producer gas and their energy value will also be less.
The type of heating, what type of we are heating? it can be done either by partial combustion of
the coal in the gasifier directly or from an external source also indirect heated also possible. So,
both these cases efficiency will change. And the temperature range at what temperature we are
using in a gasification reactor that will also influence the performance and the pressure range
under which the gasifiers are operated so these are different parameters which influence the
performance of the gasification process.
So different types of gasifiers have been tested and developed and used for the coal gasification
and different efficiency have been achieved also.
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Now what are the advantage of this process? It reduces carbon dioxide emission and complete
combustion is not taking place so carbon dioxide emission is reduced with respect to combustion
method. Compact equipment requirements with a relatively small footprint, the equipments are
very compact and footprint requirement is less. And then accurate combustion control, as we
have already discussed it that we have controlled amount of oxygen we are providing and high
thermal efficiency, we will get more efficiency in this method than the combustion process.
Now we will see that how we will use this, the flowsheet and utilization schemes of gasification
products. So, we have coal here then we are sending it to gasifier with steam and oxygen then we
will get syngas. So, syngas has to be cleaned up first, the first stage of cleaning so we are
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removing the particulates here and then second stage of cleaning we are removing the sulphur
here then it is coming as a pure syngas.
And syngas there will be some conditioning and then utilization so that is you can go for
processing that is that is liquid fuels and chemical synthesis. We can separate the hydrogen from
the syngas and hydrogen vehicle fuel it can be used, hydrogen can be used in fuel cells for
electric power or syngas can be sent to gas turbine so it will be electrical power production and
then gas turbine exhaust can further be heated by using some additional fuel and then it can be
sent to waste heat boiler.
And steam can be produced and can be electricity generated from the steam turbine. And this
condensed from the boiler the steam can be passed here for the gasification and that the bottom
what will get that ash that will be slag or metal recovery. So, these are the different processes or
schemes which can be used for the utilization of products of the gasification process. So, apart
from electricity generation we can have number of opportunities to utilize the products which is
generated through the gasification.
So, we will be having more opportunity to make the process more economic and polygeneration
option is utilized and recommended for application. Now we will see major types of gasifiers for
coal gasification.
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So, on the basis of the feed inlet gas collection and the operating conditions different types of
gasifiers are reported out of which moving bed, fluidized bed and entrained bed are the major 3
important gasifiers which have been used widely for the gasification of coal and other
carbonaceous feedstocks. In the moving bed coal is feed at the top and the particle size is higher
say 5 to 50 millimetre particle size.
So, it falls from the top and from the bottom oxygen, air and steam is sent so reaction takes place
as I have discussed in the previous slide also. So, gradually it falls and ash is getting out from the
bottom. So, if we see the temperature profile across the height of the gasifier then this will be the
nature. So, if we increase the height from the bottom so gradually temperature will increase and
will attain maximum then again it is decreased.
Because oxidation is taking place at the middle of this so that is having the maximum
temperature it is around 1800 °C temperature it can give. But if we see the fluidized bed coal is
put here so here steam, oxygen or air then there will be some fluidization of the particles will be
taking smaller particles here and then that will be in fluidized form and due to this reason what
will be the temperature profile across its height?
This is, see it will gradually increase remain constant most of the part and then it is decreased
after this part it will be constant and it is decreased this part will temperature will drastically
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decrease. And another is entrained flow reactor here we send coal and then steam, oxygen or air
very finer particles are used. The particle size is much smaller than this fluidized bed and both all
these coal, steam and or air or air or oxygen flows in the same direction so it gets less residence
time and as collected here and gas goes from this at the bottom.
Due to this feature that if we see the temperature distribution along the height of it, it is almost
constant and maximum on this. But not maximum here we will we will get maximum
temperature because oxidation is single in certain zone. But here are uniformly distributed the
phenomena. So, these are the temperature profile across the height of the gasifier for different
types of gasifiers.
And this we have already come to know that here the less time is less residence time and smallest
particle size with respect to this three gasifiers. But this fluidized bed gasifiers have some
advantage that it can in situ capture of sulphur.
So, that is why transport reactor gasifier has been developed by KBR so in this case we have the
intermediate properties both the fluidised bed and entrained bed properties are available here
how? We are putting here fuel then absorbent we are putting some adsorbent also that is to
capture the sulphur and then oxygen or air and steam all are here in coming into this reactor.
Then it is going up this riser section very small time it is getting for contact.
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Then it is coming to this so it is falling again and the gas is coming here particulate separation it
is coming back. So, that way here we are getting the benefits of fluidized bed we are getting the
benefits of entrained bed. So, both features are available in transport reactor so in this case we do
not need to use very finer particles than that of entrained bed. Now we will see the comparison of
this type of gasifiers.
So, fixed bed, fluidized bed you see these are the technology licensers BGL, Lurgy, dry ash that
is the fixed bed and HTW, IDGCC and KRW and Mitsui Babcock. So, these are the technologies
licensers and typical process conditions for these are the combustion temperature is 1300
centigrade and slurry feed if it is and if it is a dry feed then 1500 to 1800 °C. But gas outlet
temperature is less 400 to 500 °C and pressure is this much and particle size already discussed.
Cold gas efficiency is high, for fluidized bed the combustion temperature is more but lesser than
this and gas outlet temperature is more than this one. And pressure requirement also this one and
residence time is less, particle size is less, coal gas efficiency is medium. If we go for entrained
bed gasifier then 1500 °C reaction temperature, gas outlet temperature is also higher than other
two types of gasifiers.
Then pressure requirement this and retention time is also lesser and these are the particle size less
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than 200 mesh very fine particles are required. Now we see the transport reactor it is in between
so temperature is 900 to 1050 °C gas outlet temperature 590 to 980 and residence time 1 to 10
second just like your entrained bed and size is less than 50 microns. So, we do not need to get
200-270 microns and it is also it is having 50 micron size.
Now we will see the advanced process in gasification’s, the plasma gasification is one of the
advancement in the gasification process, in this case we use high voltage across the two
electrodes. So, in that case the electrons are emitted then electron accelerates free electrons
electrodes accelerates free electron and free electrons helps to oxidize or ionize the ions adjacent
ions and molecules and then number of electrons are produced which forms a avalanche that is
called streamer.
So that is called the plasma in this case torch power levels from 100 kilowatt to 200 megawatt
and produce energy densities up to 100 mega watt per meter cube. So, in these cases different
free radicals are formed which converts the different types of components present in the coal to
its oxidized form. So, C is converted to CO2, H is converted to H2O, N is converted to NO2, S is
SO2 like this but typically it has been shown that CO and H2 gas remains in higher concentration.
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These are some coal based gasifiers around the world so China, Germany, Italy, Netherland and
South Africa, Spain and USA in these countries different gasifiers are the plants are there;
Where the gasification process is in practice and different types of products they are producing.
There somewhere we are getting say FT fluids and then electricity somewhere ammonia,
somewhere town gas and electricity, somewhere ammonia taking some syngas, methanol okay.
And then we are getting somewhere FT fluids and methanol and chemicals and SNG and then
electricity. So, some diesel and electricity is also produced by some plants.
And different types of cleaning options are also used rectisol, sulfinol, MDEA etcetera. So, I will
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discuss this in next class okay so thank you very much for your patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-08
Gasification of Coal- 2
Hi friends now we will discuss on the topic gasification of coal. This is a second part of this topic
in the first part we have discussed about the gasification process, its mechanism, then different
types of reactors applicable for coal gasification and their comparison. Now we will see how the
syngas produced after gasification can be made suitable for different types of downstream
application.
And the content of this class is syngas conditioning and cleanup and then syngas utilization and
IGCC and poly generation options. As we have seen in the previous class that when syngas is
produced in the gasifier its temperature is very high and it contains number of impurities like say
particulates, acid gases like SOx, carbon dioxide, H2S etc. So, these need to be removed and
another fact is that for different type of downstream applications we need different type of
syngas quality.
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So, as shown here in this table if we see for power application for hydro processing and for
chemical applications of the syngas we need different types of quality here sulphur, CO2 and CO
concentration is provided for 3 different applications so you see here sulphur for power
application requirement is 10 to 15 ppm weight basis whereas for hydro processing it should be
less than 1 ppm and for chemical less than 0.01 to 1 ppm.
So, the degree of removal of sulphur compounds from the syngas is required in different extent
for carbon monoxide carbon monoxide we see for power application there is no such requirement
where for hydro processing it is, it should be less than 50 ppm on weight basis. And for chemical
applications the carbon monoxide and hydrogen ratio should be maintained as per requirement.
Different applications have different requirement of hydrogen is to CO ratio.
But if we see the CO and H2 composition in the raw syngas then CO is almost 2 times more than
that of hydrogen but in downstream applications in some cases even we need the reverse ratio
that is H2 is to CO as 2, so some conditioning or conversion of CO to H2 is required and that is
why now in this class we will discuss how we can achieve this target. How the high temperatures
syngas can be used and cooled to lower temperature heat recovery can be done.
And then the acid gases can be removed to make it suitable for different downstream
applications to remove the pollutants which create problems during the processing and to
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maintain the H2 CO ratio. So, we should we here reduce syngas temperature during cooling we
need to reduce the syngas temperature and we need to extract the valuable energy from it. And
chemicals are removed which can foul, corrode or erode system components or which can poison
or deactivate chemical processing agents or are environmentally unacceptable.
Now we will see how the syngas can be cooled there are basically two mode of operation one is
quench mode operation and another is boiler mode.
So, on is quench mode and another is boiler mode, in both the mode the reactor part is similar
but the difference is the cooling process. So, in the quench mode the syngas which is produced
here is first pass through the quench ring and it is cooled by shock. The temperature of the
syngas is reduced to the temperature of saturated steam then it goes from the side stream. And
the slag or ash materials comes down.
This way we can reduce the high temperatures syngas to a lower value. And in this case we see
1.47 to 2.94 mega Pascal steam can be produced.
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Now in case of boiler mode the syngas is produced here it is going from the side and ash is
coming bottom at the bottom. So, there is no direct quenching but it is sent to a boiler for heat
recovery and exchange of heat as a result the syngas temperature reduces. So, this process gives
us some advantage we can get high temperature steam here with respect to the quench mode and
high pressure steam here with respect to the quench mode.
We see there are 9.81 to 13.73 mega Pascal steam can be generated and as you know higher the
pressure in the steam and higher the temperature there is a possibility to have more efficiency in
the turbine. So, that is why this mode of operation that is boiler mode of operation is preferred in
IGCC application. Now we will see the how the particulates can be removed from the syngas.
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As you know the some of the reactor configurations uses very fine particles of coal and those
fine particles can be carried over if it is not completely burned or in some applications also tar
particles comes. So, those particles we need to remove, so for the removal of those particles there
are some configuration that is here char materials along with ash can be removed from syngas in
two-stage water wash consisting of a quench pipe carbon separator and a packed tower.
Just we are spraying water and removing the particulates in a packed tower. In quench pipe
around 95% of the carbon is removed by direct water spray. So, these are two basic operations
through which the particulates are removed. So, you see in this case the temperature of the
syngas should be down made down prior to its application. Another way of efforts are also there
to use different types of oxides at high temperature to remove the gases or we can use ceramic
cross-flow candle filters to remove the particulates at higher temperature.
So, high temperature particulate separation this technology is being developed and extensive
research is also going on around the globe for this application. Now by spraying water we can
remove the particulates but there are a number of types of spray systems.
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So, this is here spray scrubber so in this very scrubber so dry gas inlet at the bottom and water
injection at the top and then there will be interaction between the droplets as well as the
particulates. So, the mechanism is the inertial impaction and interception on the droplets this is
the mechanism of the separations of the particulates from the syngas in presence of droplets of
the water. So, it will settle and in this case no packed bed is used only spray scrubber and its
efficiency say 94% for 5 micrometer particles.
And greater than 99% for 25 micrometer particles and the efficiency of this system will depend
on droplet size and flow velocity of the gas and liquid is to gas ratio. These are the factors which
influence the efficiency of the system.
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Then packed bed and plate column another type of spray system also used in this packed bed one
packing material is used like say raschig rings, saddles, coke or broken stone, so these are
normally used for the capturing of the particulates in this. It is a dry gas will come here and again
from the clean gas will goes up and spray system will be there but we have one packed bed. So,
this is one type of design.
Another type of design dry gas or dirty gas from the bottom from the top clean gas and liquid
from the top and there are a number of plates. So, plates overflow liquid will come here again
plate overflow liquid will come here plate overflow liquid will come so that way the interactions
of gas and liquid takes place liquid droplets and particulates separates. So, this system also help
to remove some gas molecules from the syngas.
Now we will see how the acid gas components can be removed acid gas components like say
SOx, carbon dioxide, H2S etc present in the syngas that can be removed through specific
treatment steps.
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So, this flow sheet shows us the raw syngas which is having hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, H2O, H2S, COS and trace contaminants so the first the COS reacts with H2O to form
H2S and CO2 so that is hydrolysis of COS then H2S and CO2 acid gas components we need to
remove. So, how we can remove it, carbon dioxide removal if you can selectively separate the
carbon dioxide then that can be enriched and it can be sequestered.
So, carbon dioxide enrichment and then compression and carbon dioxide sequestration so one
way we can get. On the other way we have H2S so we can remove the H2S enrichment
specifically then we use them selectively and then after selective separation of H2S we can use
this gas for sulphur recovery and we can get sulphur and once we can get sulphur we can
produce sulphuric acid. So, after removal of sulphur or H2S, now we can go for further treatment
of the tail gas.
So, this is the flow sheet for acid gas removal but now we will see how this can be done. So, the
H2S and CO2 removal has been made by absorption and adsorption based technology.
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So, here this figure shows absorption based technology from the bottom we are sending dirty
syngas and from the top we are using clean solvent. Solvent will be selective to capture say
carbon dioxide or H2S or may be able to capture both. So, then the clean syngas will go up with
CO and H2 there will be no H2S there will be no CO2 or very less amount of CO2 and H2S. So,
different types of solvent has been used this solvent which capture the acid gases either by
physical or chemical absorption.
So MDEA we are having a chemical absorption what is MDEA one solvent that is
methyldiethanolamine, Selexol another solvent that is primarily dimethyl ethers of polyethylene
glycol there is also physical absorption and Rectisol that is nothing but the refrigerated methanol
so that is also physical absorption. Now in the recent years some adsorption based technologies
are also developed that is warm syngas clean up, that RTI and Eastman Company they have
developed this technology. They use some metal oxides so which captures H2S.
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Now we will see the comparison among these processes so if we see the MDEA process it is a
chemical absorption methods so it removes H2S 98 to 99% whereas CO2 is 30% so more
selective towards H2S removal and process parameters 30 to 35 degree centigrade and pressure is
2.94 mega Pascal or less. These are the technology suppliers who have developed the
technologies and here we see the cost is low it is not high this is not costly method.
Then Selexol another method H2S 99% and CO2 can be variable and temperature is -7 to -4
degree centigrade whereas pressure is 6.87 mega Pascal. These are technology licensers and here
higher costs than MDEA but overall system cost including sulphur recovery process and tail gas
treating could be more cost-effective. Another is your Rectisol process H2S is 99.5 to 99.9% and
CO2 is 98.5% so temperature - 35 to -60 degree centigrade and pressure 8.04 mega Pascal.
But this is developed by Linde AG and it is the most costly method but high selectivity to H2S
over CO2 and ability to remove COS. So, these are the characteristics of these different methods
and out of these methods Rectisol has been used widely.
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Now we are coming to warm gas desulphurization as you discussed that some metal oxides are
used. So, say ZnO and H2S reacts and ZnS formed at 315 to 530 degree centigrade and this is
your adsorber and then the adsorbent has to be regenerated so regenerator is also there when ZnS
reacts with oxygen and again form ZnO at higher temperature 590 to 680 degree centigrade. So,
that way it can remove the H2S from the syngas and sulphur recovery options is also there.
Sulphur can be recovered from the syngas through closed process or direct sulphur recovery
process, there are two processes and then direct sulphur recovery process SO2 + H2 or CO that
reacts 1 by n Sn + H2O or CO2 at 425 to 680 degree centigrade temperature. And sulphuric acid
can also be produced from the sulphur.
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So, this is the claus process so if we have H2S + 3 by 2 O2 then it is giving us SO2 + H2O this is
the del H value of this reaction then SO2 reacts with H2S again and then gives 3 by 8 S8 + 2H2O
and this reactions is also possible. So, these are the reactions of the claus process through which
we can get elemental sulphur.
Now we will see the different methods for the removal of acid gas components from the syngas
so physical absorption, chemical absorption, adsorption and molecular sieves. Molecular sieves
are also used for the shape selective or size selective separations of the other molecules from the
syngas. So, if sulphur in product gas is high and partial pressure of H2S or COS and CO2 is also
high then we should go for physical absorption.
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But if sulphur concentration is high but this pressure is low then you can go for chemical
absorption. But for adsorption process certainly the sulphur compound concentration must be
less, so low sulphur and then low or high-pressure we can go for adsorption. And for molecular
sieves high sulphur and low partial pressure of CO2, COS and H2S. Now after the removal of the
acid gas now we will see how the CO is to H2 ratio is maintained or how the H2 concentration in
syngas can be increased.
So, that is done by shift reaction water gas shift reaction the reaction is CO + H2O it gives H2 +
CO2 and this is the exothermic reaction. So, this reaction is performed in presence of catalyst.
And this shift reaction can take place before the removal of acid gas from the syngas or after the
removal of acid gas from the syngas. So, if this water gas shift reaction takes place before the
removal of acid gas removal then it is called sour shift water shift reactions.
And if it is placed after the acid gas removal then it is called sweet water gas shift reaction. So,
we have two types of reactions sweet shift reactions and sour shift reactions. These two reactions
uses different catalyst, uses different temperature range. So, we can have two types of shift
reaction also on the basis of temperature one is high temperature shift reactions another is low
temperature shift reactions.
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So high temperature means it is 320 to 450 °Clow means 200 to 250 °C. And you see the
catalysts are different Fe2O3 Cr2O3 is used for high temperature shift reactions whereas copper
zinc oxide alumina oxide is used for low shift reaction. Now instead of using separate catalyst in
low temperature and high temperature shift reactions catalysts like cobalt molybdenum alumina
oxide can also be used over a wide range of temperatures. So these are the development of the
catalyst sites for shift reaction.
And these are the comparison of sweet shift and sour shift if we see the typical flow sheet then it
contains sweet shift 2 HTS and one LTS and sour shift reaction contains 2 to 3 conversion stages
which heat exchangers and sometimes with steam addition as required. And conversion if we use
CO conversion how the H2 can be; how much H2 can be produced? Within two HTS steps the
sweet gas shift can reduce CO concentration from 44.6% to 2.1%.
Whereas sour shift can produce 44.6 to 1.8% within two steps. Same both the process we can
reduce the concentration of CO below 1% and hydrogen concentration can be increased.
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Now you see the catalyst of sweet shift reactions are more expensive than the sour shift reactions
and reactor size is also smaller in case of sweet shift reactions then sour shift reaction. And this
table shows the typical composition of syngas before and after shift gas reactions. If we see
hydrogen, carbon monoxide and CO2 this concentration changes significantly CO2 4.36 to
35.50% then CO 49.98 to 1.12% and here hydrogen 43.01 to 61. 53%.
Now how we will use the syngas once the syngas is cooled then its acid gas are removed then
conditioning is done then we can use it the syngas can be used in different applications.
Like it can be used for hydrogen production that we have seen if we use rigorous shift water shift
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reactors then obviously we will get more hydrogen and all carbon monoxide can be converted to
hydrogen through these reactions. Or we can use it for electricity or steam productions. The
syngas can further be combusted and heat can be generated and can be used in electricity
generation. It can be converted to SNG, it can be converted to FT fuels that is naphtha, waxes,
diesel, gas fuels etc.
Or it can be converted to methanol, so once methanol is derived as a chemical basic chemicals

then from methanol we can get a number of chemicals. So, as shown here so number of
chemicals we can get from the methanol or this syngas can be utilized in different way. Now
IGCC and poly generation options, this option is becoming very relevant and applicable in recent
years. As you see the gasification process is costlier than the conventional combustion based
process.
So, we have to utilize the syngas in such a way that the economy is improved. So, the high cost
of the process can be compensated by the high value of the products, in products which is
produced from the syngas that is why poly generation electricity, chemicals, hydrogen etcetera
all productions are considered and integrated and that is called poly generation options. So you
see here we use coal or any carbonaceous material then the syngas is produced then particulate
removal gas clean up then shift reaction conditioning.
Then we are getting desired concentration of H2 and CO in the syngas then we can use it for
synthesis gas conversion, we can use it for FT synthesis etcetera and then carbon dioxide
sequestration's we will also get and will be able to produce the electricity in the gas turbine and
again in the steam turbine so electricity we can get. So, that way we can be able to improve the
economy of the process.
Now we will see how different parts of the gasification system or gasification process contributes
on the overall economy.
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So, feedstock is around 12% feedstock handling system around 12% share of the construction
cost and gasifier air separation unit and syngas cooling around 30% and then gas cleanup and
piping it is around 7% and combined cycle power block that is turbines etc so it will be giving
33% and then remaining components and control systems it is around 18%. So, these are the
contribution of different parts of the gasification units on the overall construction cost. So, thank
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Energy Production
Lecture-09
Direct Liquefaction of Coal
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic direct liquefaction of coal. In the previous class,
we have discussed on gasification of coal and we have seen that coal is gasified to produce
syngas and that syngas can be used for different downstream application. One application was
FT synthesis that is the Fisher-Tropsch synthesis through which we can get different types of
liquid fuels.
So, that liquid film production from the coal was an indirect route and this is important, the
production of liquid from the coal because, we can use liquid fuel more easily in different
engines. And if we want to produce it through this indirect route, then obviously, it is involving
number of steps, conversion steps. So more the steps, lesser the efficiency, overall efficiency of
the process.
So, people thought if the coal can be converted directly to liquid and in the introductory class,
we have seen that coal contains different aromatic rings a chain of aromatic rings we have seen
like this very bigger, it is very complex structure that is why it is solid and less reactive. It is not
that high reactive, we have to heat it at higher temperature then only there will be some
combustion at lower temperatures there will be no combustion unlike say plant materials.
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So, that is why it is solid now, and here also we know that carbon concentration is also very
high with respect to hydrogen. Now, if we can break this some of the rings here and say some
double rings are there see, if we can break some double ring and we can add some hydrogen
here this thing's then it will be converted to some organic compound having lower molecular
weight and that will be liquid form that can be liquid form.
So, we will be able to get liquid fuel from coal by this process, but what is the; what is needed
here for this conversion one is hydrogen we have to provide sufficient amount of hydrogen and
as you know coal is not that reactive. So, hydrogen has to be provided at higher pressure. So,
high pressure hydrogen is required and coal particles has to be very particle size will be very,
very small, the very small particles will be made slurry in some solvent and then solvent coal
slurry.
Obviously, more solvent is acquired and then hydrogen at high pressure that will be giving us
this conversion, that may give us this conversion and we can use some catalyst the rate of the
reaction can also be improved. So that way, directly coal can be converted to liquid. And as you
have discussed that this technology was developed many years ago in Germany in lab scale or
small scale production, but for commercial scale production very recently the plant has come in
China.
So, we will discuss here and our content is direct liquefaction process. And then properties of
coal derived liquids, the types of direct coal liquefaction, that a single stage direct liquefaction
process or two stage direct liquefaction process and then we will see the benefits of direct
liquefaction process and direct liquefaction challenges. Now, we see in direct liquefaction
process different coals are converted to coal liquid.
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It can be lignite or brown coal, it may be sub bituminous, it may be bituminous coal. Very
interesting here, lower the quality of coal more easy to convert it into liquid fuel and you see
here anthracite is not shown. So, when we are getting the coal liquid, we compare the heating
value with respect to these different types of coals, this is much higher than this. So, energy
intensity is increased in the liquid fuel that is one advantage.
And you see here we need hydrogenation step, we need hydrogen and catalyst, we need high
temperature and pressure. So, these are the requirement for the direct liquefaction of coal, here
any type of coal can be used, there is no limitation of its quality, but preferably lower quality
coals can be used. And then we will get gas oil, gasoline and kerosene. So, this is the overall
process for direct liquefaction of coal.
So, it is accomplished under high temperature that is around 400 or more than 400 °C and 102
to 204, atmospheric pressure, very high pressure it takes. So, what will be happening just we
have discussed, the coal is fragmented, the complex structure is broken down and it is
fragmented and then hydrogenation takes place. So, we will be getting some coal liquid that
coal liquid may be requiring for further upgradation that is obviously for hydrogenation that we
are going to discuss.
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So, now, we are having coal this coal we are getting coal fragments and this is what is the
process the dissolution, hydrocracking and hydrotreating heat pressure and catalyst. So, coal
slurry formation then application of heat and pressure maybe catalyst or may not be catalyst.
So, that will be getting coal fragments, then coal fragments will be having some oil part and
some also solid part it will be having.
So, that solid part it is called preasphaltenes or asphaltenes that is having high molecular weight
then what we will do with this another step we can go for hydrocracking, catalytic
hydrocracking. So, we can get more oils from this asphaltenes also and then further
hydrotreating will give us transportation fuel. So, hydrogen addition may not be in a single step
it may be step wise. So, we can increase the hydrogen concentration in the liquid and it will be
more usable form in transportation fuels.
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Now properties of coal derived liquids we see this table shows the properties that is density,
viscosity, potential aromatic percentage, sulphur, nitrogen, cetane number, Flashpoint,
solidification point, cold filter plugging point and oxidation sludge, it is also given. So, naphtha
which is generated from the coal liquid and diesel these two properties are shown here and this
table we can see that the comparison of some properties would say and we can get the cetane
number here.
So, cetane number we can have diesel around 50 here we are getting say 46.7 so, relatively
lower than that, but as the coal liquid is coming from the coal which is having very complex
aromatic structure. So, aromatic compounds in coal liquid will be more. So, octane number will
be higher in case of that, but cetane number is not that higher with respect to the petrol-diesel?
So, direct coal liquid naphtha can be used to make very high octane gasoline component.
So, that is one advantage of this or the positive point of this on terms of the quality of the coal
liquid we will derive to gasoline and DCL distillate is a poor diesel because the value that
cetane number is lower than that of the petrol diesel and raw DCL liquid still contains sulphur,
nitrogen, oxygen possibly metals also. And so, we need to upgrade this for the removal of these
components from the coal derived liquid for its effective application.
Now, we will see; what are the different steps through which the liquid fuel can be produced
from the coal.
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So, we have one single stage direct coal liquefaction or double stage direct coal liquefaction.
So, the single stage that means gives distillates via one primary reactor and double stage gives
distillate products via 2 reactor stages in series. So, coal dissolution in first stage operated either
without a catalyst or with only a low activity disposable catalyst. So, in case of single stage
reactors, there are some technologies like SRC II and then Exxon donor solvent EDS and H
coal.
And in double stage we are having integrated 2 stage liquefaction it ITSL and catalytic
multistage liquefaction CMSL.
Now, we will see SRC II that is solvent refined coal liquefaction. So, we will be using solvent
only no catalyst will be used in this case. So, we are using coal here crushed and grinded very
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small particles then, we have to make slurry. So, I need some solvent, so, how will we get the
solvent? It will be coming from the process which is generated in the process, this is heavy
distillate it is recycle back and it is creating this slurry.
So, in this slurry is coming, I need hydrogen. So, hydrogen we may get from the gasification
process using again some amount of coal here and this hydrogen is coming here or we can get
the hydrogen here also which is produced in this process. So, then hydrogen addition is made
slurry is formed. So, we have to pressurise it, so after slurry preheater it is coming to dissolver
where high pressure of hydrogen is created. So, 12 mega Pascal or 440 degrees centigrade, this
15 to 45 minutes time period is required here without any catalyst.
So, this will give us the conversion. So, what we will get we will be having the mixture now we
will be having vapour liquid separation where the vapour the hydrogen which you have added
that can be recovered and where also after gas separation, we will get the fuel gas and solid part
will come here then it is coming slurry light liquid separation at 1 mega Pascal and 290 degree
centigrade. So, we are getting light distillate naphtha and then again filter then residue.
So this residue is your solid part. So, this is again used in the gasifier for the hydrogen
production and this liquid part from this filter it will be having the heavy liquid, so, that heavy
liquid will be distilled or heating and vacuum distillation then it will give us heavy distillate
fuel oil and wash solvent will be coming as a vapour and that can be recycled and this it will
give us SRC coal that is solvent refined coal the rest part which is remaining.
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Now, we are coming to Exxon donor solvent process. So, that is also one step process. So, here
coal slurry making where the solvent is coming from the process which is generated during this
process. And then recycled solvent slurry making hydrogen is coming from this process and it
is preheating then it is going to tubular reactor. So, a condition is 425 to 450 °C and 175,
atmospheric pressure no catalyst is used,
In this case pressure is higher than the previous one temperature is also slightly higher or in the
same range, but the pressure is higher. So, then it is coming for separation so gas separation
hydrogen will goes here, we will go here and then we will go for liquid separation so we will
get naphtha and we will get distillate fuel then from the solid we can get Flexi Coker and coke
formation here and that liquid will also go here.
So, then and from this part we will get some liquid that can be going through hydro-treating, to
improve its quality and that can be used as a recycle solvent. So, this is the flow sheet of EDS
process that is Exxon donor solvent process. The yield can be up to 47% for lignites, 50% for
sub bituminous and 60% for bituminous type of coal.
The H Coal process is another process which is also single step process and this reactor
operates at temperature 425 to 455 °C. And here conventional supported hydro-treating catalyst
either nickel molybdenum or cobalt molybdenum in alumina is used. So, unlike two other
processes in this process, catalyst is used and H2 is added and mixed in a pre heated and fed to
an Ebullated bed hydrocracker, the hydro cracker reactor bed is also not fixed unlike the other
process.
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So, here the yields are dependent on coal and greater than 95% overall conversion, can be
obtained because you are using the Ebullated bed reactor and yields liquid yields up to 50% on
dry basis. So, as we are using the Ebullated bed reactor, it has some advantage that is well
mixed and temperature monitoring. So, that is giving some better efficiency than the previous
one.
And then H-Coal process, H-Coal process this is derived; it is developed by HRI Hydrocarbon
research incorporation and currently hydrocarbon technologies HTI USA and in this case
ebullated bed reactor is used. So, pulverised coal, recycle liquid, hydrogen and catalyst are
brought together in the reactor to convert coal into hydrocarbon liquids and gaseous products
just we have discuss these things.
And the similar way this also takes place and particle size is minus 60 Mesh and temperature
345 to 370 and this is 445 to 455 °C and up to 200 bar pressure and catalyst is cobalt
molybdenum on alumina. So, this is one technology which is used for the direct coal
liquefaction.
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So, now 2 stage liquefaction if you see the one is our ITSL two stage liquefaction. So, here we
are using coal here. So, that coal we have to make slurry, so some solvent is needed. So, those
solvent will also come from the process. So, here is after Rose SR solvent recovery and another
is your solvent recovery in this hydro generated solvent recovery. So, these two solvent sources
it is coming and making the slurry. Then this slurry the first step will be catalytic first stage.
So, here hydrogen is added then it will go to catalytic second stage again hydrogen will be
added then it is going for hydrogenated solvent recovery. So, hydrogenated distillate we are
getting and then the solid, the heavier part that is resid plus ash, then we will go for solvent
recovery and that is residuum oil supercritical extraction that is ROSE, residuum oil
supercritical extraction this method if we use we will get here ash contents and heavier solvent
will go to this.
So, this is the flowsheet of these two stage liquefaction process here we can get 170
atmospheric pressure and here 343 to 412 °C for the first stage and the second stage 432 to 440
°C.
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Now, CTSL process that is also a two stage process so, it is ebullated bed reactor in both the
stages, in the first stage 400 to 400 °C, second stage 435 to 440 °C, the lower first stage
temperature provides better overall management of hydrogen and also it is 200 bar. So, what is
the difference between these and previous one? The nickel molybdenum catalyst NiMo on
alumina and CTSL process produces liquid product yield with low heteroatom concentration
and high H by C ratio, Hydrogen by carbon ratio, the product is closer to petroleum.
Another is HTI coal process. So, HTI coal process again two stage process. So, the difference is
that this uses the proprietary catalyst a dispersed nano-scale iron based catalyst. So, in the
CTSL process we had nickel molybdenum on alumina catalyst. Now, HTI coal process we are
having GelCatTM catalyst that is nano-scale iron based catalyst that is the most important
difference. And coal slurry prepared by mixing pulverised coal and catalyst with process
derived recycle solvent is fed in the reactor 435 to 460 °C.
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In the first stage obviously, the breaking of the coal structure, in the second stage is for
liquefaction and then this process is used at China ShenHua project in 2008 that is having the
capacity of 3.5 million metric tonnes of coal producing with one MMT of oil.
This is the ShenHua DCL project flowsheet, so you see coal is here, slurry preparation takes
place, catalyst is added, solvent is coming from the process derived solvent. So, it is coming
and then this is going for liquefaction reaction, then separation, then hydrogen recovery
hydrogen will come and hydrogen recovery we will get here. So, then the liquid part go for
hydro-treating it will give us liquid and then by distillation different fractions of liquid we will
get and from this part bottom of this the residual part we can go for gasification and hydrogen
we can make. So, that hydrogen can be used here. So, this process is used commercially.
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And this is the first plant in the world on DCL direct coal to liquid that is first DCL commercial
plant in China production capacities 24,000 barrel per day and this four year of construction
2004 to 2008.
These are the some photographs of different fuels derived from the coal directly in this
ShenHua DCL plant. Then catalytic multistage liquefaction, so, in this case more than two step
is allowable are used.
In 1993 the two stage liquefaction system evolved into catalytic multistage liquefaction system.
In 1993, Department of Energy awarded HRI a contract to conduct demonstrations of direct
coal liquefaction in 3 ton per day capacity, therefore a demonstration plant. So, different types
of catalyst has been used, you see the same company HRI they are developing the technology.
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So, here supported catalyst, Co-molybdenum, Co-nickel and dispersed catalyst Fe, Mo and HTI
proprietary GelCat iron based catalyst.
So, now, we will see the, what is the scope of the DCL process in India? So, we do not have
any additional plant in India.
But, this is Oil India Limited Duliajan, they are putting their effort to develop the technology
and they are targeting to use the low ash content Assam coal for this purpose and one study was
going on I am not aware about the latest status update and IIP Dehradun was contributing on
the upgradations of the coal liquid. And the benefits of Liquefaction, the direct liquefaction
technology has higher efficiency you see 70 to 75% just we have discussed that when we are
involving more steps, obviously the efficiency will be less.
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So, in this case we can get higher efficiency with respect to other technology say IGCC like this
indirect way 60 to 65% maximum we can achieve. And then direct liquefaction provides high
octane, low sulphur gasoline and distillate that will require upgrading to make acceptable diesel
blending stock. So, these are advantage and development of direct liquefaction technology
could lead to hybrid processes producing high quality gasoline and diesel. And direct
liquefaction may have better carbon footprints then indirect liquefaction process.
But what are challenges? Uncertainty in oil prices as you know, this method is not very cheap
method, it will be costlier and will be feasible only when the crude price will be very high, it is
feasible when the crude price is more than 70 to 80 $ per barrel. And high capital cost as you
see that high pressure systems are required. So, we high capital cost is also needed. And then
investment risk is also there that the market what will be the value of crude oil it fluctuates.
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So, what will be the stability of the market of these that is also uncertain and so, it is there is a
risk for the investment on this and technical challenges. This is you know this process was
discovered many years ago, but commercialization take only in 2008 because there are many
technical challenges although there is one plant commercial plant in China, but still more
research is required on this field and to make it to develop confidence on the technology.
LCA can be done. So, hybrid technology needs development including integrated
demonstration and environmental challenges. It has some challenges also carbon dioxide and
criteria pollutants as well as water use. So these are also related. These are not well addressed
on this plant. Thank you very much for your patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-10
Tutorial 2
Hi friends now we will be having one tutorial session and in this session we will solve some
numerical problems based on the discussions of last 4 classes.
So, problem number one says that calculate the sedimentation rate in gravity separation for the
particle size limiting to d limiting 7 micrometer, the particle density equal to 1040 kg per meter
cube, liquid density is 1000 kg per meter cube and viscosity of continuous phase 1 into 10 to the
power -3 Newton second per meter square. So, this is the problem we have to solve and in the
previous class we have discussed on a coal cleaning part that the size and terminal settling
velocity is used for the separation of particles in case of classification.
So, here we will see if a particle size of coal particle is known then what will be the terminal
settling velocity there is very fundamental aspect we have provided here and we will discuss on
it. So, what we will do if we assume the laminar flow conditions then Stokes law is applicable
and in that case we can find out the terminal settling velocity.
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As for this formula that is terminal settling velocity is equal to dp square into ρs minus ρl into g
divided by 18 into µ when dp is the diameter of the particle, ρ s is the density of the solid particle
ρl is the density of the fluid under which the particle is falling g is the acceleration due to gravity
gravitational acceleration and then µ is the viscosity of the media. So, we have to calculate ug.
Now we will see what is the value of dp? dp is given here that is 7 micro meter so you have to
convert it into meter unit so 7 into 10 to the power -6 dp you are getting and then ρs is given
1040 kg per meter cube and ρl is given as 1000 kg per meter cube and g we know that 9.81 meter
per second square and then µ value is given also 1 into 10 to the -3 Newton second per meter
square. So, in this case we will be getting the ug value as 7 into 10 the -6 square as dp square then
1040 - 10000 into 9.81 divided by 18 into this is .001.
So, this is equal to 1.068 into 10 to the -6 meter per second. So, this is the terminal settling
velocity of the coal particle.
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Our next problem statement says in a fixed bed gasifier air flow rate and feed flow rate are 10
normal meter cube per second and 8 kg per second respectively. The feed material does not
contain any sulphur, nitrogen and chlorine. The syngas contains carbon monoxide 40%, CO2 2%
H2 30% CH4 5% and C2H2 2%. Calculate the rate of production of syngas in normal meter cube
per kg of the feedstock. So, this is the problem statement we have to calculate the production of
syngas normal meter cube per kg.
So, 1 kg of material will produce some amount of syngas, that amount we have to measure in
terms of in the unit of normal meter cube. So, how we can do it? We can solve this problem by
nitrogen balance.
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As we have discussed in the previous classes that fuel gas production normal meter cube per kg
of feedstock that is equal to air flow rate normal meter cube per second into .79 divided by 1
minus the CO + CO2 + H2 + CH4 + C2H2 there is the composition of the flue gas by 100 into
feeding rate of the feedstock. So, feeding rate of feedstock this is the total amount we are using
per unit time and then 1 – this.
This term is giving us the nitrogen available in the flue gas, this part is giving us the nitrogen
available in the flue gas 100 minus this whole term. So, flue gas production then what was the
nitrogen in the air which was used in this case we are assuming that 21% oxygen so 79%
nitrogen is there so that is what this term is 0.79, so air flow how much into .79 that is the
nitrogen available in the air and then there is a nitrogen coming.
And what is the nitrogen available in the flue gas? That is flue gas production rate into this one
and this is divided by the amount of material used. So, this formula is used to calculate the flue
gas production that is in the unit of normal meter cube per kg. So, this we have discussed in the
previous class. Now we have to put the value of these things, so what are the value of CO? It is
given CO 40% CO2 2% H2 30% CH4 5% and C2H2 2% so this value will put there.
And it was also given the 10 normal meter cube per second this is the air flow rate and 8 kg per
second was the feed flow rate. So, though all the terms are given in the problem and we will be
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putting those things. so 10 the air flow rate into 2.79 divided by 1 - that is equal to CO 40% so
0.4 as 100 is divided here so this equal to .02, 2% CO2 and then 30% hydrogen so 0.3 and then
CH4 was 5% so .05 and then C2H2 was again 2% so 0.02 we are getting this term and then this
feed rate that was 8 kg per second so multiplied by 8.
So, this is the syngas production rate and now we are getting by calculation 7.9 by 0.21 into 8
that is equal to 4.702 normal meter cube per kg of the feedstock. So, now we are able to find out
what will be the production of syngas per kg of feedstock.
The next statement says a peat sample has the following composition on mass basis so carbon
37.5%, hydrogen 8.8%, oxygen 27.6%, N 0.40%, sulphur 0.10%, moisture 20.5%, and ash 5.1%.
Determine the molecular formula and heating value of the peat sample using the following
relation on wet basis and dry and ash free basis. So, the formula is given HHV, high heating
value in mega Joule per kg is equal to 0.3516 into C + 1.16225 into H -0.1109 into O + 0.0628
into N + 0.10465 into S.
If the above material is gasified in a fluidized bed gasifier what will be the composition of
syngas when peat to oxygen ratio is maintained at 0.8 mass by mass basis and steam to peat ratio
is also maintained as 0.1 mass by mass basis? Assume CO and H2 ratio in syngas as 2 is to 1
volume by volume and then ignore the presence of other impurities and consider the molecular
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weight of the ash as 56. Also calculate the yield of hydrogen and carbon monoxide and why the
carbon monoxide and hydrogen content is so low? How it can be improved?
So, this is a problem statement see it has number of parts so we will be solving this problem step
by step. So, this is a gasification problem and the composition of the sample feedstock is given
and then we have to find out the molecular weight and molecular formula of the feedstock first
of the peat sample. Then we will convert it into its percentage will convert it into dry basis then
we will use this formula for the HHV calculation.
So, in two different basis, wet basis and dry and ash free basis we will be able to calculate the
HHV. So, the first part will be done. Then we have to calculate the composition of syngas so
composition of syngas means the feedstock will be reacting with gasifying region and it will be
producing different syngas with different compositions. So, including different gas components
and we have discussed in the previous class the gasification reactions can be presented by some
generic expressions and we will be using that and then we will see how this mass balance is
taking place.
And then what are the coefficients of the different elements available in the feedstock as well as
how much moles of different gas components is produced from one mole of the feedstock that
we will discuss. And we will ultimately get the concentration of different gas components.
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Now let us see, let us take a basis of 100 gram of peat so as for the statement we have
composition of the peat that is carbon is 37.5%, hydrogen is 8.8%, oxygen is 27.6%, nitrogen
0.40%, sulphur 0.10%, moisture 20.5%, ash 5.1% so total we are getting 100%. So, what will be
the amount of the elements present in 100 gram of peat. Carbon will be 37. 5 gram as it is
percentage so hydrogen will be 8.8 gram then oxygen will be 27.6 gram, nitrogen will be 0.4
gram and sulphur 0.10 gram, moisture will be 20.5 gram, ash well be 5.1 gram.
Then what will be the moles present in this sample, 100 gram sample. So, we have to divide it
37.5 by 12 the molecular weight of carbon say 12 so that is equal 3.125 moles we are getting and
then 8.8 by 1 for hydrogen say 8.8 moles we are getting. So, for oxygen 27.6 divided by 16 so
we are getting 1.725 and then nitrogen .4 divided by 14 we are getting .0286 moles and for
sulphur .10 divided by 32 so we are getting .0031 moles and for moisture 20.5 divided by 18 we
are getting 1.139 moles and for ash 5.1 divided by 56 it is given the molecular weight of ash is
56 so we are getting 0.091 moles.
Now this moisture will contribute hydrogen and oxygen H2O so it will also having hydrogen and
oxygen so if we want to know the hydrogen and oxygen content in moisture then we can say
oxygen from the moisture is the same if one mole then oxygen is also one so that is equal to
1.139 moles. But hydrogen that is there are two moles of hydrogen in one mole of moisture. So,
that will be 2 into 1.139 so 2.278 moles.
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Now we are getting these are the number of moles present in this amount of feed so we can
represent the molecular formula as C3.125 H8.8 O1.725 N0.0286 S0.0031 ash is equal to 0.091 and H2O
1.139 as you are getting here or if we use this, replace this moisture in terms of oxygen and
hydrogen then we can get this formula where these are same only hydrogen and oxygen
coefficients are changed.
So 8.8 so the 2+2 into 1.139 so 11.079 and for oxygen 1.725 + 1.139 so that is equal to 2.864.
So, these are the molecular formula of the peat sample.
So, first part one part of the first question is done then we will see the heating value. So, if we
want to see the heating value we have to in two different bases as such we can calculate the wet
basis using the same composition provided in the statement otherwise you have to convert it into
the dry and ash free basis then we will use the compositions of different elements in the HHV
calculation expression.
So here we see compositions on dry and ash free basis, carbon we have 37.5 original sample so
in dry and ash free basis that 37.5 into 100 divided by 100 - moisture – ash, so there is a 100 –
20.5 – 5.1 so this expression is giving us 50.4%. So, 50.4% carbon on dry and ash free basis.
Similarly hydrogen we will be getting 8.8 into 100 by 100 – 20.5 – 5.1 that is equal to 11.83%.
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So, similarly oxygen is 37.10% and nitrogen is 0.54% and sulphur is 0.13%. Now we are getting
the composition of different elements in dry and ash free basis, then what will be the HHV?
If we want to calculate the HHV on dry and ash free basis this composition will use but if we
want to calculate this on wet basis we will be using the composition of this which is originally
available in this case. So, what will be the HHV in case of dry and ash free basis we will put this
the expression is given this is the expression in this expression C is the percentage of carbon, H
is the percentage of hydrogen, oxygen is the percentage of oxygen, N is percentage of nitrogen
and S is percentage of sulphur.
So, HHV 0.3516 into 50.54 and then 1.16225 into 11.83 and then 0.1109 into oxygen that is
37.10 we are putting here and + 0.0628 into nitrogen that is 0.54 we are putting here and then
0.10465 into sulphur that is .13 so this much. So, we are getting by calculation HHV is equal to
27.40 mega Joule per kg dry and ash free basis. But if we want to get it on wet basis that will be
37.5 for carbon this is for hydrogen, this is for oxygen and this is for nitrogen and this is for
sulphur.
So we are getting 20.387 mega Joule per kg so this is wet basis and this is dry and ash free basis.
So, first part of the problem is solved now we have to see what will be the composition of the
syngas. So, for that will be assuming the expression generalized expressions which is used to
represent the gasification of some carbonaceous feedstock.
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Here we see CaHbOcNdSeAshn this is the general formula of the peat sample then it will be
reacting it gasifying agents one is oxygen another is steam. So, we are assuming that one mole
reacts with g mole of oxygen and f mole of H2O. So, this is the expressions we are resuming and
it will give us h mole CO2, i mole H2, j mole of CO, d by 2 mole of N2, k mole of SO2 and m
mole of H2O and n mole of ash.
Now we have molecular formula we have just derived let us see this one now if we compare this
and this then we can get the value of a, b, c, d, e and n and from this we are getting h, i, j, d by 2,
k, m, n and we also using g and f so there is some relationship we will be trying to find out the
relationship by mass balance individual component balance and then we will try to get the value
of h, i, j, d, k, m, n, f, g etcetera and we will be able to know one mole of feedstock will produce
how many mole of this gas composition.
So, it will be easy to determine the individual gas components the moles of individual gas
components and total gas components will give total moles then we will get the percentage of
individual gas component on mole basis so this is the approach. Now let us see so if we compare
this so what we are getting, a, carbon balance here a is equal to h + j so a is equal to h + j again
this a is equal to 3.125.
So this a equal to h + j equal to 3.125 now hydrogen balance if we see so left side is b so b + 2f
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left side expression b + 2f and this is equal to 2i + 2m so 2i + 2m so this is equal to the
expression by hydrogen balance. Then for oxygen balance here we are getting c + f + 2g left
hand side, right hand side 2 h + j + 2 k + m this we are getting and for nitrogen balance here left
side is d and right side is d by 2 into 2 that is d so both side matching and this d value is equal to
this one.
So 0.0286 and then e is equal to sulphur balance so left side is e right side is k so e is equal to k
and that value we can get from the sulphur .0031 and then here we are getting left hand side n for
ash and here also getting n for ash so both will be same so n we are getting the value is equal to
0.091. Now some of the coefficients value we have come to know, the rest we have to know, for
that let us see the molecular weight of this so we will put the molecular mass of this and we will
be getting 99.81 that is equal to say 100 gram we assumed that previously that 100 gram samples
we are getting now.
Now mass of peat by mass of oxygen it is given that is equal to 0.8 the problem statement says
and if this then mass of oxygen used per mole of peat is equal to 99.8156 divided by 0.8 so this
gram there is equal to 124.77 divided by 32 so it will come 3.899 moles, so mass of oxygen used
per mole of peat is equal to this much hence moles of oxygen use per mole of peat that is equal
to 3.899 moles that you can calculate.
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Then another information is also given in the problem statement that we will consider here that is
mass of steam by mass of peat 0.1 it is given so H2O use during gasification equal to how much?
H2O is giving the steam so that is equal to 0.1 into how much peat we have used 99.8156 so that
is giving us this gram and 0.555 moles divided by 18 so it will be this gram to moles conversion.
Then this steam was used for the reactions so we had some expression there f so this f was used
for the gasification.
Now we are able to get the value of f so the value of f is given here that is 0.555 and also you
have seen that h + j is equal to 3.125 and h and j value now we will use this formula b + 2f equal
to 2i + 2m so if we put the value of b, b is equal to how much we are having 11.078 and then f
we have calculated and then we will put here we will get the value of 2i + 2m so that that is done
here h + j is equal to this much so b and this equal to 2i + 2m.
So this equal to this much 2i + 2m if we add this so 12.188 so i + m is coming 6.094 we are
marking it as expression A. Then another expressions we had this one c + f + 2g is equal to 2h +
j + 2k + m we will use this formula now we have get the value of c, f and then we have get the
value of h we have got the value of c, f and now we will try to get the other values so, here this c
f and this one and this equal to this. So, this other values are known.
Again we see here h + j this one and j value is also here i and j that relationship is also given that
is j is equal to 2i CO and H2 ratio is 2 so j is equal to 2i it is given in the syngas. So, in this
expression h + j equal to 3.125 can be this j can be replaced by i so h + 2i equal to 3.125 so this
expression we are giving as B and which we have got here this expression that is equal to 11.217
by this time left hand side we are getting by addition of this 11.217.
So, we can get 2h + 2i + m is equal to 11.217 - this one 2 into 0.0031 so that is equal to coming
equal to 11. 211 so we are marking it as C so we are getting some new expressions.
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Then by C - B we can get this expression 2h + 2i + m - h – 2i so we will be putting the value of
this expression so then the right-hand side of C and B so this is equal to this, so h this i, i is
cancelled so h + m is equal to 8.086 is another expression we are getting. Again another
operation if we do D minus A then we can get h + m - i - m that is equal 8.088 – 6.094 so this
divided this - this is equal to this one and here again m cuts so h + h - i is equal to this one
another expression we are giving that E.
Another step if we follow the 2 into E + B then we get this + this equal to this + this or 2i 2i
cancel 3h equal to this one h is equal to 2.37. So, another expression you are getting that is equal
to F. So, putting the value of h the value of h in B we get h + 2i equal to this one or 2i equal to
this minus the value of h that is 2.37 that is equal to 0.754 so i is equal to divided by 2, so 3.77
that is another expression we are giving at G.
Now from G and A we can get m is equal to this minus this equal to this one. So, now we have
got the value of all the coefficients. So, on the basis of those coefficients we are getting the
composition of syngas that is CO2 is equal to 2.37 mol and H2 is equal to 0.377 moles CO is
equal to 0.754 mole nitrogen is equal to this divided by 2 so 0.0143 moles SO2 is 0.0031 moles
H2O 5.717 moles so total moles if we get that even 9.2354 moles.
So what will be the percentage? Percentage of CO2 that is equal to 2.37 into 100 divided by
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9.2354 so it is becoming 25.66%. Similarly for hydrogen it will be 0.377 into 100 divided by
9.2354 so it is coming 4.1% so for carbon monoxide 0.754 into 100 divided by 9.2354 that is
equal to 8.2%. Similar way we can calculate the percentage of nitrogen as 0.155% and SO2 as
0.034% and H2 as 61.90%. So these are the percentage of different components in the syngas.
Then the third part we have to solve that is the hydrogen yield and carbon monoxide yield so
what is the definition of hydrogen yield? Hydrogen yield we know that amount of hydrogen
present there are hydrogen atoms in the syngas divided by hydrogen atoms injected in the feed.
So, carbon monoxide yield is equal to carbon atoms in the formed CO divided by carbon atoms
injected. See in this case what is the carbon atoms formed that is CO the moles of CO that is
equal to j that is equal to 0.754 we have got.
And then carbon atoms in feed equal to how much it was given a that is 3.125 so what is the CO
yield that is this divided by this so 0.241 and for hydrogen what is the hydrogen atom in syngas
equal to 2i that is 0.754 and hydrogen atom in feed equal to b that was 11.078 we have calculated
and then hydrogen yield equal to this divided by this so it is coming is equal to 0.068 but this
yield are not very high.
The CO and H2 content is low because more oxygen you see in this case the oxygen by peat was
1.25 or peat by oxygen was .8. So, it is in the higher range .68 it is a typical value we had
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discussed in case of coal or gasification here it is .8 so more oxygen is provided so CO is
converted to CO2 that is why we are getting here less CO and H2 and then reducing the oxygen
by peat ratio as well as providing less steam the CO and H2 content in syngas can be increased.
So, now the whole problem is solved.
Now problem number 4 the statement says that a low grade coal is combusted in a fixed bed
reactor. The composition of the flue gas on dry basis emitting from it is as follows: So, 12.3%
CO2, 5.1% O2 and the rest is nitrogen, so from this data calculate the wet ratio of hydrogen to
carbon in the coal, the percent carbon and hydrogen in the dry coal and the percent excess air
used. So, here the flue gas composition is given.
So what happens in case of combustion the steam is produced and which is also available with
the flue gas. So, that flue gas after cooling, the moisture is reduced that is that is present in dry
basis. So, dry basis that composition is given here basically CO2 and oxygen and rest is nitrogen.
So, these are a simplification case we have it is given here other impurities are not considered.
So, on the basis of this information you have to calculate how much CO and hydrogen ratio was
present in the original feedstock? And what percentage of excess air was used?
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Now let us solve it so we are taking 100 mole of dry flue gas, this is our basis then what will be
the CO2 as it is 12.3% and O2 5.1% so this 12.3 moles and 5.1 moles it will be an inert will be
rest of it. So, 100 – 12.3 – 5.1 that is equal to 82.6% so 82.6 moles will be so oxygen available
with supplied air that is equal to how much 82.6 so we are assuming that 21% oxygen rest is
nitrogen so this into 21 divided by 79.
So 22 moles, so 22 moles of oxygen is supplied and that oxygen will react with carbon dioxide
and that will react with that oxygen will react with carbon and for produce CO2 and this will also
react with hydrogen and from H2O as per these expressions. So, oxygen consumed during
combustion equal to how much where we had 22 moles and now we are having 5.1 moles so this
difference the 16.9 moles were used during combustion through these two reactions.
Two types of reactions took place then from the flue gas composition it is evident that the coal
sample does not contain sulphur, chloride and nitrogen. Thus 12.3 mole of O2 is consumed by
carbon during combustion as per this expressions so one mole one mole so 12.3 mole oxygen is
consumed by carbon. Similarly oxygen consumed by hydrogen equal to 22 – 12.3 – 5.1 so 4.6
mole.
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Now hydrogen present in coal equal to how much? Because this 1 mole of oxygen is consumed
by 2 mole of hydrogen. So, 2 mole of hydrogen is present on each so 9.2 moles weight of
hydrogen in coal equal to 9.2 into 2 molecular weight of hydrogen 18.4 gram weight of carbon in
coal equal to how much 12 into 12.3 moles that is equal to 147.6 gram so weight hydrogen to
carbon ratio in coal so 18.4 by 147.6 that is equal to 0.125 and the percentage carbon in dry coal
that is equal to will just convert it this 147.6 divided by 147.6 + 0 + 18.4 into 100.
So, this is the percentage basis this much and hydrogen will be how much this is hydrogen18.4
divided by this into 100 so that is 11.08% and excess air supplied equal to how much we 5.1
moles and total how much we have supply it that is 22 and what was used 22 – 5.1 so that was
the required amount. So, what is excess percentage 5.1 divided by this one is these will be
30.18% okay. So, now we have solved all the problems on this tutorial, so thank you very much
for your patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-11
Petroleum as a Source of Energy
Hi friends now we will discuss on the topic petroleum as a source of energy. In the previous
classes we have seen that after coal the petroleum is mostly used as energy resource around the
world and this is also a fossil fuel. And now we will see what is petroleum? What is the
composition of it and what is the heating value of it and what are the different forms of energy
we can get from it and what are the issues, types of it etcetera.
So, now the contents are here, what is petroleum? Origin of petroleum, availability of petroleum
and energy production from it, types or grades of petroleum and petroleum products, its
characterization, its classification and energy content, composition of crude oil, pricing of
petroleum and petroleum for energy production: some issues. These are the contents of today's
discussion.
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Now let us see what is petroleum? so as the word says petroleum it is derived from the Petra and
oleum so Petra means rock and oleum is oil. So, literally it means that rock oil and it is defined
as a, it is basically a mix of naturally occurring organic compounds from within the earth that
contain primarily hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. So, petroleum and crude oil these two terms are
used widely and apparently both are similar and are used for the same purpose.
Where the crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, different types of hydrocarbons
paraffin’s, naphthenes and aromatics and brownish black in colour and colloidal in nature
petroleum is also similar, same. The only difference is that petroleum is a broad category that
includes both crude oil as well as the petroleum products. And if we see the elemental
composition of these it contains carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and metals.
So, mostly carbon then hydrogen but here hydrogen is more with respect to coal and heating
value is also higher in case of this. Now we will see the origin of petroleum, how the petroleum
was originated? In case of coal we have seen that there are different thoughts who explain the
formation of coal under the earth crust. Here also there are different thoughts, here some
thoughts says that it is originated from animal sources and some thoughts says that it is from
inorganic sources.
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So, one is inorganic and organic theory, unlike coal this is suppose that petroleum is originated
from animal sources but coal was from plant sources that is what this organic theory. Now if we
see the inorganic theory then this theory says that carbon and hydrogen came together under high
pressure and temperature below the earth's surface and formed oil and gas where chemical
reactions took place.
Organic theory says that the most that the substantial conditions for the formation of petroleum
such as saturated soil, absence of oxygen and high pressure and temperature conditions, under
these condition the decay of organic matters transformed into kerogen forming source rock. So,
that is the source of the petroleum and it is assumed that the animal bodies are converted to this
petroleum.
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Now what is the availability of petroleum and energy production from it? If we see the total
world oil reserves then we get conventional oil 30%, heavy oil 15%, extra heavy 25%, and oil
sand is 30%, so these are the different parts or the type of petroleum resources. And worldwide
reserve by region wise if you see middle-east have around 49%, then America, North America
13% and Central and South America 20% then Africa is only 8% and Eurasia is 7% but we Asia
has very less reserve. We also have some reserve but very limited.
Now if we see the world energy used by fuel then Asia Pacific region North America, Europe,
Russia, Middle East, South Central America and Africa we see here now while oil is used
everywhere in significant amount after coal. And the prediction says that we are here at say
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somewhere see prediction says that the world liquid oil and gas depletion has predicted in 2004
that in future the amount will be reduced, the availability of this oil may be reduced in near
future.
Now we will see the types and grades of petroleum. So, petroleum can be divided into different
grades depending upon the degree API that is a specific gravity. So, light crude, heavy crude and
medium crude oil. So, light crude means its degree API is higher more than 31.1 API and heavy
is dense oil so it is having API below 22.3. So, in between these two 22.3 to 31.1 this is called
medium oil. So, this is one way of classifications of the oil that is light, medium and heavy oil.
So, if we see the availability of the oil petroleum crude around the world we can get three major
locations the one is your West Texas Intermediate in America another is your Brent blend, it is
also located in the North Sea and then OPEC reference basket that is in Algeria, Iraq with Libya
Qatar, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Nigeria, Venezuela and UAE. If we say this crude oil it's
relatively of lower quality degree API is 32.7 whereas here we will get the highest quality 39.6
degree API and sulphur is also 0.24%.
And this is medium that a 38.3 lesser than 39.6 and sulphur is also higher than this 0.37% and
here the sulphur is higher and this API gravity is also lower. So, in terms of these three this is of
inferior quality crude oil.
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Now what we will see different crude oil will give us different yield. So, you see some example
Bombay High, Bonny light and Arab light and Kuwait. So, these different sources crude oil if we
take and if we want to refine it, we will not get the similar type of products. In India you see the
Bombay High crude we are having very high amount of middle and light distillates also but
heavy ends are also relatively less in this case.
So, the quality of the oil available in India in Bombay high it is good but Reserve is less but here
you see Kuwait the heavy end is very higher amount then middle distillate and then light
distillates. So, the origin of the petroleum will also can generate or can give different type of
liquids after its refining or we need different types of technology to process this different type of
feedstocks to get certain amount of liquid product.
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So, this slide gives us some comparison of middle-east crude quality that is Arab mix, Iran light
Iran heavy and Kuwait and Bombay High so these are the properties like say gravity, pour point,
wax content, asphaltenes, total sulphur and yields, light distillates, middle distillates, residue it is
given. So, one thing it is clear that here it is having less residue higher the API lesser the residue
obviously because it is lighter.
So, residual part will be less then what are the difference liquids we can get or different energy
we can get from this, different form of liquids which can be used for energy source from the
petroleum crude that we want to discuss. Now so crude will be refined first and different
fractions we will get.
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So, here we are getting the crude it is heated, pretreated that is fractionated in this column, after
fractionations we get different products as shown here C1 to C4 gases will get LPG here 220
degree centigrade and then here say C5 to C9 naphtha we will get 70 degree centigrade and C5 to
C10 petrol or gasoline we can get at 120 degree centigrade C10 to C16 we can get kerosene and at
170 degree centigrade.
And C4 to C20 we can get diesel oil that is equal 270 degree centigrade and C22 to C50 that is
lubricating oil and then C22 to C70 fuel oil and then the residual. So, these are the different
fractions we can get from the crude oil and those fractions can be used in different applications
like say LPG as a heat source and then naphtha is very, very important. Once naphtha can be
converted to different types of chemicals that petrochemicals so we can get Petro chemicals from
naphtha and as you know that diesel, petrol all those things are used to run vehicles.
And ATF aviation turbine fuel is also used that is the jet fuel there is a kerosene and ATF are
having very similar properties and others are fuels that is lubricating oil is also used for the
lubrications of machines. And residual part this is one issue that that can create a lot of pollution
and we have a scope to improve the quality of residue so that we can reduce the loss and we can
improve the economy of the process also.
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So, now we will see the different refined products so gasoline, diesel and jet fuel these are the
major products which are produced through the refining of petroleum crude and used in different
types of transport. And other secondary products are kerosene, LPG, fuel oil, asphalt, carbon
black oil, lubricating oil, waxes, petroleum coke and those things and sulphur if you can recover
then that can be used for chemical synthesis.
And NaHS that is used can be paper, copper mining and leather industries. So, these are the
different refined products which you can get from petroleum refinery and that can be used for
different applications. So, one way it is giving us energy other way it is also giving us different
types of petrochemicals. Now we see the heating value of the different products which we can
get from the petroleum crude refining.
So, LPG, gasoline, kerosene, diesel and residue, heating value is this much for a LPG 46.1 mega
Joule per kg then gasoline 46.5 mega Joule per kg, kerosene 46.2 mega Joule per kg, diesel 45.8
mega Joule per kg and residue 42.2 mega Joule per kg but in this case what we have discussed in
the previous slide also that there is a specific temperature it is mentioned but we have some
flexibility to vary this temperature and to maintain the or the control the quality of the products
also.
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Then different petroleum products which we get that we have different boiling points we have
discussed and that boiling point largely determines the size of the molecules and what type of
product will get more. And overlap in boiling ranges provides flexibility in products and just we
have discussed when you see LPG, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, light gas oil, heavy gas oil and the
residual. So, this is the temperature at which we can get, these are the temperature we can get
different types of product.
Now we will see what are the compositions of a petroleum crude or petroleum? So, petroleum
crude oil if we see that is hydrocarbons basically. So, it will be mostly hydrocarbons and non
hydrocarbons are also present those are called impurities. So, hydrocarbons may be aliphatic
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naphthenic, naphthenes and aromatics so these three types of hydrocarbons basically present in
crude oil and non hydrocarbons are like sulphurs, nitrogens, oxygens and metallics they are
basically present in it.
And typical range is given say 25% asphaltic, 17% aromatics, 50% naphthenes and naphthenes is
very important it is used for the production of different types of chemicals naphtha. And then
sulphur is this one nitrogen is less and oxygen is also less and metals is also very less, less than
100 ppm. And these are the molecular structure of these different types of compounds which is
present in it or hydrocarbons present in it.
This is aromatic ring it has and it has some naphthenic rings, naphthenes. So, aliphatic and the
paraffin are basically present in the crude oil and then isoparaffinic compounds are also present
in largely in large amount. So, isoparaffinic and paraffinic both are present in asphaltic.
Now we will see some example of this isoparaffin’s that is propane, n-butane, n-hexane, n-
heptane, n-octane, n-nonane, n-decane, n-undecane, n-dodecane, n-tridecane, so this is C2 to C13
some boiling range are given here. So, obviously the higher the carbon number more with the
boiling range. So, upto C3, C4 basically we get it in LPG.
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Now the paraffin’s which are available in petroleum crude basically they are having say CnH2n +2
formula, CnH2n+2 and the compounds which are higher carbon, which are having higher carbon
that is say C16H34 they are mostly in solid form and in some cases we get mostly we get C40H82
and in some cases we can get C100 even mostly up to C80 we get, in some cases we can get more
than that that is C100.
And these paraffin’s are low in heavy graded oils that is up to 35% in light Crudes and
Sulphonated this paraffin’s can be used for biodegradable detergent production and oxidation of
C8 and C30 N-paraffin’s results fatty acids and soap industries and oxidation of C12 to C14 normal
paraffin’s results secondary alcohols. And this paraffin wax which is available higher carbon
number of paraffin’s, they contribute on freezing point of ATF, Aviation Turbine Fuel. Cold
flow properties of diesel and lubes and ignition quality of gasoline and diesel.
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And isoparaffin’s which are available in this the general formula is CnH2n+2 and C4 to C33 have
been isolated in petroleum in higher extent and predominant form is here the CH3, CH3 chain as
a side chain is available in most of the cases and highest concentration of two methyl alkanes in
C6 to C8 range it is available and di and tri substituted are less abundant and are mainly present in
higher boiling fraction.
And most desirable components for the gasoline this one this isoparaffin’s are desirable for
gasoline, ATF and lubricating oil and these are the; if we have highly branched isomers then this
is not undesirable.
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The naphthene is CnH2n+2-2RN say this is one naphthene so how many this is C C C C C C C C so
how many moles num 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. So, 8 n equal to 8 so H we are having 2 H 2 H 2 H 2 H and
then 2 H again here we will have 2 H and 2 H and here 1 H and 1 H, so these 2RN, RN means 1
and 2, 1 and 2 we have 2 rings 2 rings so RN is the number of naphthenic ring in this case if this
one, we have one ring so RN equal to 1 so this is the general formula.
So here in this case n equal to 8 so that will be 8 + C8H2x8+2-2x2. So, this is the formula of this
naphthenic compound. Now in crude oil naphthenics are present about 50% by weight and its
quantity is higher in heavier fractions, higher the heavier the crude more the naphthenic
compounds. And if naphthenes are present then what will happen? They will give us more
naphtha and lubricating oil and these are stable hydrocarbon and cyclopentane, cyclohexane and
their alkylated derivatives are normally found.
In aromatic hydrocarbons aromatic hydrocarbons means some benzene ring will be available or
more number of rings may be available in this case. So, general formula is CnH2n-6 or C2nH2n-12 so
this is the formula and these are already 15% of weight in crude oil it is and more the this
aromatic present in it so what will be happen in this case octane number will be boosted. So, for
gasoline it will be preferable so the octane number of aromatic hydrocarbon is much higher than
the paraffins and Isoparaffins and these are chemically reactive and can form both addition or
substitution products and high amounts of polycyclic aromatic are present in heavy gas oil
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lubricating oil and in residues.
Now we will see main constituents of crude oil so basically carbon and hydrogen this is the main
constituent and different fractions of this LPG, gasoline, gas oil, VGO and residue if we see
basically the LPG paraffins then gasoline, paraffins, aromatics and naphthenes kerosene also
same and the residue is mostly asphaltic and their carbon range is given here. These are the
typical range.
Now how we will price the crude? How the crude oil is priced? What is the cost is decided on
which basis? Obviously it will be on its quality and degree API and sulphur content both are
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considered for its pricing. In case of coal we have discussed that ash content and moisture
content was also considered. So, in this case we have our sulphur and API they are used to fix
the price. And then high sulphur heavy crude is obviously in low cost.
If you see we increase these if you go that way so degree API is increasing the quality is
improved the light it is becoming lighter and lighter. And then sulphur content so sulphur content
is also reducing so cost is higher, higher cost low sulphur and high API this is the basis the price
is fixed.
But how the price will be fixed? There are benchmarks some benchmark one benchmark is your
West Texas Intermediate, WTI, and then this is also called as Texas light sweet another is Brent
crude and another is OPEC reference basket. So, in India we mostly dependent on OPEC
reference basket and the price is dependent on many factors what would be the crude price today
tomorrow it may change. So, that will be influenced by many factors those are supply and
demand fundamentals.
Then we have OPEC policies, the organization's of the Petroleum Exporting Countries they have
the members of this Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia etc so this country they have their policy
and political issues also influence it. The political and economic developments in the exporting
and consuming countries, so what is the relationship between India and Iran or Iraq or Kuwait so
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that will also influence the price of the crude. And weather conditions because how it will be
transported and what is the weather conditions that will also influence our crude price.
Then Petroleum for energy production: Some issues, we will be discussing some issues now. So,
oil based economy and carbon credit that is one issue. You know we, our society is mostly
dependent on oil utilization and it produces carbon dioxide. So, if we use more oil so we will be
producing more carbon dioxide so carbon credit will be in consideration so that is one issue so
you have to optimize the things that carbon emission will be reduced.
And depletion of high-quality crude oil, the high-quality crude oil is being reduced as you have
seen in a one slide that it is projected that the supply of crude oil will be reduced and even the
quality is also degraded day by day. So, lower the quality more the SOx emission and more the
ash emission, so industrial emissions will be more with the degradation of the quality of the
crude oil. And a sustainability issue, in 21st century sustainability is an issue where we have to
ensure the energy supply, we have to environmental quality and social equity.
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So, under these situation if we see the carbon emissions from liquid fuels so here we have
million tons CO2 released so total this much so year 2020 say 36834 million tons of CO2 is
expected to come from different types of fuels and liquid fuel from it is expected to come 13582
million tons of CO2. So, around one third of the total CO2 is coming from the liquid fuel so this
is one concern that how to control the carbon dioxide emission from these fuel if we want to use
more effectively this feedstocks for energy resource.
And then another target is that as per Kyoto protocol we have to reduce the carbon dioxide
emission level in 1997 which we had and now 2010 we had some target that 10% will be
reduced, the carbon dioxide emission will be reduced and 2020 it is targeted to reduce by 20% so
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we are under pressure we have to reduce the carbon dioxide emission from all source of energy
and other activities.
And this liquid fuel contributes on carbon dioxide emission so we have to take actions we have
to develop cleaner technologies for its proper applications. So, upto this in this class thank you
very much for your patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-12
Characteristics of Crude Oil and
Petroleum Products
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic characteristics of crude oil and petroleum products.
In the last class, we have discussed on petroleum, we have seen that what petroleum is? How it
is produced? And how did how it is different from crude oil? And we have also seen some
types of this and some issues for its utilisation. In this class we will discuss on the
characteristics of petroleum both crude as well as its different products.
So, content is, crude oil properties, then impurities in crude oil and methods for estimation, how
we will estimate that we will also cover in this class. Now we will see the properties of
petroleum, so, petroleum has some properties which are interesting for us as we are dealing
with its utilisations as energy feedstock. Like coal it also has some properties. But unlike coal,
this petroleum is mostly use to produce transportation fuel.
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So, the properties which are most important are density and API gravity, REID vapour pressure,
Pour point, viscosity, flash point, cloud point, wax content, asphaltenes contents, carbon
residue, ash content, distillation characteristics, distillation characteristics is important for this,
because, if for a pure compound we get a specific boiling point. But petroleum is a mixture of
compounds; large numbers of organic compounds, hydrocarbons are present in it.
So, each will be having different boiling points. So, when it is going for distillation so, then
different components will be vaporised at different temperature. So, we will not get a specific
temperature for this petroleum crude as a boiling point so, we will be having some initial
boiling point and one will be end boiling point for a particular part or particular sample.
Then we have base of crude oil, that is also one important parameters and then carbon and
hydrogen ratio and octane number, cetane number, diesel index, smoke point and flash point are
also related with the application point of view for some petroleum crude, petroleum products
like for example smoke point is used for kerosene. Octane number is used for gasoline and
cetane number is used for diesel. And over all heating values is very, very important as we are
dealing with the energy from the feedstock and different types of impurities are also present.
The one is water content, then salt content, then basic sediment and water, sulphur, nitrogen,
inorganic acid and trace metals. So these are the different properties of the crude oil. And we
will discuss the importance of these and how to measure these properties.
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First we will see density and degree API or API gravity. As you know density is nothing but
mass by volume (Density = M/V) of any substance and specific gravity is also used M by V
divided by M dash by V dash (Specific gravity = (M/V)/(M’/V’)) that means with respect to
water, so, it is the density of any material and density of water at 4 degrees centigrade that is
specific gravity. So, similar way API gravity has been defined by American Petroleum Institute
that is API Gravity = (141.5/specific gravity at 60 degree Fahrenheit) -131.5. So, this is the
definition of API gravity as for American Petroleum Institute.
And this is used to clearly understand the difference between fractions of petroleum crude. For
one example, if say, if we consider the water then specific gravity, API gravity will be 141.5 –
131.5, almost 10. But if it is lower; it is lighter than water then specific gravity will be less, so,
this minus this will be more than 10. So, for kerosene, we get 45 API, for moter gasoline, we
can get 58 API and for natural gasoline we can get 75 API. So, higher the API, lighter the
fractions of the product we are considering.
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Now, we will see some example of density and API and total distillate upto 370 degrees
centigrade. So, these are the source of different crude, so, if we see the maximum API is here,
say 47.08. So here we see maximum distillate. So, more the API lighter, more will be the
lighter that is why more the value of, here of the distillate product operate at 370 degree
centigrade.
And another properties REID vapour pressure, so REID vapour pressure that is the indicative or
what are the extent of volatiles present in the crude. So, it is determined under specific a
condition that is 37.8 degrees centigrade and as for ASTM-D-323 this method it is measured.
So, more the vapour pressure more will be the lighter fractions in the crude. If we take some
example, say in petroleum crude we get C2 to C8 or more than that. So, C1 is very less in this
case, so, C2, C3, C4, C5, n-C5 these fractions produces the LPG.
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So, how much LPG we can get from that crude that we indicated by the REID vapour pressure.
So, these vapour pressure if we consider for propane it is 14.1 kg per centimetre square, butane
it is 6.6 kg per centimetre square whereas for crude oil it is 0.01 to 0.05 kg per centimetre
square. Another property is pour point and ash content. So, pour point indicates the solubility of
this that means, it is that temperature at which the fuel ceases its flow.
So, it is related with the wax content also, more wax, more easy to get, to cease the flow of it
and it alongside the viscosity this is also used for pumping design and then wax content as you
know that paraffins of having carbon more than 16 is solid. So, this solidified paraffins are
considered as the wax in it and this is determined by Engler holde method and under this
method is based on the solvent extraction method.
So, as shown here, the two solvents that is absolute ether and absolute alcohol solvent system is
used. And then paraffin wax is precipitated at -20 degree centigrade. So, this is a method of
determination of the wax. Now, we will see asphaltenes, carbon residue and ash content. They
are also important parameter of the crude oil, asphaltenes basically is related with the residual
part, more the asphaltene we will be having more vacuum residue.
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And this is nothing but the poly nuclear condensed aromatic compounds and its solubility is
also different in different solvents, and we can take advantage of it for its determination where
it is insoluble in heptane and soluble in benzene/toluene solvent. Next is your carbon residue,
so, carbon residue it is a carbonaceous material. So, it is if we evaporate it and finalise it at
specific conditions, then it will be remaining some residue so that residue is called carbon
residue.
And conradson method is used and ash content we can measure from the proximate analysis
and just like coal here also ash content is related to mineral matters present in it. Metals which
are present that also contribute to ash and you can convert the ash into dry basis and wet basis
also as provided here.
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And Conradson carbon residue we can determine under specific condition we will take the
weight certain amount of material, we place it in a crucible and subject to destructive
distillation during a fixed period by some severe heating, after that we will collect the residue
and how much is left that is considered as Conradson carbon ratio and is expressed in terms of
percentage with the original sample.
Salt content is also one parameter of the crude oil. So, when the crude oil is taken out from the
underground, then it forms it contains different type of material including water and salt.
These salts are basically sodium, potassium, calcium and magnisium chloride and the salt can
be present as crystallised solid or maybe dissolved in water, which water can form an emulsion
with the organic phase in the oil in the crude oil. As shown here so one Brine droplets, salt in
water Brine droplet, so this droplet size is maintained by the formation of a layer and resins,
asphaltenes, waxy agglomerates, carboxyhlates and naphthenates or alkyl benezene all those
things helps to get the stability of this brine droplet.
And some brines may also b, some salts may also be available in terms of particulates, so or
solid particles. So, this is a salt and this salt if present in crude that will create lot of problem
and above certain limit it is not desirable in the refinery, it will create pollution, it will give the
irregular behaviour in distillation, it will be fouling the heat exchanger and it will also cause
equipment corrosion.
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So, these are the disadvantage of the salt and if we think about different type of salts, mostly
sodium is used at 70 to 75% typically, magnesium at 15 to 20%, calcium is around 10% and
magnesium salt mostly gives a HCL so, that is corrosive in nature.
Then for the determination of this salt, some methods are available, that is here, silver nitrate
and KCNS method by titration or by conductivity measurement based on the standard sodium
calcium and magnesium chlorides and standard solutions in mixed alcohol. So, these are
methods which are used for its determination. Then metals which are available metals, which
are available in crude oils, are mainly lead, nickel, vanadium and copper.
So, it will also contribute on ash when it will be burn then soot will be formed and particulates
will be formed and it poisons the catalyst. So, the lesser the metals more we will get the quality
of the crude or of the derived product from it.
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Now, this can be measured by using atomic absorption spectroscopy and another property
sediment and water. So, as I told that, when crude oil is taking out, then it contains salt,
different types of sediments which are basically sand clay, volcanic ash, drilling must, rust iron
and sulphide and metals and different types of scales. So, these contributes the sediment and
water is already available in the crude oil.
So, the presence of these affects the process of refining and it damages that is the plugging
abrasion and residual product contamination. So, these are the important effect of these
contaminants on the crude oil. And water causes irregular behaviour in the distillation and for
the measurement of this there are a number of methods that is Base sediment and water
measurement is ASTM D 96, Sediment by extraction is ASTM D 4007 and Water content Dean
and Stark or ASTM D 4006 methods.
Now we will be discussing some property of the refined products that is your octane number.
Octane number is the property of the gasoline and it is related with the knocking property of it.
Now what is the resistance of a motor fuel to knock, this indicates.
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So, more the octane number more the quality of the gasoline and this is also called octane rating
and octane number are based on a scale on which the isoocatane is 100 and heptane is 0. So if
we have a fuel, which burns in the similar way, which are having the similar knocking property
with a blend of isooctane and heptanes in that blend, what is the percentage of isooctane that
will be the octane number of this fuel.
And for the determination of octane number, some standard machine is used in laboratory. So,
in that case, what number octane number we get that is called research octane number and it is
determined by running the fuel in a test engine with a variable compression ratio under control
condition and the comparing the results with those for mixture of isooctane and n-heptane as it
to what is the percentage of isooctane in this mixture, that will be the having the similar
knocking barrier that will be the octane number.
So, that is called your research octane number and when the vehicle will be on road with actual
loading, then it will be consuming some amount of more energy so motor octane number is also
used in this case higher RPM is used a whereas that is equal to 900 RPM, but for RON it is 600
RPM. Another property that is Anti knock index is also used in some country to get the
knocking behaviour of the gasoline.
And this is defined by R+M by 2, research octane number plus motor octane number divided by
2 then we come to cetane number. So, cetane number is the property of diesel.
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So, it is a relative measure of the interval between the beginning of injection and auto ignition.
So, how much time it is late that is the indication of the cetane number and again like octane
number there are two compounds here the cetane which is having 100 and 100 number and then
for one methylnaphthalene it is zero. And isocetane is also 15 so 0 and 100 will be blending
with different ratio and used in the specified machine and you will get the delay period and then
that will be and the percentage of cetane will be the cetane number.
So, catane number is measured by burning the fuel in a cooperative fuel research engine under
standard test conditions a wheel is their, hand wheel is used to increase the compression ratio
and then this compression ratio is increased until the time between the fuel injections and
ignition is 2.407 millisecond. So, then this cetane and 1-methylnaphthalene mixture is also used
in the similar way on the same compression ratio, then time requirement is considered and then
for the composition which is having the same time, in that mixture, the percentage of cetane
will be the cetane number.
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And another Aniline point and diesel index; So, for diesel cetane number is measured for other
fuels like say lubricating oil etcetera for these diesel index is measured and diesel index is
defined as aniline point in degree Fahrenheit into API gravity divided by 100. So aniline point
is measured first then diesel index is measured. So, what is aniline point? It is a temperature at
which equal volume of aniline and the lubricant oil will be mixed.
See if we get that temperature we will put it here. If we have the degree API of the fuel, then we
will multiply it by it and divide by 100 will get the diesel index. So, next is acid value. So,
crude also have some acids organic and inorganic acids may be available in it and total acid
content we can measure by its titration with base solution. And it is defined as total acid
number TAN that is equal to mgKOH required to neutralise all the free acids per one gram of
crude.
So, this is our total acid number. Similarly, total base number is also determined by the titration
using perchloric acid.
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Viscosity is another property of the crude oil, which is very important for its transportation and
for pumping purpose. As you know, the viscosity indicates the resistance and so, in one form
layer flows on the other layer that is the fluid one fluid layer is flowing on the another layer that
experienced resistance and that is related to the viscosity. So, it also represents the thickness of
the oil and is determined by measuring the amount of time taken for a given measure of oil to
pass through an orifice of a specified size.
So, for the determination of viscosity, what happens for a simple arrangement we can make, we
can pass the fluid through orifice and know what time it is taking we can measure it because
this is a flow through a porous channel we can consider and in this case, we can use the
Poiseuilles’s equation that is η = πr4 Pt /8VL and we get η is viscosity coefficient.
And P is the hydraulic pressure and t is the time of falling and V is the volume of liquid
collected an L is the distance travelled by the liquid during time t and r is the radius of the tube.
So, in this formula, we can see the π, radius of that tube is fixed, V volume how much liquid
you are collecting, that can also be targeted and fixed and then L is the length of the distance
travelled by the fluid. So that L is also fixed for the system.
So we can get η = kPt. This P is nothing but related to P, the hydrostatic pressure it is
proportional to Kmt we can get, because P proportional to m. Now, if we have 2 fuels one is
standard known viscosity and another viscosity is not known, we are getting what is the time to
fall certain distance through the orifice for both oil samples.
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Then we will get the viscosity coefficient ratio by this mt/mrtr where mr is the reference mass of
the reference fuel and t is the time required to travel the same distance by the reference oil and
this is for our which I want to determine t the time required by the oil which we are interested
to get the viscosity and mass is the mass of that oil for which we are interested to get the
viscosity. So, now we can get the value of viscosity coefficient.
So this viscosity can be measured by different ways. As mentioned here, viscometer are there
Ostwald viscometer, Falling sphere viscometer, falling piston viscometer, oscillating piston
viscometer, vibrational viscometer, rotational viscometer, bubble viscometer.
Another property is flash point. So, if we heat any fuel, it will produce vapours. So, if we can
bring one matchsticks for ignition, immediately the temperature will come at which sufficient
vapour will form and flash will take place at the first time. So, that temperature is called Flash
point if we apply more heat and temperature will increase and more vapours will form and fire
will take place and that time that temperature has a minimum temperature at which fire takes
place that is called fire point.
So, Flash point and fire Point are the properties of the liquid fuels which are produced through
refining of the petroleum crude and it is determined in an Open Cup system and closed cup
system. In Open Cup system, the flash point varied with the height of the flame above the liquid
surface and at sufficient time the measured flash point temperature coincides with the fire Point,
but in case of closed cup, there is a lid and we get the; we bring the ignition source for a
moment and we get the flash.
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So, it has been shown that the value of flash point in case of closed cup is normally lower than
that obtain through Open Cup and it is typically 5 to 10 degrees centigrade lower. Then asphalt
properties, asphalt, which are present in the crude oil that will be available in the residue,
vacuum residue and this is made of some polymeric compounds and it is aromatic rings are
present in it as we discussed and it may be directly used.
That is the straight run that means starting off vacuum unit or PDA propane deasphalting. So,
vacuum residue we are getting that is directly we are using or we are separating the lighter part
from it by propane deasphalting and using the asphalt. So, that asphalt is called straight run
asphalt. So, Cut Back; so cut back we are using some solvent here. So rapid cut, a rapid cure
RC that may be Naphtha diluent, when we use naphtha then that is called rapid cure.
We can use kerosene with asphaltene that is called medium cure and slow cure when gas oil is
used. Apart from these emulsion asphalt is also available when the water is added with these 30
to 50% water plus emulsified chemicals then gives the emulsion asphalt and then industrial or
blown asphalt another type of asphalt is also available, which is formed by the air blowing in
hot asphalt and these asphalts that is industrial or blown asphalt these have some applications as
your waterproofing material and it is harder than the asphalt.
So, it has some properties that is softening point and hardness these properties are measured to
assess its quality, the softening point is a lowest temperature at which standardised weight and
shape will sink into asphalt that is around say 80 to 340 Fahrenheit and hardness it is the depth
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to which a test needle penetrates into asphalt over a time at specified temperature as a certain
condition is maintained and how many what is the depth penetrating needle is going inside that
is the hardness related to hardness. Zero pen, 30 to 40 pen millimetre and 250 to 3000
millimetre pen is reported.
So, there are some impurities in the crude oil also like say sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen. So, the
sulphur is present in elemental form or in case of sulphide or oxide form. Some organic sulphur
is also present and those are called Mercaptans. So, different products have different types of
sulphur as for example present H2S and Mercaptans in LPG, sulphur Mercaptans in gasoline
kerosene ATFs.
And to remove the sulphur we can use some sweetening process that is caustic washing,
mercaptan oxidation etc. And nitrogen present in elemental form and also as oxides of nitrogen
and it forms acids and causes corrosion. So, removal is necessary to get on grade products and
secondary units feedstock. And oxygen present in the elemental form and also as compounds of
oxygen, it forms naphthenic acid and causes stress corrosion.
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Sulphur content is may vary, it may be low sulphur up to 0.5% it may be medium 0.5 to 0.8%
or maybe high greater than 0.8% these are some example of different crude different crude oils
and different sulphur content. So, you get medium and high as well as low. So, crude oil and
their sulphur content.
Method of sulphur determination there are a number of methods. So, some important are
colourimetric method or barium sulphate method it is also known as and Wickbond method and
the combustion method this is and then X-ray fluorescence method and ICP-MS. So, these are
the different methods I have mentioned here. These are the number, test number and these are
detection limit and here are some interference which can compounds are elements which can
interfere on the detection.
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So, for the nitrogen, so, it is poor colour stability of production, nitrogen gives poor colour
stability of products; it is poor stability in storage and handling also and poor quality of
feedstocks for catalytic processing. So, removal of nitrogen is important and required. So, now,
we see the different crude and presence of nitrogen and sulphur in it. And nitrogen can be
determined by some methods.
There is micro coulometric, chemillumini scence, micro kjedhal and modified kjedhal. So,
these are the methods through which nitrogen is determined and different products are used for
this purpose and detection limits are also given. Apart from this CHNS or elemental analysis
can be done to measure the carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen of the crude oil
sample. Upto this in this class on the characteristics of crude oils and petroleum products, thank
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Energy Production
Lecture-13
Refining of Crude Oil for Fuels Production
Hi friends, now I will discuss on the topic refining of crude oil for liquid fuels production. So,
in the last two three classes we have discussed on the petroleum and then how it is produced its
properties and characteristics and different products which you can get through the refining
also. Now we will be discussing more about the refining part that how the crude oil is refined to
get different products what are the process steps and what are the reactors which are involved or
the reaction steps which are involved for the production of the different liquid products.
So, the contents of these refinery flowsheet, desalting, atmospheric distillation, vacuum
distillation and conversion processes, so if we see the conventional flowsheet of petroleum
crude refining then it we see that after taking the crude it is to some extent processed at
production site and then it is transported to refinery. And then refinery perform some
preliminary operation or pre-treatment step then it is sent to the atmospheric distillation
column.
And then residue of the residual part of the atmospheric distillation column it goes to vacuum
distillation column for further recovery of liquids from it and then the residual part of the
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vacuum distillation column is further processed in the as downstream up-gradation or
downstream processing.
And then different heavy lube oil, bitumen, syngas or fuel oil etcetera, are produced. Now we
will start from here the desalter the first step at the refinery. So, the main objective of the
desaltar is to remove the salt sediments and water present in crude. Because we know this crude
oil when it is getting into, entry into the atmospheric distillation and fractionated into different
fractions into products that is naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, gas oil etcetera.
Here the salt concentration should be less than certain value that is 2.9 ppm but here the crude
which is produced in some cases has very high concentration of salt so that has to be removed.
Now we will see, prior starting the discussion we will see the quality of some Indian crude that
means what are the different fractions we can get from Indian crude.
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So, that is Bombay High, North Gujarat mix, Assam mix, we get gaseous 1.9% 0.4 for north
Gujarat mix and 2.4 for Assam mix. So, in general this is which is for LPG content is very high
in Indian crude not less. And SR that is vacuum residue part is also less in this case Bombay
high and Assam mix although it is higher for north Gujarat mix and it is comparable to middle-
east crude that is 30.5 this gives us some idea that we can get different amount of product
different products in different amount.
But then if our requirement is specific say we need more diesel but these crude are having
certain capacity if we turn 100 ton then it will give us 24 it is in 19.2 it is 26.6 say but I need 50
ton so I have to convert other product into this specific one. So, that a conversion of this
process of the products into the required part is also very important that we will discuss later.
Now we are coming to desalting part.
Desalting as you know the purpose of this process is to remove the undesirable impurities
specifically the salts and water and some sediments also if it is available. And one or two step
process is used for this purpose.
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And as I have mentioned that 2.9 ppm salt is allowable in refinery in the distillation column but
in some cases it is having very high say 250,000 ppm and normal it is 200 ppm. So, it is very
high quantity of salt. So, if we see the salt content in sea water it is 35,000 ppm whereas in
some crude it is having more than much more than this. So, the removal of salt is very essential
for its further processing in the refinery and that is done in desalting step.
And what is the mechanism? How it works? So if we see the water is present in the crude either
as a separate phase or it makes a water in oil emulsion. So, when it is available in separate
phase it is easy to separate, it can be simple gravity can also separate it. So, gravity oil-water
separator, surge tanks or desalting vessels all those will easily separate this water but water
which is in emulsified form that is not very easy to separate.
And that emulsified water also contains the salt of the crude oil so our objective to remove that
emulsified water along with the salt from the crude oil that is the desalting step. And as we have
discussed that salt is present in the form of crystalline solids or soluble in the emulsified water.
So, if we want to remove this salt so one way we can if we are able to remove the emulsified
water then salt will come.
But that salt which is in crystallized and as a solid form that cannot be removed for that we
have to add some more water. So, water is added, heat is applied so that the external or the solid
salts can be dissolved in it. And heat will also help to break the emulsion and emulsified water
along with the brine will also with the salt so the brine solution will come out from the crude so
this is the principle of this.
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The desalting step so how it is done the initially salt separation takes place at the production
side as I have mentioned that is the separate phase of the water can be separated easily then it is
transported to the refinery side.
And then desalting takes place and water is added and then mixed and it is using mixing valve
for static mixers to ensure a proper contact between the crude oil and the water and then passing
it to a separating vessel where the separation of phases takes place water and oil phase. Then
how much fresh water will need that will obviously depend upon the salt content normally 3 to
10% is used and this salt content is also indirectly assumed by its degree API or specific
gravity.
So, specific gravity also helps to decide how much salt how much water fresh water needs to be
added. So, once we are giving the place water then it will dissolve the solid salts and we need to
break the emulsified droplets also. So, how we will do it some emulsifiers are also added some
chemicals can be added or heating can also work on it or some electricity can be applied.
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So, if we apply electric field then the circular layer which we showed saw that brine droplets
this brine droplets has one here say water droplets in circle in the crude oil this is containing
different types of molecules which is which is at the surface of it and it is giving a stability to
this. So, we have to break this so now this positive and negative if charges which are available
at the surface. Now if we apply a positive and negative field electric field by apply by using a
positive and negative electrode then these will be oriented.
The positive and negative ions will be oriented and it will be the deformed it will be deformed
and rupture can also take place. If we apply very high voltage then this will rupture and small
particles will form. So, that may be more stable so this is the phenomenon, which can take
place in the crude related to emulsified water droplets. So, we are adding fresh water here and
this fresh water when we are adding this is not having that much of plus minus ions on it.
But when it will be getting some time to be in contact and proper mixing will be there and then
we can see there will be some coalescence. The droplets which we are adding the fresh water
droplets and emulsified water droplets can coalesce and it will settle, this is a mechanism for
the renewal of this. And the mixing of this that will depend upon easy mixing of this will
depend upon the rupturing of this emulsified layer.
So, that emulsion the breaking of the emulsifying droplets of the water in it and this application
of electric field is used in the resulting devices in the refinery.
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And the factors which affect the performance of the desalting process are settling time see if we
have one desalter, desalter is a horizontal vessels so the crude oil along with water flows
horizontally and then applied then voltage is applied electric field is generated. So, in this case
the settling times of the crude in this the oil particles in this desalter. Then demands
demulsifying injections how much demulsifies we are adding how much heat we are adding.
Then addition of fresh water how fresh water we are adding and effective mixing of oil and
water so that two different phase the other we transfer up salts from the organic to aqueous
phase and how many chemicals for breaking the emulsion we are using as well as electricity the
electricity will also help to break the emulsion. So, now if we see the settling time so if we
consider a Stokes law region the settling time or settling velocity will be this one.
So, now R is the radius of the droplets and Δ ρ is a variation in a difference in the density of the
liquid and water and your and the oil phase and then this η is the viscosity of the oil phase. So,
now if we want to get less residence time we have to get more v, more v we can get by
increasing r the diameter of the droplets which is done by application of heat or by application
of electric field.
We can get the more Δρ value so that more Δρ value means ρ1 – ρ2 that has to be increased. ρ is
the oil phase and this is water phase so if we use more water so that the variation this difference
will change. If we increase the temperature then also density of water will change and oil will
change so that Δρ will also change and viscosity will also change with the temperature.
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So, when maximizing the size of the coalesced water drops we can get electric field. So, electric
field we are applying the particles are will come together the water droplets will come together
it will be bigger one so it will settle quickly and maximizing the density difference between
water droplets and oil phase by heating and fresh water addition just we have discussed.
And minimizing the viscosity of the oil phase less of this more the v so we will be getting less
distance time and more efficiency or more performance of the desalting process.
But how much electricity will apply that will also guided by this formula F = KE2d6/S4. So, here
F is equal to electrostatic force between two adjacent droplets and the E is a voltage gradient.
So, how much gradient we are applying and K is the dielectric constant and d is the diameter of
water droplets and S is center to center distance between two adjacent droplets.
So, these are the factors which decide what will be the electrostatic force to adjacent droplets.
Now there is some critical voltage if we apply more voltage then the particles can be emulsified
and water droplets can be broken into smaller one and can be more stable one. So, this critical
voltage is given as this formula is Ec = k (T/d)1/2 when T is the surface tension d is the diameter
of droplet.
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Now we will see the desalting process, desalting as you know that this is a horizontal vessel
separation takes place. So, here we will be adding water fresh water and our crude oil. So, fresh
water is added here this is going to this place and crude oil is coming here and demulsifying
agent is also added. And we are giving proper mixing and then through valve and then it is
separated. So, oil phase will go up low density and water phase will come from the bottom as a
density is higher.
So, this is the process for the desalting now mixing valve we have used we have added here
demulsifier agent but some configuration is also there without the demulsifying agent the heat
can also be working it can also work as heater emulsifier. So, look in this case unrefined crude
and process water enters into this gravity settler and it where electric field is applied where
electric field is applied.
So, we are in some case we are using the demulsifier agent in some case electric field is applied
and in reality electric field is applied and it has more efficiency for the separation of the salts
from the crude oil. So, we will get desalted crude and we will get effluent water.
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The typical operating conditions of desalting units is temperature around 120 degree centigrade
to 130 degree centigrade and it will depend upon as I have mentioned that depend upon the API
gravity of the crude. So, here it is shown crude API gravity increasing so we are having higher
temperature. And pressure is around 2 to 3 kg per centimetre square above bubble pressure to
prevent vaporization.
Typical residence time is 20 to 30 minutes that is dictated by electrode area and mixing valve
typical pressure drop is 1.07 to 0.5 kg per centimetre square and wash water addition is around
4 to 6% somewhere it is 10 to 7% also mentioned. And there may be single step or two-step
process so if the salt content is less, we can go for single step if it is more then we can go for
double step. If we want to get more purity we can go for double step.
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For a single step you see crude storage then it is we are taking it to pre heat exchanger and we
are adding fresh water along with chemical injection. So, chemical injection fresh water and
crude it is coming and heated and it is mixed then desalting. So desalting oil phase and water
phase so brine to dispose and this water we are using and then we are using for fractionation in
atmospheric distillation column.
The single step desalting process here we can get around 95% of solid removal and well
concentration is also less we can go for it and high concentration we can go for 2 step to get
more cleaning of the salt for removal of the salt from it and in this case the water which is
added in the first step is coming out from the water generated in the second step. So, that is
used here and then in the first step we are getting water.
So, this water we are taking some at the disposal and some part we are using here also and then
the second part it is coming the oil part from the first desalter it is going to second desalter for
further removal of the salts from it and we also add fresh water. So, this water is again going
there and some part is going to this part. So, that way we are getting the removal of the salts
from the crude oil with the water.
And after heating it comes here to atmospheric distillation so this is two-step process for
desalting. Next we are coming to atmospheric distillation unit. So, atmospheric distillation unit
this here the fractionation takes place. So, vapours are formed at higher temperature then it goes
up and then condensation takes place then the vapour condensed and it is it comes here so we
will get liquid product and here also in between we can also get different other products.
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And then pump around is used to get the more purity of this product different fractions and this
is a after desalting crude is coming here and normally atmospheric distillation is a very large
vertical steel cylindrical column with diameter of around say 65 centimetre to 11 meter and
height up to 60 meter and here normally we are having say 40 to 50 actual trays in it. And we
have 2 to 3 trays there is some pump around and temperature here 8 to 10 degree above water
dew point that is 120 to 130 degree centigrade typical and flush zone below cracking
temperature that is 350 to 385 degrees centigrade and here it is 120 130 degree centigrade and
pressure drop we get here pressure drop in condenser 0.3 to 0.5 kg per centimetre square and
for tray there is some pressure drop that is equal to 0.08 to 0.1 kg per centimetre square.
And in this process we get different products and those products are LPG, light naphtha, heavy
naphtha, aviation turbine fuel, kerosene, light gas oil and heavy gas oil that is your high speed
diesel and then atmospheric residue. We will see now some properties of these different
fractions so LPG obviously most important is your vapour pressure that is 16.87 kg per
centimetre square and volatility evaporation temperature for 95% volume at 760 millimetre
mercury level.
So this is the pressure and this will be having 95% of the LPG vapour from at 2 degree
centigrade and gasoline we get recovered up to 70 degrees 10 to 40% that we discussed that this
is not a single compound it is a mixture of compounds. So, if we heat and the vapour which is
formed if we cool it down then up to 70 degree we will be getting 10 to 40% in liquid and then
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up to a 100 degree we will getting 30 to 65% and after 180 degree will be getting 80%
minimum.
So, this is a gasoline property and final boiling point is to 215 degree centigrade and red vapour
pressure at 30 degrees 35 to 70 kilo Pascal per centimetre square.
Similarly the ATF has its own characteristics aromatics how much it is present then distillation
again say 10% 205 degree centigrade and the final volume point is 300 degree centigrade it has
some smoke point that is 26 millimetre that is minimum. Smokes point means when it is burned
if we sorry if we apply heat then the fuel will produce smokes and what is the length of this
height smoke height that is called at the smoke point.
So, freezing point is -47 degree centigrade maximum, flash point 38 degree centigrade that is
minimum and then RVP is 35 to 70 kg kilopascal per centimetre square. So, for similarly for
kerosene we are having volume percentage below 200 degree centigrade is 20 final boiling
points 300 degree centigrade and flash point 35 degree centigrade minimum and smoke point
18 millimetre minimum sulphur is 0.25 weight percent.
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High speed diesel it also has some this 90% volume should come at 366 degree centigrade and
flashpoint is 32 degree sulphur is 0.25% and cetane number is 45 and these are the revised data.
And fuel oil we have some sulphur content high sulphur viscosity is also higher in this case
than flashpoint is also higher in this case.
Now if we think about the design variables for the atmospheric distillation column.
Atmospheric distillation column and desalter both are considered simultaneously. So, desalter
temperature and pre flash then heater outlet temperature and flash zone temperature, over flash
and then column and flash zone pressure and type of condenser whatever condenser we are
using for cooling the vapour and to get in, get it into condensed form.
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They also influence the performance and it is also design parameter and location and number of
pump around and stripping of stream and number of trays how many trays we use that is also
important design consideration. Next we are coming to vacuum distillation so after atmospheric
distillation after 370 degree centigrade the residual part we need to process in a vacuum
distillation.
So, in this case we create some vacuum that is say 10 to 40 millimetre mercury absolute
pressure is maintained in this case. So, once the vacuum is created so at lower temperature also
more than 370 degree centigrade the some compounds from the residue atmosphere residue will
be vaporized. As the pressure is less or vacuum is created so more volume will be available so
the size of this type of column is generally bigger and diameter is more that is say 15 meters or
more and height is also say around 50 meter.
And in this case we see we need to maintain a pressure gradient from the top to the bottom so
they are less pressure and they are higher pressure the gradient is also maintained. And here
also the packed bed is preferably used in this case because most of the column uses packing
material for the vapour liquid contacting because such packing has a lower pressure drop than
distillation trays. So, here it is coming here so we are getting some time and then different
products we are getting LVGO.
And HVGO with you heavy gas oil and light gas oil vacuum obtained from the vacuum
distillation column. So, you have gas oil now we have HVGO and we are having LVGO and
then residual part we will get from the vacuum distillation unit that can be further upgraded.
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And video design issues are like say preheat train say heater outlet temperature then flash zone
temperature, type of column or pressure, type of vacuum and then steam rates and then type of
internals, top temperature, number of location of pump around here also just like this just like
atmospheric distillation we can use some pump around and ejector versus vacuum pumps or
combination. So, how the vacuum has been created at the steam ejector or vacuum pump so that
also a matter of consideration for its design.
And this VDU vacuum distillation unit can produce feedstock for FCC or can produce
feedstock for lube plant so that way it can be fuel ways and lube based process. So, for fuel
base the products are diesel light vacuum gas oil heavy vacuum gas oil, slope distillates and
vacuum residue. Whereas for lube based the products are spindle oil, light neutral, intermediate
neutral, heavy neutral and vacuum residue.
Now we have discussed how the crude oil is pretreated or desalted and then it is passed through
the atmospheric distillation and get different liquid products from it and the residue from the
atmospheric distillation is further distilled in the vacuum distillation column and we get
different products LVGO, HVGO and the residue. Now we have also mentioned that the
specific need may be different at different country of a particular product and accordingly the
refinery may not give us the liquid product in the same ratio.
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So, we need to convert the one type of product to other one to meet the requirement as well as
to meet the quality of the product. So, to improve the quality of the product as well as to meet
the specific requirement of a certain product we need to convert one product to other.
So, here different operations are used those are called conversion processes in the refinery and
those conversion processes are some examples are catalytic, FCC process, hydrotreating
process etcetera and apart from these alkylation reforming process or a polymerization process
are also used in some cases to achieve the target to fulfil the requirement as well as the quality
of different products. So, this way the crude oil is converted to different usable forms and upto
this in this class thank you very much for your patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-14
Conversion of Intermediate Products
Hi friends now we will discuss on the topic conversion of intermediate products. So, in the
previous class we have discussed on the petroleum crude its properties and characteristics then
how we can produce different liquid products from the petroleum crude in a refinery and we
have seen that different liquid products like naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, ATF and diesel or
vacuum residue or atmospheric residue we get.
So, these products have different applications and requirement of these products may change
from time to time. So, to meet the requirement in the market the refinery needs to convert these
products from one form to other form as per the requirement of the market as well as to maintain
the quality of the product and environmental requirement also.
So, this conversion processes we will discuss in this class and the contents are need of
conversion of intermediate products then major conversion routes there are basically two major
routes one is carbon rejection and another hydrogen addition. And other routes are also we will
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discuss that is reforming, isomerisation, alkylation, polymerization and blending.
The need of the conversion already we have discussed that we need to meet the market
requirement so one product to other product conversion is necessary. And also to improve the
product quality I will give some examples that how the some specific property of that particular
fuel oil or that particular liquid oil can be improved by these conversion methods. And already
have discussed meet the market requirement of different products and then achieve
environmental standards.
Now we will discuss the carbon rejection routes that is basically cracking it takes place in
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presence of catalyst or in absence of catalyst. So, the cracking means the application of heat to
crack the bigger molecules of hydrocarbons into the smaller part smaller ones. So, the liquid
fractions or we can get more amounts of liquid lighter liquids and that is the main objective of
the cracking. And if we apply catalyst then the requirement, the process requirements the high
temperature is reduced to some extent.
So, we have two types of cracking one is thermal cracking another is catalytic cracking and the
thermal cracking temperature is around say 500 to 700 degree centigrade and pressure is around
70 atmosphere. However if we use catalyst then the temperature may be 475 to 530 degree
centigrade and pressure requirement is also less that is 20 atmosphere. If we apply this cracking
process may be in thermal or may be in catalytic path.
So, the higher hydrocarbons will be converted to lower one. And the two processes having
different mechanism of this conversion so one the thermal route that follows the free radical
mechanism where as the catalytic route follows the carbo-cation, productions are carbenium and
and carbonium ion productions so there are two CR5+ or CR3+ that is carbonium and carbenium
ion respectively. So, the mechanism is different and requirement of energy is also less for the
catalytic route that is why it can take place at lower temperature.
Now we will see the catalytic route that is fluidized fluid catalytic cracking. So, when catalyst is
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used in a fluidised bed and then feed is fed through this reactor. So, this is the riser part of the
reactor and this reactor here the catalyst is coming as a recycle. So, this catalyst and the feed is
reacting here and then we are getting the product there that side. And this catalyst after use in the
reactor is coming to the regeneration part.
And then after regeneration it is again recycle so this is a closed circuit and where the catalyst
and fuel is coming in contact and giving us the required product. So, this is our one fuel say
which is having less requirement in market. So, you want to convert into other fuel where will be
having more requirements. So, this is the concept of the process or this is the descriptions of the
FCC process and now what can be the feedstock we can use.
In this process different types of feedstocks have been used like say a vacuum gas oil, hydro
treated VGO or vacuum gas oil, hydro cracker bottom then coker gas oil De-asphalted oil,
reduced crude oil and vacuum residue so any one of these feedstocks can be processed through
this so that we can achieve more valuable products from this. So, what are some examples of
these products are say dry gas, we can have LPG, we can have light cracked naphtha.
We can have heavy cracked naphtha we can have light cycle oil and clarified oil. So, this
naphtha when the naphtha requirement and LPG requirement is high in that case we can explain
the conversion in terms of this that feed how much feed you have taken minus this part. Then
remaining part is here so divided into 100 divided by feed. So, this is the conversion of this
process. Now we will see the typical conditions under which this FCC reaction takes place.
So, here if we consider here, so obviously catalyst and feed is coming in contact with it so what
is the ratio of catalyst and feed I am giving that is important. What is the temperature we are
maintaining here so here again riser is there so at what temperature the regeneration of the
catalyst is taking place that will also influence the degree of regeneration of the catalyst as a
whole the performance of the process, what type of feed we are using that will also influence this
one.
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So, we will see catalyst to oil ratio there are Indian and foreign units FCC units are there typical
properties are shown here that is catalyst to oil ratio 7 to 9 for foreign unit and 5 to 9 Indian unit
say reactor riser temperature that is 540 and is a 490 to 510 reactor contact time there is also very
important there is 1 to 8 second here 1.5 to 3 second. Feed-end point then that means what type
of heat we are using it is 600 to 621 here 540 to 560.
Regeneration temperature that is related with the catalyst here it is 700 to 750 here 640 to 730
and then carbon on regenerated catalyst. So, what is the extent of the regeneration of the catalyst
that is the indicator of the carbon deposited on it and then this is for foreign units this 0.05 to 0.1
and this is .3 to .6 or .01 to .02 regeneration regenerated pressure that is 1.75 kg per centimetre
square here it is 3 kg per centimetre square.
So, these are the comparison of two FCC units which is in India and in foreign. Now we will see
the reaction mechanism and how the cracking takes place when we choose the FCC process.
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So, in this case there are number of steps the first is initiation the first initiation takes place then
is propagation then it is cracking and then we go for isomerisation and cyclization. So, we will
see how the cracking reaction initiates. So, we have one hydrocarbon say and then we have
catalyst so protonation can take place with this hydrocarbon so 1 H+ from this is coming here and
being added to this CH so this CH+.
So then another process may be possible this may be catalyst so that will take 1 hydrogen from
this so R1CH2CH+ and then we are getting here R2, so this way hydrogen that is protonation or
hydrogen abstraction takes place that is the initiation. So, we are getting now the carbocation so
that carbocation will react with another hydrocarbon and then there will be some hydride
transfer. So, this is called propagation step.
So here we had plus charge and another hydrocarbon so this charge has shifted here and now we
are getting this one n-R2 another hydrocarbon and this charge is shifted to this one so that is why
this is called hydride transfer. So, 1 hydrocarbon to other hydrocarbon it is transferred. And then
cracking step so we are getting this one, this carbocation there will be some cracking in this
chain so beta scission it is called.
So, beta position see if we have a positive charge here so these positions will be cracked so we
are getting R3+ and then CH2CH and R4 so this will be there some double bond and then R3 will
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be separated as R3+ and then we are getting this other product. So, this is called a cracking step
so we are getting a smaller hydrocarbon now from a bigger one. So, that is desirable to improve
the quality. And now the carbocations which is produced here what type of carbocation so we are
discussing here that this hydrogen transfer takes place from one to other hydrocarbon.
So if it is more stable the carbocation is more stable, so this one and this one out of these two
which one is more stable? this one or this one this one we have to decide and if you can decide
then we can we can predict that this conversion will take place or may not take place. So, it has
been seen that if this carbocation is tertiary in nature it may be in secondary or maybe in primary
in nature.
So, it is shown that the tertiary has more stability than secondary and then primary. So, that way
product nature will also change.
Then isomerisation may also take place so we have on secondary carbenium ion in this case. So,
there may be some isomerisation so this H+ some you see so RCH2 and C+CH3CH3 so this can
also take place that is called tertiary carbonium ion, so secondary to tertiary formation can also
take place and then cyclisation, some cyclization reactions can also take place in this process so
as shown here this is our hydrocarbon so this is converted to cyclic form.
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This is also 2 hydrocarbons they can make this one okay so that way the cyclization reaction can
takes place and alkylation, condensation, polymerization can also take place alkylation may take
place condensation may take place and polymerization may take place. So, these are the different
type of reactions which can take place during FCC process.
Now what are the factors that influence the FCC performance? Already we have mentioned some
of those that is a feed rate, those are the independent parameters on which it depends the feed
rate then recycle ratio, feed preheat, riser top temperature, reactor pressure and press catalyst
activity that what is the extent of regeneration of the catalyst and then fresh catalyst selectivity
also the how selectivity so that we can get a particular product in higher extent.
And some dependent variables are also there that is regenerated temperature then catalyst
circulation rate then regenerator airflow, coke on regenerated catalyst and product yield.
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Now we will see other type of cracking in which hydrogen is added so if we add hydrogen then
we will be getting more liquid and at the same time we will be able to remove some sulphur
nitrogen etcetera. So, that is the advantage of this hydro cracking reactions and we see different
types of feeds are also used for this process and different products can also be achieved. So,
some examples are straight run gas oil.
So, gas oil which is produced directly through the fractionation in atmospheric distillation so that
is that can be used vacuum gas oil which is obtained from the vacuum distillation column that
can also be used cycle oil, coker gas oil, thermally cracked stocks and solvent deasphalted
residual oils. So, after solvent is deasphalted then what liquid we get that can also be used for
hydro cracking and then straight run naphthas and cracked naphthas.
So those are the feedstocks for this hydrocracking process and some products are liquefied
petroleum gas LPG, motor gasoline, reformer feeds, ATF, diesel fuels, heating oil solvent and
thinners, lube oils and petrochemical feedstocks. So, once we are getting naphtha will be the
naphtha is converted to petrochemical feedstocks so that is the use of this.
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And we will see the chemistry of this hydrocracking process so like FCC process here also
different types of reactions can take place. And obviously hydrogen addition is taking place here
so we will get we will get some hydrogen analysis. So, we will be adding hydrogen that
hydrogen will break the structure here say benzothiophene so due to the addition of hydrogen
this structure will be converted this is broken here so lyses is taking place.
So that is hydrogenolysis due to the addition of hydrogen we are getting some lyses is in the
structure the organic compound and then similarly quinoline and this one then hydrogenation say
poly aromatics hydrogenation so we have one naphthalene. So, if we add hydrogen so this
unsaturation will be removed so in one ring it is shown and in this second step again the both the
rings unsaturation is removed.
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So that way hydrogenation can takes place or hydro dealkylation can take place hydro
dealkylation can take place here say this is your one aromatic hydrocarbon we are adding
hydrogen so then we are getting hydrogen addition here plus dealkylation. Alkylation
dealkylation also taking place alkyl group is removed from this ring so that type of reaction can
also place. Another example is here only dealkylation has take place.
And then hydro decyclisation see if we have this type of compound if we add hydrogen then de
cyclization this is a cyclic compound due to this there will be some cracking and then hydrogen
addition. So, these two different compounds we are getting here which is not having cyclic
structure so here decalin, hydrogen it gives this type. So, these are some typical examples and
numbers of reactions are may be possible during the reaction conditions.
And then hydro cracking can take place so this is a cracking bigger molecule so it is converted to
smaller one. Hydro isomerisation some isomerisation can also take place so this is one
hydrocarbon this can be converted to this one so isomeric form of it.
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So different types of reactions can take place during the hydrocracking process or in the hydro
crackers. So, if we think about the catalyst and their properties then the catalysts will be having
some dual functions one is cracking we have to crack it and another is hydrogenation and
dehydrogenation. So, one is cracking another is hydrogenation and dehydrogenation these are the
basic process which is available during the whole process that is why the catalyst should have
two sides.
One will favour the cracking another will favour the hydrogenation dehydrogenation reactions.
So, for the cracking reactions the active sites is acidic in nature and say some examples is silica
alumina or say crystalline zeolite modified zeolite along with binder so these are the some
examples of acidic sites in a catalyst. And there will be some other sites for hydrogenation and
dehydrogenation and these sites are basically containing a metal that is noble metals maybe
platinum, palladium or non noble metals like molybdenum and tungsten or nickel cobalt has also
been used to increase this hydrogenation and dehydrogenation capacity of the catalyst.
And noble metals less than 1% non noble metals 2 to 8% see if we use noble metal the catalyst
will be costly but obviously noble metal in noble metal using catalyst the requirement of noble
metals is less but non noble metal requirement is higher than this for example 2 to 8% for nickel
cobalt and 12 to 30% for molybdenum tungsten dioxide. So, to reduce the cost of the catalyst the
non noble metals have been introduced and the noble metals have been replaced by this although
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there are some comparison between the performance obviously the noble metals catalysts are
more then the non noble metal catalysts.
Now what type of reactions will take place? What will be the product distribution? that will
depend upon the extent of this acidic site and these your basic sites of these two catalysts. So,
accordingly the product pattern will change and depending upon the feedstocks also this can be
monitored the active sites number of active sites can be monitored. And since and the catalysts
can be designed.
Some example we will show here so this is our desire reactions we want to hydro crack naphtha
or LPG, naphtha to LPG or gas oil to gasoline so this is our to say desired reactions we need to
do it so our catalyst should have strong acidic site. And then hydrogenation activity is moderate
and then surface area high, porosity low to moderate. But when we go for gas oil to jet fuel and
middle distillate conversion as gas oil to high viscosity lube oil conversions then we need
moderate acidity.
Moderate acidity and hydrogenation activity is very strong so we need to add more hydrogen in
this case. So, surface area is high. Similarly when we go for hydro conversion of non
hydrocarbon sulphur and nitrogen then obviously we do not need that acidic behaviour because
our objective is to remove the sulphur and nitrogen so not to crack the molecules may not be the
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cracking of the molecules may not be that important. So, in that case we are using weak acidity
and then hydrogenation has to be strong because S and N has to react with the hydrogen to give
H2S NH3 so that way depending upon the nature of conversions which we are interested to
achieve in this process we can design the catalyst as per our requirement.
Now we will see the process how the hydrocracking can take place. So, here we need hydrogen
and we need feedstock we have to provide temperature and pressure. So, here we are makeup
hydrogen we are providing some pressure and fresh speed so it is coming here so that way it is
going and heated preheat it and it again some heating arrangements and it is coming to reactor
stage 1 so this is one first reactor for hydrocracking.
So, after reactions the product is again here cooled down and then it is coming for pressure
release to high-pressure separator. So, high-pressure separator we are getting some gas so it will
be coming and again it will be recycled with hydrogen. So, it is going to this loop and then the
liquid part which we are having here that is going for lower pressure plus again we are doing
reducing the pressure here.
So, low pressure flash drum it is coming so again we are getting some gas molecules gas and the
remaining part is going there for debutanizer. So, some again some pressure reduction so
debutaniser, butane is recovered here then it is going for different fractionation. So, for
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fractionation and in the fractionators we get different products light naphtha, heavy naphtha,
kerosene, gas oil etc. So, the residual part again it is going and added with makeup hydrogen and
it is entering into the after preheating it is entering into the reactor 2.
So, second stage conversion we are taking the objective is to get more liquid conversions more
conversions. So, then it is coming and from second reactor again it is cooled out and then high-
pressure separation. So, then high pressure separations we are making a flash so we are getting
flash after flashing temperature pressure reduces. So, then the vapours goes there and it is added
with the hydrogen for this recycling of this and helps for the hydrocracking.
And in the bottom part of this it is coming and send to the low pressure flash drum so again for
the recovery of the gases from it so this is a overall flow sheet which is followed to perform the
hydrocracking of different products intermediate products.
Now we will see the operating conditions these are mainly dependent on feed characteristics and
product pattern which we desired that we have already discussed. And some typical example are
given here for a hydrocracker processing VGO’s to produce maximum middle distillates the
reaction temperature is around 370 to 450 degree centigrade and reaction pressure is 160 to 200
atmospheric pressure.
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And LHSV that is 0.6 to 3.0 and what is LHSV? that is the liquid hourly space velocity which is
the ratio of liquid volume flow per hour to catalyst volume. So, fractionating section has
operating conditions similar to conventional distillation unit.
So these are some operating conditions now we will see the comparison of FCC and
hydrocracking so obviously when we are using hydrogen we need to provide sufficient pressure
for the reaction of hydrogen with the liquid part. So, gas phase and liquid phase reaction so we
need to increase the high pressure so pressure is high here for FCC we do not need that high
pressure. Operating temperature here it is high but in this case temperature is relatively less
because hydrogen is present there.
So, construction cost is moderate for FCC, hydrocracker is high because it requires high
pressures so cost is also higher, products olefins is high here, here it is nil. So, olefin will not be
available because we are providing hydrogen so olefin unsaturations will be removed. And then
light naphtha octane number it is greater than 100 but here we get 78 to 81, so unsaturation is not
there so octane number is not much with respect 100 where we get in FCC.
But heavy naphtha octane we get in 95 to 100 where 40 to 64 and then they distillate cetane
index so cetane index here it is low and we have 56 to 60 and distillate sulphur content obviously
in this case will be having moderate to high because sulphur removal does not take place in this
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case but here hydrocracking sulphur removal takes place. So, will be very low sulphur will be
bottom sulphur content is also very low in this case of hydrocracking. So, that way we can
compare the FCC and hydrocracking process.
Now we will see the reforming and isomerisation process so reforming means reforming will
reform some products to other one.
So, basically in this case it helps to produce high octane number reforming so it helps to produce
high octane number reformate octane number reformate and different type of reactions which we
get here that is naphthene dehydrogen and then paraffin’s dehydrocyclisation and the linear
paraffin’s isomerization and Nephthene's isomerisation. So, dehydrogenation and isomerization
are desired product desired reactions.
Whereas adverse reactions which can take place here that is hydrocracking, hydrogenolysis
hydrodealkylation and alkylation, transalkylation and coking. So, these are not desired for the
reforming. And isomerisation is required to produce branch say C5-C6 hydrocarbons that is
gasoline product. So, when we need more gasoline to improve the quality of gasoline this
reactions is preferred.
Here also this is also reforming is also preferred to increase the octane number. Then we can add
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some blending so blending is possible so that can help to improve the quality of the product as
well as to meet the requirement of a specific fraction. So, some example will show here.
So, typical motor gasolines that may consist of straight run naphtha from distillation atmospheric
distillation so a straight run naphtha which we are getting, that plus crackate from FCC crackers
which gasoline we are getting. We can make some proper blend we may get reformate,
reforming is also giving us gasoline that part can be blend. Alkylate, isomerate and polymerate
so different reactions can give us some gasoline type product so if we can mix it then ultimately
gasoline blend will get.
And that may have higher octane number than the straight run gasoline. So, in most cases the
components blend non linearly for a given property that means if we mix these different gasoline
from different sources. So, after the mixing what will be the property normally it is not that
linear it is non linear and some correlations are developed to predict what will with the properties
of this.
Then polymerization and alkylation another type of reactions which are also used for the
conversion of one intermediate product to other form that is polymerization and alkylation.
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The in polymerization the light olefins are introduced to combine or polymerize into molecules
of 2 to 3 times their original molecular weight so, smaller molecules are converted to higher one.
So, the catalysts employed are acidic that is phosphoric acids on pellets of Kieselguhr. So, that is
used and we see here it requires high pressure in the order of 30 to 75 bars and temperature is
175 to 230 degree centigrade.
And this polymerization derived gasoline may have higher quality some example is shown here
polymer gasoline derived from propylene and butylenes have octane numbers above 90. This
alkylation reactions also achieves long-chain molecules by combination of two smaller
molecules so one being an olefin and the other as Isoparaffin. So, sulphuric acid can also be used
or hydrofluoric acid can also be used for this reactions.
This alkylation when sulphuric acid is used that is 98% concentration and say and the
temperature is 2 to 7 degree centigrade. The octane number of these alkaloids may be 85 to 95 so
this so polymerizations alkylation’s all these processes helps to increase the octane number and
to give better quality gasoline.
So, we have discussed different type of reactions which can take place or which you can use to
convert one form of liquid to other one to meet the market requirement as well as to improve the
quality of that particular liquid fraction, thank you very much for your patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-15
Tutorial 3
Hi friends, now we will have one tutorial session and this is based on the last four classes we
will see the problem number one, which says.
The API gravity of natural gasoline and kerosene are 75 and 45 respectively. Determine the
difference in their specific gravity and also explained the need of API gravity. Now, we will
solve it. So, we have discussed in our previous class that API gravity = 141.5 / specific gravity -
131.5. And this is proposed by American Petroleum Institute. Now, in this case, we have API
75 for natural gas and 45 for kerosene.
So from these relationship, if we can get specific gravity equal 141.5 by API gravity + 131.5
Why just will take this way. So, this part, if we take left side, the API + 131.5 so this is coming
here. So, for one case, for natural gasoline, we have the degree API 75. So we will put it the 75
So, 141.5 divided by 75 + 131.5. So we are getting 0.685. But in case of kerosene, we have the
same formula will put the API as 45 has given and then 131.5 it is becoming 0.802.
Then what is the difference? This minus this so you will get 0.117. So, this is the difference in
the specific gravity of these two. Now the last part is what is the need of API gravity. So, we
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have a specific gravity definition then what is the use of this API gravity. Now, you see the
difference in API gravity is 30, 75 - 45 for this very small difference in the specific gravity so
.117 So, if there is some other liquid fuel having in between, say this is .802 it is .685 between
7.07.
So, this difference will also be less, so, smaller the scale it is difficult to identify the different
components. So, once we can increase this in terms of degree API, that is 30 difference where
0.117 so we will be having better chance to isolate and to identify different fuel properties,
which are important for certain operations. So that is the use of API gravity unit.
Now, in the next problem, the statement says same amount of aniline and a lube sample is
heated under specified conditions and these are mixed at 80 degree centigrade. So to same
amount it is mixed in the laboratory in a particular arrangement then it is giving us 80 degree
centigrade. If the specific gravity of the lube oil is 0.88, so determine the diesel index of the oil.
So we have the diesel index of that lube oil, which is having specific gravity .88.
And then it is also given that same amount of this oil and aniline mixes at 80 degrees
centigrade. So we have already discussed the diesel index (D.I.) = (Aniline point (Fahrenheit
degree) x degree API) / 100. So this is the formula. So here aniline point of the present value is
equal to what the temperature at which equal amount of aniline and oil mixes. So, this 80
degree centigrade it is converted to Fahrenheit.
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So this plus this 176 Fahrenheit, so we will be putting these one as aniline point and degree API
we have to calculate, the specific gravity is given, we have to calculate the API. So what is the
API gravity, this is a formula we already have. So, now we will put it so 141.5 by 0.88 – 131.5
so 29.3 we are getting here (141.5/0.88-131.5 = 29.3). So we will put this one in this
expression, so it is coming 176 aniline points into 29.3 API and divided by 100 (176 x 29.3/100
= 51.6), so, it is coming 51.6.
Our next problem says to break the water in oil emulsion the crude oil electric field, to break
the water in oil emulsion in crude oil electric field is applied during desalting operation to
remove the salts, how would the force of attraction between the water droplets varies if the
electric field is increased to thrice the previous value. So, this deals with a desalting problem so
we have to predict now what will be the force of attraction will change that we have to
calculate, force of attraction between the water particles or emulsified water droplets.
We can say water droplets will feel experience that okay. So, we have already discussed in our
previous classes that this force of attraction can be represented by this formula F = KE2d6/S4.
So, where F is the electrostatic force between to adjacent droplets and E is voltage gradient and
K is the dielectric constant and d is the diameter of water droplets, this is d in the diameter of
water droplets. This is the centre to centre, distance between two adjacent droplets. So, this is
known to us we have already discussed.
Now, the problem statement says that if the electric field is increased, to thrice the power
electric field what is this, voltage gradient. So, voltage variant is tripled. So, 3 times increase.
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So, if it is 3 times increase the F will be 9 times increase, because this is proportional to E
square. So that is why the attractive force will be, will become 9 times than the existing one
okay.
So, next problem 4 it says that during desalting process, after coalescence, the water droplets
containing salt settle down in a desalter. How would the settling rate of these droplets change if
the viscosity is reduced to half by increasing the temperature? So, when this desalting operation
is taking place, if we increase the temperature viscosity will be reduced and it is given in this
case that it is reduced by half 50% is reduced.
So, then in this case, how the settling velocity will change. So, we can assume this as a laminar
flow and then Stokes law will be applicable. And this is the formula of stokes law. So, this v is
the terminal settling velocity which is 2 into r square del Rho the density difference and then
viscosity of the media (v=2r2(Δρ)g/9η). So, now, what is happening this is inversely
proportional to viscosity. So, what will happen in this case? The viscosity is reduced to half, so
viscosity is reduced so, if its reduced then this will increase the temperature increase to decrease
the viscosity of half its reverse value the settling velocity will be doubled.
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Next problem says that the API gravity of West Texas Intermediate crude oil is 39.6. What will
be the volume of 1 metric tonne of this crude oil in barrel unit? So, we know that 1 barrel is
equal to 159 litre then, specific gravity we have this formula 141.5 divided by specific API
gravity + 131.5 (141.5/API Gravity+131.5) already we have discussed in a previous problem.
So, we will put this formula here. So, getting .83 so, this is a specific gravity of this.
Specific gravity once we get that means that volume of 1 kg oil = 1/0.83 = 1.2 litre that you
known so, then we have 1 metric tonne So, 1 metric tonne means = 1000 kg, so 1000 x 1.2 litre,
so, that will be these much of litre. So, 1200 litre. So, if it is 1200 litre then what will we get;
what will the value in barrel value divided by 159 so, we are getting 7.55 barrel.
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Next volume says Watson characterization factor and the US Bureau of Mines correlation index
CI are used to determine the aromaticity and parafinicity of an oil. Calculate the Watson
characterization factor and correlation index of n-pentane that is TB is 97 degrees Fahrenheit TB
is equal to true boiling point and specific gravity is equal to 0.63 and asses the nature of it. So,
what type of compound it is that is n-pentane?
On the basis of the values which we will calculate that is Kw and CI we can predict it, okay. So,
to solve this problem, we have to determine the Kw value, we have to determine the CI value.
And we have to compare these values we the standard one or with the literature value, then we
will predict what type of compound it is. Now, we will see what Kw and CI is, so, Kw is the
characterization factor that is defined by or developed by UOP and this is CI that is correlation
index is developed by US Bureau of mines.
The objective was to measure now, what is a aromaticity and parafinicity of any oil and Kw is
determined by this formula that is equal to TB to power one third and specific gravity by
specific gravity at 60 Fahrenheit and CI is defined by US Bureau of mines that is 87552 divided
by TB + 473.7 into specific gravity - 456.8. So, these are two formula and it is also provided in
literature, the Kw w value is around 15 then it is highly parafinic compounds and if it is less
than 10 highly aromatic compound.
And for a highly Naphthenic crude it is 10.5 to 12.9 for a parafinic crude base if it is; and CI
index that is a correlation index CI that CI scale is based upon straight chain paraffin’s having
CI value of 0 if it is straight value of paraffin’s then CI value will be 0. And if it is benzene then
it will have CI value of 100. So, these are the literature available. So, our objective will be to
determine the Kw and CI value first and to compare these values with this literature value.
So, for the case, what is Kw? Kw is this, so, what is TB true boiling point and it is given 97
degrees Fahrenheit. So, this TB not in degree centigrade or Fahrenheit it is in rankine. So, that is
you have to add 96 + 460 so, this is rankine to the power one third divided by 0.63 that is
specific gravity it is given. So, we are getting 13.06. So, Kw is 13.06 already just to have
discussed that around 13 or 15 it is paraffinic compounds.
And 10.5 to 12.9 for a paraffinic crude base so; it is paraffin one in n-heptanes. And if we
consider the CI value, then this is the expression CI value is 87552 divided by TB that means 97
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+ 460 + 473.7 into .63 and minus this one it is becoming 0. So, once it is becoming 0 that
means, it indicates that it is straight chain paraffin and now we compare n-pentane it is a normal
straight chain and pentane is paraffin. So, now did salt and by the value of the CI and Kw we
can predict whatever compound it is.
Next problem says that a catalytic reforming plant produces hydrogen and benzene from
cyclohexane by dehydroaromatization. In order to increase the production of hydrogen the
owner plans to change the process to steam reforming of the same feedstock that produces
hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Stoichiometrically what is the maximum ratio of pure hydrogen
produced in the proposed process to that in the existing process?
So, what we have to do in this problem, we have to see what will be the ratio of hydrogen
production of the proposed process and the existing process. Existing process is the dehydro
aromatisation and proposed is your steam reforming. So, this process Cyclohexane we have,
this is the existing process dehydroaromatisation and this is the second process, which the
owner is proposing to reform it in presence of steam in this form.
So, one mole of cyclohexane if we consider, then it is giving 3 mole of hydrogen the existing
process whereas, the proposed method is giving 18 mole hydrogen. So, what will be the ratio 18
divided by 3 (18/3 = 6) that is equal to 6.
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Next problem says a gasoline mixer is formed by mixing different types of compounds as
provided in the following table. Determine the requirement of n-butane to make this gasoline
with Reid vapour pressure RVP of 10. The RVP and molecular weight of n-butane are 52 and
58 respectively. So, this table, show us some data that is our base stock this is a blend gasoline
blend which is having LSR gasoline and then reformate and then alkylate and FCC gasoline.
So, straight run gasoline and then reformate, alkylate then FCC. So, we are mixing with this is
barrel per day so it is 4000, 6000, 3000, 8000 so, these are the production will mix it and then
we will get some mixed gasoline. So, in this BPD it is this is pound per hour, these are the
pound per hour, mole per hour is this one you converted and mole percentage is given. So, Reid
vapour pressure for each component is given here also okay.
Now, we have to decide what amount of n-butane we can add with this mixture, so that overall
RVP we can get 10. So, this is the problem statement and we have to determine what ratio what
will be the ratio or what will be the mole per hour here, what will the mole per hour of this n-
butane. So, that will give us the 10 RVP, so, that is the statement.
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So, now, in this case, we can assume that the after mixing, what is the mass of this we are
getting the total moles of this how much total moles of the blend we are getting and what is the
RVP of the total blend. So, that is equal to individual components which are getting their moles
and their RVP if we sum it up the moles and RVP of those the components that will be equal to
the total mass total moles of the blended product into RVP of the blended products (Mt (RVP)t
= summation of Mi (RVP)i where i = 1 to n). So, this is the formula we will be using.
We have in this case 3, 4 components and we will be adding these 5 now will be having 5
components. So that way we can get so this is the formula that is Mt is a total moles blended or
blended products, RVPt is the specification and RVP for the products psi and Mi is the moles of
component i and RVPi will be the RVP of component i.
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So in this case the RVP of the gasoline original gasoline mixture will be how much, original
gasoline mixture we have without adding this n-butane this is your original we are considering
so what will be the RVP so we can get mole per hour. If we take one hour basis so this will be
mole and this will be the RVP. So this into this + this into this + this into this + this into this
sum it up then divided by the sum of this.
So by adding these we are getting 2179 and then what we are getting here divided by 2179 this
is not 2179 so we will be getting 5.38. So, 5.38 we are getting so that is the RVP of the original
gasoline mixture. Now, let the n-butanol requirement is M mole per hour. So, what do we this
M into RVP of M that is n-butane that is 52 it is given in the problem statement plus this, the
other one now 2, one is the original mixture now butane two we are mixing.
So that will be this into this and after mixing what will be the total moles of this, this + M so
that is 2179 + M and what is the requirement of RVP of this product 10 as per the statement.
So, this is equal to 10. So this expression we are getting so from these expressions by
summarising we are getting this plus this equal to this plus this by rearranging this M, we are
getting 42M is equal to 10,067.
So M is this divided by 42. So 240 moles of normal butane is required, so now we are getting
240 moles of normal butane is required. So, then we can make this table. So, what do we get the
normal butane per hour is 240 mole per hour, what is the molecular weight 58. So, pound per
hour 13920 and then BPD is 1647 barrel per day. So, this is a requirement of n-butane to make
the blend, which will be having RVP of 10.
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So, now we have solved the problem. Next problem says that how much heat required to raise
the temperature of 1000 pound of a 40 API mixed based oil from 100 to 600 degrees
Fahrenheit. So, we have to determine here how much heat is required to raise the temperature of
1000 barrel of a 40 API mixed based oil from 100 to 600 degree Fahrenheit. So, how can solve
it? We have to define the average specific heat.
So average specific heat we have to determine within this temperature. If we can do it, then we
will use it. So mCpdt that formula will be using mass x Cp x temperature difference. So
temperature difference in this case 100 to 600 degree so 600 - 100 will get and then Cp we have
to calculate and mass is given 1000 lb. So, how can we get the average Cp that is the most
important part and that can be determined in a graphical method; some graphs are available as
shown here.
This specific heat Btu per degree Fahrenheit per pound and here temperature with respect to
Fahrenheit. So, if we see in this case, we have 2 temperatures 100 and another is 600 Fahrenheit
and our oil is 40 API. In this graph, we see different API are shown so 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70
like this. So our case is 40 so, we will consider this case this 40 case and we have temperature
one is 100. So, this is our 100 and we have another 600.
So, if we go up and we take this one this line, so it is coming here. So, this value is almost
coming below .5, so, it is around .48. So specific heat at 100 degree Fahrenheit, it is coming .48
Btu per degree Fahrenheit per pound. And specific heat at 600 degrees centigrade, it is coming
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here. This is below .8 and above .7 so .75, so, it is coming .775. So, from this graph, we are
getting this .775.
Then what will be the average? So we will be getting the average by this + this divided by 2
that is equal to .627. So, the average Cp value is .627, other way we can also get that 100 and
600. So in between is 350. So, if we take 350 curve and 40 degree specific gravity, then also it
is coming the same value that is your 0.627. So, now we are able to get the average specific
heat. So then we will apply this formula mCpdt.
So m, dT and Cp so we are getting this 313,500 Btu. So now the problem is solved. So in this
session, we have solved 9 numerical problems on this topic. So thank you very much for your
patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-16
Impurities Removal from Liquid Fuels
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic cleaner liquid fuel production from petroleum
crude. In the previous class we have discussed how to produce liquid fuel from petroleum crude
and now we will see how the liquid fuels can be produced more cleaner. Actually, we have
come to know that the petroleum crude contains different types of impurities, let us say salt
content sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen etcetera.
These impurities can create some problem and during the refining process, these can also be
transferred to the liquid fuels and when the liquid fuel will be used as a transport fuel at that
time pollutions will come. So, we need some cleaning options, the some methods to remove
those pollutants from the liquid fuels. Secondly, we have come to know that the residual part
particularly the one vacuum residue contains high asphaltene, high sulphur, high metals etc.
And this part is of less interest to the refiners and poorly managed and creates lot of
environmental problems. So, up gradation of this vacuum residue is required and that can give
us a cleaner route or cleaner option to the overall refining process. And it will also help to
increase the economy of the refining process. Thirdly, we have come to know that gradually the
petroleum crude quality is decreasing its sulphur content is increasing, viscosity increasing and
degree API is reducing.
So, the processing of this heavy crude through the conventional technology is not that effective
may not be that effective. So, we need some alternative technology to use these feedstock heavy
feedstocks for its refining. So, these are the topics or sub topics we can say we are going to
discuss in this module.
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And in this class we will discuss basically on the impurities removal. And the contents are
impurities and need of their removal. Then process for impurities removal, like sulphur
compound removal and then sulphur nitrogen and metal removal. So, sulphur can be removed
by sweetening process. And all Sulphur, nitrogen and metal can be removed by hydro treatment
and we will make some more discussion on this topic. So, as you have discussed that crude oil
contains different types of impurities, salt and Sulphur, nitrogen oxygen etc.
And desalting processes used to remove the salt from the crude oil, but that salt which is
dissolved in emulsified water or in the crystalline form. And basically we have seen their
sodium, calcium, magnesium, chloride are removed mostly apart from these. We also have
some other, other metals. So, we will discuss how to remove those and sulphur can also be
present in this case, as inorganic sulphur and organic sulphur. So, we will discuss how the
sulphurs can be removed.
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So, this sulphur removal process is called the sweetening process, sweetening of the liquid fuel
and it is most important for the refiners to improve the quality of the liquid products. And this is
done by alkali extractions and hydro treatment.
The impurities removal are very important because it helps to improve the quality of the, of the
product. Now, we will see in which form sulphur is present in crude oil. So, it can be an
inorganic form or maybe an organic form. So, organic form basic compound is thiols RSH, so,
alcohols ROH so, this O is replaced by sulphur, then it is called thiols and mercaptans. So, this
is the major compounds present in petroleum crude, and then sulfides will be RSR.
So this two alkyl groups with sulphur that can also be available or disulfides, RSSR and may be
cyclic sulphides as shown here and thiophene, Benzothiophene, from benzene ring can also be
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available with the thiophene and then Dibenzothiophene this is the structure and
naphtanobenzothiophene. So, these are the molecular structure of these compounds, which are
present normally in petroleum crude.
And if we think about the nitrogen as compound, so, those are some non basic type and some
basic type. So, non-basic type are pyrole, this is C4H5N and this is the structure and Indole
C8H7N in this is the structure Carbazole then Benzo carbazole it may have basic type that is
Pyridine, Quiniline, and then Indoline and Benzo quinolone. So, Benzo quinolone.
So, these are some compounds. Now we will see how these compounds can be removed, we
will discuss first how the sulphur can be removed and for the removal of sulphur compounds,
number of methods have been reported and used. So, those are caustic wash, then Doctor
treatment, then copper sweetening and Merox process that was the advanced one. So, we will
discuss about all the processes. So, if we want to remove the sulphur, and if it is present is
sulphide, sulphide is acidic in nature.
So, if we use alkaline solution, so that sulphides or H2S will be dissolved in this NaOH
solution. And if we use this alkali solution that is caustic lye, so, that caustic lye and crude oil
or any other liquid oil will be mixing well. And then there will be two layer one aqueous layer
and another is your organic layer that is oil layer so, that all the impurities like sulphur
mercaptans and sulfides will come to the lye solution.
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And reactions is represented here RSH + NaOH that will give us NaSR + H2O. So, this is the
conversion which takes place during this process and the Mercaptans are made free from the
sulphur. So, sulphur removal will take place like this way, and then it will come to liquid phase
and that sulphur recovery and lye recovery can take place.
Now, this process we use the lye solution of lower concentration not high sodium hydroxide
concentration, which is 5 to 20% weight by weight are used at 20 to 45 degrees centigrade and
5 to 40 psi pressure. If we use the high concentration of NaOH and high temperature, then it
will have some drawback that it may produce some colour body as well as the product may lose
the stability.
That is why this condition is maintained and when the lye solution we are using that it is not
possible that all the lye or NaOH solution is consumed by sulfides. So, if it is around 65%
sodium hydroxide is consumed by the sulfides then we call it as a Spent lye solution. This
Spent lye solution can be used further for the removal of hydrogen sulphide, light mercaptans,
organic acids or mineral acids.
Lye solution that is Spent, as far as hydrogen sulphide is concerned, may still be used to remove
mineral or organic acids from petroleum products. Now we will see what is the doctor
treatment. So, Doctor treatment in this process Mercaptans is removed by the use of sodium
plumbite and elemental sulphur.
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So, the mechanism is like this, this Mercaptans will react with sodium plumbite and this PbSR2
will form and then sodium hydroxide will be formed. And this PbSR2 which is produced here
that will react with sulphur it will react to sulphur and then it will give us RSSR + RSxR, x is a
number say 2345 like this, + 2 PbS, so, + 2PbS and then PbSR2 also can be oxidized to some
extent to produce RSSR + PbO.
These are the chemical reactions which take place for the conversion of Mercaptans to these
products. Now, these processes have some disadvantages like say we are using excess sulphur.
So, if we can make some mistake and more sulphur is added then that sulphur will produce
more polysulphides, which is not desirable in terms of corrosive nature of the fuel. So, it may
fail the copper strip corrosion test.
And when more Sulphur is used then that PbSR2 will be more and that can also be converted to
PbO. So that PbO conversion can be more and more PbO it will create some other problem that
will be called water tolerance test. So, that water tolerance will be reduced. So, these are the
two major disadvantage of Doctor Process, and then you will see copper sweetening process.
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Another process which was used to remove the mercaptans was the use of copper chloride. So,
if we use copper chloride, so, mercaptans will react with this copper chloride so, Cupric
chloride, so, 2CuSR + 4HCl + RSSR. This is the reaction and then if we have Cuprous chloride,
then the reaction will be this. So, CuSR which is produced here, it can again the react with
CuCl2 and give us RSSR + 4 CuCl and then CuSR can also be oxidized to 2CuO and RSSR.
So, these processes also have some drawback. So, what will happen in this case, this cuprous
mercaptide that is oil soluble cuprous marcaptide captide remains in treated oil. And then
copper chloride reacts with naphthenic acids, phenols and other polar compounds to form oil
soluble copper compounds. The oil soluble cuprous mercaptide oxidation to copper this
reaction will make this product to fail the water tolerance test. It will prevent the product to
pass the water tolerance test.
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Then we are coming to Merox process.So Merox process is the advanced one. So it replaces the
previous processes. And in this case, we use some catalyst and this process is developed by
UOP in the year 1958 and it completely replaced the older processes and it is very simple with
respect to others. And it can be performed by two ways. One is light molecular weight
mercaptans from the LPG and light straight run naphtha, those can be separated by using some
alkali solution, then that can be catalytically oxidized.
So, we have say LPG or straight run naphtha. So, this will be reacting with some alkali solution
and it will give us the mercaptans will come here in the solution alkali solution and then the
solution will go for catalytic oxidation. So, this is a mechanism through which we can do or
directly we can also handle high molecular weight mercaptans present in heavy naphtha, FCC
gasoline ATF and kerosene into disulfides. So, this is the two ways of processes for two
different type of feedstock.
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And the basic reactions are RSH + NaOH Oil phase with Aqueous phase it is giving us NaSR +
H2O and then NaSR produced here that will be oxidized and then 2H2O gives NaOH + 2RSSR
again oil phase we are getting insoluble in caustics. So, this is insoluble in caustics and will be
getting it and separate it. So, 4RSH + O2 is 2RSSR + 2H2O. So these are the reactions which
take place in this Merox process for mercaptans removal.
Now, this reaction one this is very mostly applicable for low molecular weight mercaptans and
at low temperature and high caustic concentration. Now we will see how the merox process
work.
So, this say we are putting our feed then we need one caustic prewash, so then, after watching
some mercaptans is going out so rest is coming here and here extractor were giving suction
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time, this place basically inorganic sulfides are removed and then it is coming the mercaptans
removal here in this extractor and then the mercaptans rich alkali solution is coming in here.
And it is going to second stage for air addition.
And this is our oxidizer, catalyst are used then disulfides forms here. So disulfide is coming and
here it is separated so disulfide separation spent air is going out and then disulphide. We are
having a two phase disulfide phase oil phase and here Aqueous phase. Aqueous phase your
alkali phase and Oil phase. So this is insoluble in water so or alkali solution. So we are getting
the disulphide oil and Aqueous layer containing alkali.
It is recycled back to this column extractor for further extraction and which goes here that is
coming to caustic settler and then sand filter and then treated product. Basically, if it is a LPG
stream if feed is the LPG stream than that will be gas will come here and we will pass it
through the sand filter. So, other impurities if something from here, so, that will be removed
and gas will go here.
So, this is a flowsheet for the merox process which represents to LPG, then in this process, we
see one is your caustic prewash, another your oxidizer these two very important steps apart
from these extractor.
So, what we do in prewash our objective is to remove the inorganic sulfides just I have
mentioned. So, H2S + NaOH, it will form Na2S + 2H2O and Na2S + H2S -> 2NaHS. So, this
type of reaction takes place in the caustic prewash and in the oxidizer which is happening Na2S
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which is available in the caustic solution, then it will come in a oxidizer it will react with
oxygen and then Na2S2O3 will form.
And these will be NaOH so these are regenerated our alkali solution we are getting so that is
recycle. NaSH will react with 2O2 gives Na2S2O3 + H2O and again Na2S + 2O2 that gives us
Na2SO4. So, these are the reactions which take place in oxidizer.
Now, in this oxidizer we supply air so what will be the air requirement? Obviously, we have to
provide excess air than stoichiometric requirement and typical values given here 0.84 normal
meter cube per kg of RSH-sulphur. This is a stoichiometric requirement and excess air is 100 to
200% is provided. If we increase the air, then it causes rapid and complete caustic regeneration.
But if the air supply is very high then some disadvantage we may get.
That is dissolved oxygen will be more and that can cause sweetening in extractor, because we
are, we are we are recycling this in this. And spent air will have higher oxygen leading to
increased corrosion and hazards. So, that is a one important drawback if we use very high
oxygen air or air here and setting of catalyst may also take place. Now, how can you quantify
the air requirement?
There are some formula it is provided here in case of LPG the air requirement is 1.5 into 0.84
into F into SG into RSH by 1000. So, AR injection rate is normal meter cube per hour. F is the
LPG flow rate meter cube per hour and is the specific gravity of LPG at 15.5 degrees centigrade
and RSH is the mercaptans sulphur in ppmw weight basis.
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So, now, this oxidizer or oxidation unit of Merox process is a catalytic process and UOP have
developed two catalyst. One is Merox WS and another is merox FB. So Merox WS, WS is it
totally water soluble and specially formulated catalyst for using extractive or liquid-liquid
sweetening. So it is the liquid process, liquid solution in this form, the catalyst is available and
specific gravity 1.16 +- 0.01 and freezing point 0 degree centigrade and active ingredient is 1
kg per gallon.
Now Merox FB catalyst, this is developed for in-situ impregnation of the fixed bed sweetening,
version of the UOP Merox process. So some fixed bed is used in this case, and Merox catalyst
is impregnated on it as water slurry ready for use in the fixed bed Merox reactor impregnation
step. So, this is two type of catalyst they have developed on application point of view and here
it is also liquid dispersion.
Specific gravity 1.15 +- 0.01 and Freezing point 0 degree centigrade and Active ingredient 2.5
Kg for 2.5 gallon. Now, examples of applications of the Merox process so, different type of
feedstock we can use, different types of feedstock can be cleaned through this process.
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And these are the applicable treatment. So, how, what the people have done for different type of
feedstock what type options of the Merox process have been implemented is provided here. See
it if it is a LPG mostly extraction based process and the light straight run naphtha- extraction or
liquid-liquid sweetening; Visbreaking gasoline- fixed bed sweetening and FCC gasoline -fixed
bed sweetening.
And then, Full boiling range straight run naphtha, liquid-liquid sweetening, fixed bed
sweetening and both can be used and then kerosene, aviation turbine fuel we are getting fixed
bed sweetening. So, these are the preferred configurations of Merox process for different type
of feedstock. Now, we will discuss the hydro treatment. Now, how the hydrogen is used to
remove the impurities?
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So, in terms of hydro treatment, we can term it as hydro processing. So this hydro processing is
thermal conversion process in which hydrogen is used to accomplish the objectives of the
refiner. So these hydro processing can we have two types: one is hydrotreating and another
hydrocracking. So hydro hydrotreating means we provide hydrogen under such conditions for a
certain duration that only sulphur and nitrogen those compounds will be separated from this.
So, if this is the process in which hydrogen is used to convert heteroatom constituents into their
heteroatom hydrogen analogues and hydrocarbons, so, this is RSR1 + H2. So, RHR2H + H2S so
that this HS is removed by hydrogen to produce S2S so that sulphur is removed. There is no
cracking or molecular chain in this compound and hydro cracking is a thermal decomposition.
Its extensive and hydrogen assist in the removal of the heteroatoms as well as mitigating the
coke formation which normally accompanies thermal cracking of high molecular weight polar
constituents. So, if we go for thermal cracking, then what happens there is a coke formations on
the catalyst. But if we use hydro hydrocracking, so, that coke formation will be reduced,
because those will be converted by this addition of hydrogen. So, coke will not be deposited.
So, that is called as hydrocracking.
So, hydrocracking will reduce it will break the bigger molecules and it will convert it into lower
hydrocarbons rather than deposition of coke unlike thermal cracking process. So, major
differences between hydro treating and hydro cracking are the time at which the feedstock
remains at reaction temperature and the extent of the decompositions of non hetero constituent
and products.
How long we are providing this feedstock in contact with hydrogen and what is the condition of
the reactor, so those will differentiate this low less, ok. So now we will see the comparison of
these the processes.
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And before that, we will see the reactions mechanism which take place during hydro treatment
or hydro processing. So, sulphur compound when hydrogen is added RSH is converted to RH +
H2S. And then RSR + 2H2 ->2RH + H2S. RSSR + 3H2 ->2RH + 2H2 and H2S is combusted to
CO2 + SO2, so these are the reactions which take place during the hydro processing or hydro
treatment of the feedstock. And then for nitrogen removal, when we add hydrogen, the nitrogen
is also removed and this is mechanism.
We have one hydrogen containing compound. So, that is we are using some catalyst and H2 this
catalyst is basically acid base pair + H2 that converts this one to this and there are to two
reaction states. Two routes that is one and another is 2. So, this intermediate products forms in
this route and that is converted to this one and again finally converted to this product and we
get ultimately this one typical presentation of this phenomena.
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And other route we get this intermediate product. So, here it is coming to this one almost
similar. So substitution one and two reactions, and then it is converting to this one. Ultimately,
this one nitrogen is removed from the compound. Now substitution reactions leading to
Denitrogenation, these were the compound.
So H2S is present. So, this N will be replaced by S. That can also be possible by the ammonia
release. So, these are different type of reactions which may take place during the denitrification
process denitrogenation process. And here the catalyst which are used those catalyst are
basically tungsten and molybdenum sulphides on alumina, supported on alumina and their
properties are modified by adding some cobalt and nickel.
So, those are because of hydrogenation promoters, so, cobalt and nickel. So, cobalt
molybdenum and nickel molybdenum, two active ingredients we are getting for the nitrogen
removal sulphur and nitrogen removal. So out of these two, these ones Ni/Molybdenum is less
active than nickel molybdenum for nitrogen removal, because the nickel molybdenum catalyst
have higher hydrogenation activity than cobalt molybdenum catalysts.
Now we will see the metal removal, how the metal can be removed from the product or the
feedstock.
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So, as you have seen that in in crude oil different types of metals are available, some metals are
available in water, in emulsified water, the calcium, magnesium, sodium etcetera and some
metals are also their that is vanadium, manganese, tin, lead, cobalt, titanium, gold etcetera.
Those are in less amount and typically vanadium and nickel, those are mostly available in crude
and the concentrations are vanadium varies from 0.1 to as high as 1200 ppm.
And nickel commonly varies from trace to 150 ppm. So nickel and vanadium these are the two
measure metals are present in petroleum crude and which needs removal from it to get high
quality liquid product. In which form these vanadium and nickel exist? There are two thoughts.
One is told that that is your porphyrinic and another is your nonporphyrinic.
So, for porphyrinic state or nonporphyrinic state in which form they are existing. So, most of
the literature prefers the porphyrinic state and more information is available on this. Other one
is not widely reported and this may be the molecular weight of this type of compounds 420 to
520 and molecular formula C27N4 to C33N4. For this is the representation of these porphyrinic
metallic compounds. So, we have to remove these metal.
So, for the removal of these metals, different types of methods are applied, physical and
chemical methods.
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So, physical methods basically solvent extraction, so, we add some solvent. So, lighter parts
from the vacuum residue it comes to the solvent and heavy asphaltenes etcetera where the
porphyrinic compounds those go at the bottom. So it is separated from the, from the oil. So, that
way it can be done or thermal process also used, there is the visbreaking etcetera.
And the chemical concept of the demetallization is to selectively remove the metal from the
organic moeity with minimal conversion of the remaining petroleum. The demetallization of
metalloporphyrins by acid is a reversible reaction. So, this is the reactions it is shown that PM +
HX porphyrinic metal and acid HX. So, that H may react with metal chloride we can get and
that will be the compound porphyrinic compound without metals.
So, that way the addition of acid can convert the metal into their salt, respective salt. So, then
catalytic hydro processing, these are the chemical and physical methods. Apart from this, we
can go for hydro processing steps using some catalyst. In that way also, these metals can be
removed along with nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen.
So, these are the different routes through which the metals sulphur and nitrogen are removed
from the liquid oil to make it more cleaner, transport fuel. Thank you very much for your
patience.
270
Energy Production
Lecture-17
Residue Upgradation 1
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the residue upgradation part. In the previous lecture, we
have discussed on the removal of sulphur, nitrogen and metals from the liquid fuels. Now we
will concentrate how the vacuum residue or the residual part can be upgraded to liquid fuels
through different upgradation routes to make the product and the process more cleaner.
So, the content of this topic, Petroleum residue and its upgradation then residue Upgradation
routes, the solvent deasphalting. Visbreaking, delayed coking and gasification. So, these are
different routes which are normally used. In this class we will cover up to solvent deasphalting
and the rest will be covered in the next part. So, now, we know that when we process petroleum
crude in the atmospheric distillation, it lefts some residue.
And then that atmospheric distillation column residue is processed in vacuum distillation
column and again vacuum residue is formed. And so what we are getting crude oil then
atmospheric residue and then we are getting vacuum residue.
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So, if we go from crude oil to different ratio, then we see the quality is degraded. So viscosity
increases, sulphur increases, nitrogen increases, asphaltenes increases, H/C ratio decreases and
API decreases, CCR increases. So, this clearly indicates that the quality of VR is much poor
than the crude oil and refinery is not that much interested with this VR to properly manage it,
because this of low value or negative value product for them.
So, we need to convert these VR, so that the; it will be managed properly, and environmental
pollution will be reduced. On the other way, the refinery can also add some value addition to
the whole process. So, from this table, it is clear to us that residue is having higher viscosity,
high sulphur, high average boiling point and, H/C ratio is low and CCR is high. So if we want
to upgrade it, obviously, the scope is there, we have to improve the hydrogen H/C ratio. So H/C
ratio we need to improve.
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So for doing this, there are number attempts, people tried to do it, and like say solvent,
deasphalting, and then thermal processes, hydro treatment etc. So now we will see, what, how
the solvent the deasphalting and other process will help to improve it. And to understand that,
we have to understand the residue, what the residual oil is? So, Residual oil is a high viscuous
oil, in which we have asphaltenes and resins as well as some oil part.
So oil part is called say Maltenes says one here. So, this is a maltene part, this is the emulsion.
In this emulsion, we are getting asphaltene and resins in the disperse state and in the continuous
phase we are getting the Maltenes. Now, if we can remove asphaltenes and resins from this
whole system, then we can get the maltenes which is desirable and we can recover that oil for
our applications.
So, how we can do it? Obviously, because the presence of these asphaltenes and resins and
other presence of metals are also there. So, it gives here higher viscosity and higher salt content,
higher heavy metal content, higher sulphur and nitrogen content and higher naphthenic acid
content. So, this content, this is the properties of this now, we need to remove these things, the
asphaltenes from this.
So, how it can be done? We can use some solvent. So, that solvent will take these maltenes
from this whole emulsion and it will be broken and some maltenes can come to the solvent. So
that is one way of solvent deasphalting. Otherwise you can apply thermal heat here. So, heat
will break or crack the molten molecules and after a certain extent of cracking this emulsion
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may break and then that broken emulsion under the conditions the asphaltenes can be separated
from the oil.
And hydro processing can also take place to hydrogen addition. So, this maltenes will be
converted and then this will be separated.
So, these three major routes which can be applied for the removal of this asphaltenes from the
maltenes and to get pure quality oil from the residual part. So, on the basis of this, the methods
which are developed one is solvent deasphalting and there is thermal conversion based process
that is cracking and gasification and hydro processing based process, hydro cracking.
Now, thermal and hydrocracking maybe catalytic or non catalytic type and some thermal
cracking routes are visbreaking, delayed coking, fluid cooking Flexi coking, hydro visbreaking
donor solvent cracking and hydropyrolysis. So, these are the different routes people have
applied for the upgradations of the residue.
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So, the total upgradation technologies we can classify into three major category. One is
hydrogen addition method, another is carbon rejection method and another is the other method.
So, in hydrogen addition method, we add hydrogen. So, hydro desulfurization and hydro
cracking these are two and different types of reactors have been used that is fixed bed, ebullated
bed and slurry bed reactor.
Now the carbon rejection method, one is thermal cracking, catalytic cracking and solvent
extractions we can apply. So, these thermal cracking visbreaking and delayed coking and coker,
it is mentioned here and catalytic cracking FCC, RFCC. Residual Fill Catalytic cracking, FCC
is fluid catalytic cracking RFCC, residual fill catalytic cracking and solvent extraction also that
will reject carbon.
So, carbon rich molecules are settled in the extractor. So, when get separated later on, so, then
other techniques are the gasification. So, these are different techniques. Now first we will
discuss this one solvent deasphalting process. Before that, we see around the world what type of
techniques are used?
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And if you see this figure, coking is mostly use that is 40.29% then, visbreaking or cracking
that is 33.89%, the you see here hydrotreating and then hydro cracking and then the
deasphalting is 3.62%. So, these are different technologies which have been applied around the
world to upgrade the residual part. So, now, we will be conducting this one.
Before that we will see how we can select this technology which is always selected for what
type of feedstocks. This slide shows with reference to some properties of 343 degrees
centigrade residues. So, various crudes if we take and then we can measure the nickel and
vanadium and we can measure the CCR. So, carbon residue, CCR carbon residue Condensed
Carbon Residue and nickel and vanadium concentration.
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Both amounts can guide us what process will be more suitable. So if more metal is there then
more carbon is also there, we can go for carbon rejection. So these are carbon rejection zone
metal is also more and carbon is also more. But if we have carbon is less, metal is also less, we
can go for fluid catalytic cracking and hydro processing range are the, in between one or more
preferable.
So this way we can select a particular route which will be more suitable for a particular
feedstock. Now we are coming to solvent deasphalting. So, the term itself says the solvent de
asphalting. So, we will be adding some solvent so maltenes will come into the solvent and
asphalt will be separated from the feedstock. So, that is the main objective.
So, vacuum residue we are using in the SDA process. So, so, asphaltene will be separated at the
bottom. So, we are getting asphaltene so pitch we are getting and then solvent plus oil. So that
is called deasphalted oil. So, after the deasphating the oil which are getting that is deasphalted
oil plus solvent is coming here. So that can be used for different FCC for further purification or
improvement of quality.
FCC, Hydro crackers, Thermal cracking, as a Lubes, we can use it as a lube base stock. And
pitch or asphaltene spot which you are getting that can be used for Bitumen or road making that
can be used in circulatory fluidized based combustor for power production or steam generation.
And that can also be gasified, and that steam gas can be used for power applications for Steam,
or production hydrogen production petrochemicals or as the fuel itself. So, these are the overall
concept of solvent deasphalting process.
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Now we will see this flowsheet which explains this SDA process. So here we are getting feed
then feed has to be mixed with some solvent. So solvent we are getting initially we add then we
get the recovered solvent. So, solvent plus feed we are mixing here. So it is going to extractor.
Extractor has certain conditions: temperature pressure is maintained and RPM etc proper
mixing is provided.
Then we get to phase. It is allowed to settle we get two phases. One phase we are getting
asphalting phase as it is going there and then heat recovery takes place and then it is coming to
pitch stripper. So we get pitch here so again some flashing tap arrangement so it is coming here
and then flashing we are getting some liquid part, if solvent comes here, so that can also goes
off and it is coming here and then it is going to mixer and condenser.
After condenser this solvent is recycled. And here we are getting the pitch which we are having.
And from the extractor, the upward deasphalted oil along with the solvent it is going and in it
heat exchange is taking place here then it is going to boiler and then DAO separator, so DAO
and deasphalted oil and solvent. We have to separate it now solvent has boiling point and
deasphalted oil components also have boiling point.
So those are not similar so if we apply heat and then the solvent will be in vapor phase that we
can go there and it can mix here and can be added here extractor. And then deasphalted oil
along with some solvent it comes then it will be coming to here. So deasphalted oil will be
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separated in the stripper section and then solvent will also be come through these routes and
then it will be recycled.
So solvent is this it can from the bottom is also recycled, recovered and recycled and from the
DAO separator also solvent is recycled and is recovered and recycled. So that way a solvent is
recovered and recycled. That recovery of solvent is very, very important. Now people have
used two routes for its recovery, what is use of evaporators, sequential and then another is the
operation separation of solvents at supercritical conditions of the solvent.
So DAO plus solvent this mixture is it is heated to supercritical conditions of the solvent and
then solvent is recovered from it and in that process the efficiency is more. So, now, we will be
making some discussion on that line. Before that, we will see the properties of the solvent and
the deasphalting solvents. So, what can be the good solvent obviously, the liquid hydrocarbons,
low molecular weight hydrocarbons.
Like say propane, it may butane, it may be pentane. So, normally it may be hexane also, but
normally, these propane, butane and pentane have been reported in literature and have been
used for the separation. So, once we use low molecular weight hydrocarbon, then the maltene
part which will come to this because the density is less here, all the asphaltenes will be
removed.
And lighter solvent propane and isobutane that are the higher selectivity that they are having
and reject all resins and asphaltenes suitable for production of lube oils. And heavier solvents
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we use pentane and n-butane, then light naphtha can also be used in that case less selective than
lighter solvents and then produce higher yields of DAO and DMO.
So, Deasphalted oil production is higher. So produce higher yields of DAO, so if we use more
butane and pentane, it will be able to take more maltenes because its condition changes, it takes
it operates at higher temperature. So high temperature means more maltenes can come here. So
now we will see the general properties of the solvents. So, solubility of oil decreases with the
increase in temperature, then more selective at higher temperatures exhibit lower critical
solution temperature.
So, lower the critical temperature that recovery part will be easy. Now, process variables for
this process so what is the, we are interested to get the oil part from the residue? So, solvent,
how much solvent we are using that will play a role, solvent to feedstock ratio and the solvent
composition, solvent to feedstock ratio.
So selectivity improves by increasing solvent to feedstock ratio at constant DAO yield. And
economically, we have to optimise it. Obviously if we say more solvent, more purity of the
product will get and but we have to optimise about with the economy and the solvent
composition blends of light hydrocarbon solvent can be used and then its increased operating
flexibility.
If we use the blends, then flexibility will increase and temperature also important because this
temperature gradient will help the transfer of the oil phase from the residue to our solvent while
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solubility in solvent decreases with increase in temperature and temperature gradient improved
separation between DAO asphalt phases. And pressure also maintained above the vapour
pressure of the solvent.
Now, we will see the comparison of some solvent and that DAO and deasphalting process. So,
so, if we have some SR that we have, we have feed then we have propane, we have propane,
butane or we have butane we have pentane. So different solvents we are using in the
deasphalting process, then will be getting DAO as well as you will be getting asphaltenes. Then
we will see how the properties of DAO asphaltenes are changing with the variation of this
solvents.
So, here yield, DAO yield let us say 29% and then we are fine it is propane is used, if we use
propane butane 46.8, if we use butane against 67.3 if it is pentane then 82.8. So, with the
increase in carbon number, we are getting more DAO. We are getting more DAO but the same
time we will be getting lower quality. So, higher solvent recovery is possible here higher oil
recovery is possible by this way.
And then but the quality you see the API gravity is decreased here 21, here 16, here 12.1, here
10.3. So, we are getting more oil, but we are compensating we are compromising with the
quality, we are using higher carbon number in the solvent. So, viscosity is also similar way
increases. That means more oil is coming to the solvent. And then CCR, it also increased and
the oil part which is coming to the solvent are having higher carbon than its so that is why CCR
has also increased in this case.
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And sulphur content also increased because the bottom which is going to the VR that is coming
to the DAO part that is why sulphur is also increasing. The metal content is also increased with
the increase of the carbon number in the solvent. Then we see this asphaltene then also
softening point, if we see softening point increases and then penetration point decreases. It is
not that soft. So penetration is not possible in this case.
And specific gravity also increases. Why it is? Because more denser particles or molecules are
coming to the DAO part with their use of heavier hydrocarbon or hydrocarbon with more
carbon number. So, this is the comparison of different types of solvents when it is used for
deasphalting purpose.
And now we will compare the about the operating conditions if we use propane, butane and
pentane. Then extraction temperature is different for propane it is 50 to 80, butane it is 100 to
130 and pentane is 170 to 210. So that is one reason why we are getting more heavier part in the
in the in the solvent, in the DAO part and then pressure range we are getting 3.5 to 4 mega
Pascal, in case of propane, Butane is 4 and pentane is 4. And solvent ratio is higher. So butane
solvent ratio is lesser, Pentane is further lesser.
So higher the solvent than the feedstock higher solvent to feedstock ratio will be getting more
pure quality product or better quality product so that propane when we use, then, we can use the
feedstock for lube oil based off production. Then we are coming to solvent recovery.
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So evaporative mode and supercritical mode already we have discussed. So, in case of you have
evaporative mode we can use multiple effect evaporation up to three stages and series of
progressively lower pressure flashes followed by stripping. Just in the flow sheet also we have
seen some stripping is there, flashing was there and then stripping was there.
So, supercritical mode if it is used then it becomes more energy efficient say phase separation
at above critical temperature of solvent above critical temperature up or at the critical
temperature solvent can is possible and 85 to 90% solvent recovered as lighter phase for heat
exchange and recycle in the process and recovered solvent has very low DAO content, that the
purity of the recovered solvent is higher if we use the supercritical mode of operation.
And then, remaining solvent from DAO is recovered by flashing and stripping. So, solvent
recovery is higher quality is higher, but we have to optimise with the cost also economic factor
also. Now, we see the comparison of different process.
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If Supercritical unit Triple effect evaporator, double effect evaporator and single effect
evaporator, if we use single effect that 280 unit say energy cost and it is double it is 170 triple
effect 150 and for supercritical 100. So, if we use supercritical unit, the relative energy cost is
less and it also more energy efficient approach and utilities saving up to 40% with heavier
solvents, more compact unit, this one and savings in capital investment for grass root plants is
15 to 25%.
So, this is the advantage of applying super critical condition. Now, we will discuss on
deasphalting tower for the extractor which we had in this case extractor.
So, here we can get some internals. So, column internal internals may be Baffle trays, it may
contain rotating disc contractor. It may have packing or it may have parallel interceptor plate.
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So, these different types of options are available. So, baffle plates baffles are, mostly used in
PDA plants in India and that RDC and PIP that UOP and foster wheeler, they offer the choice
for the PIP or RDC.
And structure packing used for rose units that is called residual oil supercritical extraction unit
ROSE unit. So, currently used in all ROSE units are packing. And the advantage of this is that
better quality of DAO and higher circulating solvent purity, higher capacity for existing solvent
deasphalting units and the lower operating cost. And PIP assemblies if it is used that I have
mentioned that UOP and foster wheeler has given their options which are PIP or rotating disc
contractor.
But it has some advantage that PIP has some advantage that increased separation efficiency and
reduce size of extraction vessel and reductions in the capital and operating costs. So, these are
the comparison of different deasphalting design column design. Now we will see the processing
of DAO and asphaltene. So, what we can do with the DAO and asphaltene.
So, once we can get DAO we can get lube oil and lube production increased by approximately
20% and that due to the use of this deasphalted oil and cracking one third of catalytic cracking
feed in a refinery can be of DAO and hydro cracking economical consumes less hydrogen less
investment. So, we see that that if we can produce DAO so that can improve the economics of
the plant also because it will give more products which are available in market.
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Then asphalts can be used as a blending, it can be used as a bitumen or fuel oil or road making
and it can be going to visbreaking so that many ways minimise the need of cutter stock and then
it can be gasified also. Here, we will see some technology licences. So, if we Kellogg brown
and root, they are giving the technology rose, residuum oil supercritical extraction. And more
than 33 supercritical units are used in commercial scale with this capacity.
And UOP, Foster wheeler solvent deasphalting process, they are also 50 units and IFP France
there are 7 unit and then IIP Dehradun and EIL in India they have 2 conventional plants and
RIPP China they have 5. So, these are some basis of 2002 data also it is a very old data, but
Exxon Mobil offers PDA technology. So, in India we are having the conventional PDA
technology.
And we will see the what that PDA is Propane deasphalting. Propane Deasphalting use propane
as a solvent for the removal of asphalting from the vacuum residue or any heavy lube oil base
stock can be produced from this process. And cylinder oil can also be produced and the
operating condition is 50 to 80 degrees centigrade and 6 to 10 solvent to feed ratio and pressure
more than the vapour pressure of the propane. So, these are the conditions.
And we see the IOC Haldia, CPCL and HPCL. They are producing DAO with this quality the
kinetic viscosity and CCR. So, these values are provided here. So, obviously, you see the
viscosity is reduced and the CCR is also reduced. So, by this process and good amount of DAO
is recovered from the vacuum residues which are cleaner in nature.
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Now, we see the propane deasphalting status. So we shall see HPCL, Mumbai, CPCL, Chennai,
IOC Haldia. So, their capacity is this 5,48,000 MMT per annum and for this CPCL it is
5,74,000 MMT per annum and this is for 6,50,000 MMT per annum. And these are the
technology licenser IIP/EIL and this is in case Romanian, expansion by EIL, ROSE. So, these
are the some deasphalting technology which is implemented in the country.
So all plants produce Lube oil based stock and solvent recovery, evaporation mode or
supercritical a supercritical mode, IIP and EIL have developed a knowhow on this process. So,
so far we have discussed on the Solvent deasphalting part and next class we will discuss the
other part of the vacuum residual Upgradation. So thank you very much for your patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-18
Residue Upgradation 2
Hi friends now we will start discussion on the topic Residue Upgradation. This is the part 2 of
residue of gradation. In the part 1 we have discussed how the vacuum residue can be upgraded to
liquid fuels, which is and how to make the products more cleaner.
And basically we have discussed on solvent deasphalting process and in this class we will
discuss on visbreaking, delayed coking and gasification. If we think the term visbreaking it itself
indicates the viscosity breaking. So in this process will apply heat and the vacuum residue will
be converted to lighter fractions with lower viscosity than the here.
And it will also have another part that is more viscous part that the residue and that can be
processed further through the delayed coking. And in this viscosity breaking process we will be
applying moderate condition so that the asphaltenes and resins which are available in this will
not convert into coke. So, moderate conditions is needed in this method as our target product is
the liquid product or lighter products with lower viscosity.
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And this process can give us hydrocarbons like LPG, naphtha, gasoline, heavy gas oil etcetera
and by this method we are getting some lighter from the residual part. So if I think about our fuel
oil so the blending of fuel oil is reduced. The oil which is produced through this process thus that
can be used as fuel oil and the mild operating conditions as I have mentioned it is required
because the materials which are available in the residue is susceptible to heat.
And in this method allowable conversion to gasoline is lower due to fuel oil stability
requirements. So this is about the basics of visbreaking process. Now we will see the mechanism
what actually happens. As we have discussed that visbreaking is the thermal treatment. So in this
case cracking will take place. So the mechanism will be based on free radical just like the
thermal cracking we have discussed in the previous classes.
So will be having here three steps: One is initiation another is propagation and then we have
termination step.
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So for example we have one initiation step if say C6H14 so that will be producing C2H5 dot and
C4H9*. So these two radicals, free radicals are produced first one is lower molecular weight
another is higher molecular weight with respect to this one. Now this is the initiation step then
these free radical productions will propagate and more number of free radicals we will get and
then ultimately those will combine and it will be terminated.
So C2H5* which you are getting here that can again react with C6H14 and it can give us C2H6
hydrocarbon lower hydrocarbon and again C6H13* another bigger free radical. So this C4H9* free
radical can give us again react with C6H14 and give us C4H10 + C6H13* free radical. So we are
getting basically lower molecular weight hydrocarbon and the higher free radicals. So those
C4H9* this can give us C4H8 + H* free radical.
So this free radical again giving us some hydrocarbon and giving us some free radical. In this
case H in this case C3H6 + CH3* and then C2H4 and C2H5*. So there are possibilities of
production of number of hydrocarbons, types of hydrocarbons and also the free radicals of lower
size.
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So this similarly C6H13* can give us C4H8 + C2H5* dot plus many other products. Then in
termination the free radicals can add with H* dot and then it will give up C2H6 so to another free
radical C2H5* + CH3* dot it can give a C3H8 and it can CH3* dot + H* dot gives CH4. So we can
get some gas also in this process. And these are all gas molecules in this. So LPG type of
material we can get from the visbreaking process.
Now we will see the process flow sheet of the visbreaking process. So what we need? We have
to apply heat. So what will be happening? In the previous class we have discussed that Maltane
phase and asphaltene phase, resins and asphaltene are dispersed in the maltene phase. So by the
application of heat the maltane phase will be broken and asphaltenes will settle, so that is the
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mechanism.
So you have to apply heat and we can apply heat in two mode. One for very small period and
relatively high temperature and another is relatively lower temperature and for a longer period.
But whatever may be the mode we apply but basically we need one furnace. We have to heat it
here and then we have to flash it. So you have to flash it means we have to use this in high
pressure.
So high pressure at furnace that the product pressure will be reduced and then it will go to flash
chamber and from flash chamber it will go to the fractionator and from fractionator we will get
different products, gas and liquid products here and ultimately the tar will come here for further
distillation. And it is another vacuum fractionator you can it can come. So in the vacuum we will
create some vacuum and we will get more heavy gas oil in this case.
And this will be vacuum flashed tar and this will be the feedstock for delayed coking. Now as I
told that there will be two mode of operation one is very relatively longer period and the lower
temperature. So in this case furnace and fractionator we put one soaker drum. So soaker gives
some time at relatively lower temperature for the conversion process. So initially we preheat the
feed here the initial ambient temperature to some preheated temperature.
Then it is coming to furnace so it is heated further and then for a very small time in the furnace
it, it stays and then it goes to soaker. And relatively more longer period it stays here and then it is
goes to flash drum fractionator and in this case the soaker drum is optional otherwise we can use
here some coil visbreaking. There is no soaker coil visbreaking is there from furnace it is through
the furnace coil for small span of time relatively higher temperature.
So that way also some fractionations will be there and we will get different products but will
may, the products may vary in their quality and the relative amount may change to some extent.
So in this case the furnace Inlet temperature is normally 305 to 325 degree centigrade here and
then pressure is 15 to 40 bar and then outlet temperature it is coming here it is 480 to 500 degree
centigrade and pressure reduction is there 2 to 10 bar.
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So residence time is 2 to 5 minutes and steam injection is 1%. So 1% steam, steam is injected in
this furnace. So this is the visbreaking process and as you have discussed that soaker drum helps
to reduce the time in the furnace.
So temperature and pressure maintained at soaker unit is around 440 degree to 460 degree
centigrade and 5 to 15 bar with 20 to 30 minutes residence time and preheating of the feedstock
that 335 degree centigrade is done by using visbreaking tar. So this preheating which we are that
is done basically this visbreaking tar which is obtained with some part of it is used for heating
this.
And as I told that there are two mode one is soaker mode another is your we have your coil
mode. So soaker mode visbreaking process is relatively low temperature process with high
residence time. So here we have told that; 20 to 30 minutes. So it is around 1200 to 1800 second
whereas in coil mode this is 100 to 300 seconds. So in the soaker mode of visbreaking 2 stages
conversion we get, one minor degree of conversion of short period in the furnace and majority
conversion takes place in the soaker unit for predetermined extended period that 20 to 30 minute.
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As we are able to perform the conversion at lower temperature so we can save fuel consumption.
However, decoking in soaker unit require more equipment and handling cost so one way we are
using less energy but we are also passing other problem that decoking in soaker requires more
equipment and handling cost. So this is that drawback and this drawback the coke formations in
the unit that can be reduced by using some internals.
So if there is some back mixing in the soaker then there will be more coke formations. But if you
can reduce the back mixing then the coke formations will be reduced so that way internals has
been used. So internal helps to reduce the coke formations in the soaker. And application of
soaker internals satisfies these conditions and control stability of products. Now we will compare
the different soaker with internal and without internal.
What will be the difference between these two processes? So if we compare the temperature then
we see 420 420.
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In both the cases temperature is similar but if we are seeing about the conversion then we get
2.90% of the liquid fractions at 150 degree centigrade. So the liquid with the boiling point of 150
degree centigrade is 2.90% whether it is for internal it is 4.12 percent. So more liquid we are
getting here in case of soaker internals, soaker with internals. And then kinetic viscosity if we
take, then, it is 248.43 cSt whereas it is 230.67 cSt.
So viscosity is lower in case of soaker internal because it is it is preventing the coke formations
and back mixing in a soaker unit. And then stability, both are stable. So that weight is very clear
to us that if we use the soaker internals then the quality of the product will be improved. Next we
will discuss on the delayed coking. So the term indicates that coking will take place and it will be
delayed.
That means there will be some arrangement some more time will be given for the coke
formation. So as we have discussed in the visbreaking part that application of it breaks the
maltene phase and then we get the separation of the asphaltenes from the colloidal suspension of
the vacuum residue or residual part. So here also the same mechanism will work if we apply heat
then the Maltene phase will be broken and again the asphaltenes and resins will precipitate and
they will get the coke.
If we get sufficient time so that part will give us coke. Another type may also be possible that
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when we are getting the at higher temperature if we increase the temperature we will be getting
more vapors from it also and then that vapors may if contains more aromatics etcetera so those
will be polymerized. And if some condition is maintained it can also give us coke. So coke
formation by both ways by the first one that is cracking of the maltanes.
And then then the breaking of the emulsions and settling of the asphaltanes as well as the
production of aromatics vapours and then the polymerization of those and then condensation and
then then also give us some coke. And these two cokes which we can get by these two
mechanisms the quality will be different the asphaltene and resins, which will produce the coke
that will be amorphous in nature.
And not of that high quality but, when the aromatics are condensed and polymerized and
condensed and gives this product, the coke that is crystalline in nature and having some good
properties and it is considered as premium grade coke, coke or needle coke.
Now we will see how to get it. So this this delayed coking technology particularly, for the needle
coke production is an, it is an art and the combination of art and technology. And already this
delayed coke technology is an open art, it is known to everybody. But companies do license
technology emphasizing coke furnace, special processing modes and operations. So these are the
area when the company varies from one to others among the technology licenses.
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And they have more focus on these areas and in this case generally two types of reactions can
take place one is your primary reactions and another is your secondary reactions. So primary
reactions is your decomposition of large molecules into smaller molecules and then active
compounds from the primary cracking reactions further crack or react to form other compounds
or polymerized to give heavy products, already we have discussed.
And two types of mechanism also we have discussed that is one mechanism was for asphaltene
precipitations and another was polymerization and condensation of parametric compounds. So it
is very clear to us if our feedstocks has more aromatics then it will be giving better quality coke
and this type of coke is called needle coke.
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This term applies because the particles appear in the form of needle in the; it is the crystal
structure it has and the crystals are appeared like needles so that is why it is called needle coke.
And we see what are the typical feedstock for this vacuum residue, delayed coking?
So for delayed coking the typical feedstock is vacuum residue. Atmospheric residue can also be
used in some cases and typical feed composition if we see 6% sulphur it contains and 1000 ppm
metals and CCR 20 to 30%. The CCR, Conradson carbon ratio higher the CCR value obviously
we will get higher coke. And what type of feed we will use that will influence the product
quality. And what type of products we can get for through these delayed coking?
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We can get gaseous products, we can get liquid product and we can get solid product. So gas
products which we can get that is a Coker gas that contains C3, C4 and this is recovered as LPG
and lighter can be used as fuel gas.
And then liquid; liquid part can contain naphtha or heavy liquid products gas oil. So naphtha and
gas oil, these two products we can get from this delayed coking and this naphtha contains high
olefin content and usually sent to the hydrotreating units in the refinery for stabilizations. In the
previous slides, we have discussed the mechanism and we have seen that olefins are formed. So
those olefins are present in it.
So it requires more hydrogenation and sent to hydrotreating units in the refinery for its
upgradation. And heavy liquid products that is gas oil we are getting from it that that is sent to
catalytic cracking units where the valuable transportation fuels like gasoline, diesel and jet fuel
can be produced. So, this is our liquid product and solid product we can get different types of
coke.
So coke may be a sponge coke it may be of shot coke and it may be of needle coke. So here, we
see needle coke. So this is a crystalline structure whereas this shot cook and your sponge coke
we are not getting any crystal structure. Here this is a spongy sponge coke spongy appearance
and this very small particles we are getting here for shot coke. So these among these three types
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of coke through these two cokes that is your sponge coke and short coke those are not of that
high quality.
And those can be used for the production of electricity in combustion or in gasification plant.
And then this needle coke is superior quality premiere grade coke and it apart from these thermal
applications it has more attractive applications that is as electrode. So it can be used as electrode
because of its some specific properties. So you see the characteristics of needle coke.
So volatile matter is less than 0.50 percent and then ash content is less than 4% and sulfur is less
than 0.8 percent and density is greater than 2 the densities around 2.1 gram per ml. But this is the
property which is most important for needle coke that is CTE coefficient of thermal expansion
into 10 to the minus 6 per degree centigrade it is 1.25 so that is 1.25 x 10 to the power of minus
six per degree centigrade, because of this low CTE value it is used as electrode.
And needle coke production whether the needle coke will be produced or other type of coal will
produce will be produced during delayed coking process that will depend upon some factors.
One is your feed quality and other is your operating parameters. So more the aromatic contents
in the feed we it is expected that the needle coke will get and the quality will also improve.
And operating condition is also very, very important as I told that delayed coking is also a blend
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of art and technology. So in this case also, needle coke can, quality needle coke quality can be
improved by the practice or maintaining the operating parameters.
Now we will see the delayed coking process flows sheet. So here we have some feed so you are
giving some feed here. So this feed it is going to heater it is heated up so it will be taking the
cracking will take place here where we are putting heat here. So heat it up then it is going to coke
drum. So in this heater also we add some amount of steam. So steam is also added here.
So steam and a small amount of steam and then residue this is equal to VR so VR and this it is
heated and then it is going to coke drum. So, high temperature here and here pressure is applied
and then longer period the coke stays here that is it is called coke drum, so when it is after
heating the VR and steam it is going to this the coke drum. It is remaining here under high
pressure at high temperature, then, vapours are going out then it is going for the fractionation.
So after fractionation we will get different products we can get gas, we can get unsaturated
naphtha here and we can get some middle product also. So gas oil, stripper and then we will get
steam and we like we will send steam here for its heating and then we will get gas oil. So that we
are getting gas oil here and we are getting some Fresh feed also we are adding in this case. So
fresh feed and this vapour which is coming it is fractionated and the bottom part is again taken
here.
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So this is the feed mixed feed actually it is taken and sent into the heater and then it is going to
Coke drum. And then it is the vapour pass and it is condensed and then we are getting different
products. This is for liquid and gas recovery from this but we getting coke from this coke drum
will get the coke after certain time will collect the coke from the coke drum. So this is the
process for the delayed coking where we can get coke we can get gas and we can get different
types of liquid.
Now how we can change the distribution of this product? Because unlike visbreaking, in
visbreaking our main focus was to get more liquid and here our focus is also positively to get
liquid and gas as well as that coke also of premiere quality coke that is of needle coke. If we can
get needle coke then this process will be more economic so that is the one of the main objective
of the delayed coking unit.
So what are the factors that will influence the quality of different products and its relative
distribution of the products? That is the some operating variables are transfer of coke drum
temperature, what is the coke drum temperature? I am maintaining that will influence how much
gas is produced how much coke is produced how much liquid is produced and what is the
pressure that also influence.
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And recycle ratio that means that I have shown you that we are adding some free fresh feed and
then we are taking this one so fresh feed and VR how we are taking that composite feed and
primary feed that is the ratio is called your recycle ratio so that also influence the quality of the
products and the reaction time. How much time I am giving in the furnace and how much steam
is added. It has been shown that if we increase the drum temperature then, coke yield decreases;
Because more cracking takes place and the more lighter parts goes off and if temperature is too
low then coking reaction do not happen. So we have to select an optimum temperature in coke
drum. And then very high temperature makes the coke removal difficult from the drum and
temperature controls the volatile combustible metal content of the coke products. And then if we
change the pressure of the coke drum.
If we increase the pressure then, we may get more condensation of the vapours into the coke, so
coke yield will increase but we reduce the pressure then we will get more liquid product. So
decreasing coke drum pressure reduces coke yield. So some data is given here each 0.5 kg per
centimetre square pressure reduction in drum increases liquid yield by 1.3% by volume and cut
in Coke or coke yield by 1.0 weight percent of fresh resid feed. So this is some data which is
available in literature.
Then for making the premium grade coke, the coke drum pressure should be high. It improves
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coke quality and CTE and electrical resistivity. So, when we are increasing the pressure one way
we are getting the more coke as well as the quality of premium grade coke is also better. And
increasing recycle ratio increases coke make and improves properties because it lowers the
asphaltene in the feed. More fresh feed we are using that means the asphaltene concentration is
reduced.
So that is why quality of the product improves it also reduces coke deposition in coil. Now we
use some steam. What is the role of steam? Steam in the heated tubes prevents coke formation,
so coke formation does not take place. Otherwise you have to shut down the plant very
frequently so that way the steam helps. But steam does not help to get good quality coke it has
some negative impact on it.
It has a bad effect on the coke yield and quality as the stripping action that steam has on the
residual oil on the coke. So we can summarize that high-density feed then it will give us high
carbon by hydrogen ratio, it will give high CCR, it will give high coke, less distillate and less gas
and coke yield is proportional to CCR.
Now delayed coking if we think that first it is heated in the furnace then you go to coke drum and
then coke drum to vapour goes for fractionation the upper part and bottom part is we are getting
them from the coke drum as a coke. So this is a cycle coke drum once it will fill then we have to
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replace the coke from the drum and again new drum has to be added. So if we think about the
whole process it is it will require some time.
And in one drum cycle the time distribution is provided in this table. You see it has steam to
fractionator then steam to blow down then depressurize then water quench and fill and drain
unhead top and bottom and cutting coke and rehead, steam test, purge, drum warm-up. So we see
the drum warm-up requires around 4:00 hour out of 16 hour. Then major part is here.
Depressurize water quench and fill filling of the coke drum.
And the gradually it fills at a time the coke drum is not filled, it takes some time to fill. Then, we
give some time for cutting of the coke. Coke cutting also takes some time and then other times as
already say drain times also takes some two hours and others are given. Now, there are some
empirical relationship to determine the coke yield. So if we know the properties of the feedstock
then we can guess what will be the coke, amount of coke produced during the delayed coking
process.
So coke yield in percentage basis =1.6 x CCR value in weight percent what is the CCR then 1.6
into that that will be the coke yield and gas that will be there is LPG, the 7.80 + 0.144 x CCR
value and gasoline we can get this one 11.29 + 0.343 x CCR value in weight percent and gas oil
will be 100 - this coke - gas - gasoline. That way we can calculate by mass balance.
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Another formula gasoline, how much we can get 186.5/131.5 + degree API x weight percent of
gasoline and then gas oil 155.5/131.5 + degree API x wt. percentage of gas oil. So, these are
some expressions empirical expressions which are available in literature for the predictions of
different types of products of the delayed coking unit. Now we are coming to gasification.
Already you have discussed many thing about the gasification in the previous classes and we
have we have discussed that there are four types of gasifier basically 3, one is fluidized based
and then fixed bed and entrained bed and the transfer reactor in between entrained and fledged
weight. We have already discussed and we have also discussed that entrained bed gasifier is
more suitable for feedstocks which is less reactive.
So what pet coke residue all those are not of that high reactive because it is coming the bottom
product after high thermal treatment. So these products if we want to gasify we need a reactor
like entrained bed gasifiers to handle this less reactive feedstock.
So now we see here VR and Pet coke can be used to produce in syngas through gasification and
in entrained bed gasifiers will be most, more preferable and IGCC concept will be more
attractive for the utilisation of this coke produced through the delayed coking unit. Now we will
see some example of gasification plants based on this VR and pet coke. So around the world
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there are number of plants.
But these these technology gasification technology is not pretty old one for pet coke. You see it
is started from 1995 and 2005 like this and most of the 5, 6 like this 1995.
And around the globe in many countries the gasification of vacuum residue and pet coke is
implemented and applied. And if we see that all the reactors are basically Texaco and shell. So
Texaco and shell means entrain bed reactors for all the cases.
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Here only Lurgi MGP used but here it is oil and slurry. So Oil and slurry it is relatively reactive
than the pet coke and residue. So that is your Lurgi reactor is applied but all other cases Texaco
and Shell. And here we see electricity, ammonia, hydrogen, steam, methanol, synthesis all have
been implemented and different types of syngas cleaning rectisol, selexol, MDEAs are used and
Rectisol is mostly used.
So, here else you see all the pet coke so pet coke has been used widely for the production of
electricity. But those are of sponge coke and shot coke type of coke. But needle coke is not
processed through this route. It has better applications as electrode so that way in this part we
have seen how the vacuum residue can be converted to different liquid parts and the solid part
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also that we will be having more value than the conventional petroleum coke so up to this in this
class. Thank you very much for your patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-19
Heavy Crude Oil Processing
Hi friends, now we will start discussion on the topic Heavy crude oil processing. As we have
discussed in the previous classes, that cleaner production of liquid fuels from petroleum crude
is possible by implementing the practice to remove the impurities from it and then upgrading
the vacuum residue, another was to develop technology for the treatment or for the processing
of heavy crude.
Because heavy crude will be having more sulphur, metals, asphaltenes etc. So, in that case, it
will be creating more pollution and it will be creating other type of difficulty for the refinery
also. So, what will be the technology that can be implemented for this process that we are going
to discuss in this class.
And the contents are heavy crude oil and its properties then problems of heavy crude oil and its
refinery solution then conventional refining flow sheets and the need of well head processing,
technologies for well head processing and advanced refinery configuration for processing heavy
crude oil. Now, what is heavy crude oil? Already we have discussed in a previous class that
when API gravity is lower than the crude oil becomes more heavier.
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And some example were light oil, Medium Heavy oil, Heavy Oil, these we have seen in this in
the previous classes and Extra heavy oil and Bitumen, these are also considered as heavy crude
that is Bitumen can give us synthetic crude and extra heavy oil is also heavy crude. So, both
conventional and unconventional types of crude sources are there. So we can get synthetic
crude oil even from the sources like tar sand and the Bitumen and shale oil.
So, we can get crude oil from this and that can be processed. So how we can do it, we are going
to discuss. So on unconventional oils from enhanced oil recovery are tar sands and shale oils
also considered as crude oil, crude oil and synthetic crude are obtained from Bitumen that is tar
sands and shale oil. So, synthetic crude is the output from bitumen or extra heavy oil upgraded
facility used in connection with oil sand production.
And it may also refer to the shale oil and output from an oil shale pyrolysis. So, shale oil is
nothing but a rock sedimentary rock which contains oil. This is the crude like material, so, that
crude is produced from the shale oil through pyrolysis and that is synthetic crude. Similarly,
synthetic crude can also be produced from Bitumen or say tar sand. So, that is called extra
heavy oil upgrader facility, they are producing this one.
Now if you compare the composition of these bitumen, heavy crude oil and syn.crude oil. So,
they are matter of concerns. We are we are going to discuss on this the how this can be
converted into Clean Fuels. And then did we see the asphaltenes is here, heavy crude oil and
bitumen both are having but synthetic crude is not having that asphaltene then resins are there
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and then aromatics and saturates. So, saturates are increased, aromatics are increased in case of
Syn.crude with respect to bitumen and heavy crude.
Then Syn.crude synthetic crude is produced that can be refined further. So how we can get the
synthetic crude? So, there are a number of methods.
(Refer Slide Time:05:05)
And how we will refine this heavy crude, we are talking about the heavy crude then the
conventionally the heavy crude is transported to the refinery. And then heavy crude is blended
the heavy crude is diluted with the addition of some diluent, so diluent addition viscosity
reductions. So pumping costs reduced and it is transported to the pipeline to the refinery, then
once it is coming to refinery and then refinery operation starts.
And then it gives transport fuels, high value products and then the bottom part we get your
asphaltenes is here and we can get also fuel oil or coke. Already the similar conventional
refinery configuration that way it is it is followed. But the difficulties that this heavy oil is
highly viscous; it is high TAN and high sulphur content. And pipeline transportation is also
difficult and not comparable with a conventional refinery.
So, this is not compatible with the conventional refinery. So, the important problems for this
crude oil is that high crude side pressure dropped.
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So, once we are pumping the heavy crude after dilution, diluent addition then also its viscosity
is higher than the light crude and it requires high pressure. So, when it is coming to the refinery
side the pressure drop takes place. So, high pressure drop is required. And then the first step in
the refinery is your desalting so desalting will also be difficult here because it contains more
asphaltene, more sulphur etc.
So, desalter upsets poor desalting capacity, performance we get here and then rapid crude
column condenser corrosion. So, when it is going for distillation, then the crude column will be
having more corrosion, the condenser part of it will also show, will experience more corrosion.
So, low diesel product yield, this feedstock will give low diesel product. And Vacuum heater
coking, vacuum column fouling so, it can also make more fouling of this scale formation
etcetera can take place.
And high vacuum in vacuum distillation column we have to produce more vacuum so that the
more relatively heavier components will also come into the liquid form. So, lower HVGO
product heavy vacuum Gas oil product this low temperature and lower yield and then high
metals in feed to catalyst feed hydrotreater we have high metal content. So the feed the liquid
will be generated that can be sent for catalytic hydro cracking unit that will be containing more
metal.
So, we have to need some demetalisation unit for possessing this and general corrosion
problems are higher in this case. So, these are major drawbacks or problems with the processing
of heavy crude in refinery.
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And for processing heavy crude oils or blends these are the challenges: higher heater
temperature. So, we need to put higher heater temperature we got already available materials in
the feedstock is a high molecular rate. So, we need more temperature for its distillation. And
lower atmosphere and vacuum column operating pressure as we have already discussed, the
lower the pressure, we will get more hydrocarbons, high molecular hydrocarbons in liquid
phase.
And lower atmospheric column over flash obviously over flash will be less because lighters
have not there, very less there. So improved wash section efficiency and then better ATB VTB
stripping, atmospheric tower bottom, vacuum tower bottom stripping are needed to maintain
product yield and quality. So, these are the basic features of the heavy crude oil processing.
Now, we will see the prerequisite, what are the options, or what we can do for the processing of
this crude this type of crude? So, there are some prerequisites.
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If TAN is very high acid number is very high then some prerequisites mentioned here and if it
is high metals, high pour point and high nitrogen content crude then also we have some
prerequisite. So, for the first case say when the TAN is very high total acid number is high in
that case, we need to prove blending, but even the TAN is 0.6 or less then no modification is
needed. Otherwise, there should be some blending options and that can be processed.
And then pre processing if TAN is there, so, acid is there so you have to neutralise it first,
before sending to the refinery so neutralisation by alkali, if it is required. And then chemical
addition, so, we may add some chemical to reduce the corrosive nature of the feedstock and we
need proper metallurgy also because it means high acid. So, I have to select more corrosion
resistant materials and one example is the SS 317.
So, SS 316 is considered a superior grade steel and 317 is further having more resistance to the
corrosion than 316. So, that way we can use the SS 317 and for High pour, High Metal and
High nitrogen content crude, we can require, we may require jetty for unloading. It is to say
high pour point and crude tanks to be heated. We have to put the crude tank heated so that it can
be in liquid form.
And then high metals, high metal are present then we have to demetalization catalyst for VGO
processing and crude blending is another option, so the metal concentration will be reduced.
And high nitrogen concentration crude if it is then you have to add some demetalization and the
denitrogenation catalyst for VGO processing and crude blending is also another option. So
these are the prerequisites to process the heavy crude having these high TAN, high pour, high
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metals and high nitrogen. Now we will see the conventional refining flow sheet for heavy crude
oil.
So, if we have heavy crude oil, so that can go for distillation that will give some amount of gas
that will give some amount of distillates and most of it will be residue. So, this residue or direct
heavy crude oil, it can go through different processes like say carbon rejection process and
hydrogen addition process. So, hydrogen addition process or carbon rejection process, this
process will be followed first in the first step or the primary step.
Then the product which we are getting that will go for secondary step conversion. That is
nothing but Hydro processing. So, first will be primary processing then secondary processing.
Though it will be the hydrogen addition or maybe carbon rejection and then the second is hydro
processing, then ultimately will get the products there may be some commercial products here
some steps may be required for to fine tune the quality of the products.
So, here for hydrogenation, hydrogen addition processes, number of processes have been have
been reported like say hydro treating, hydro cracking, and here some fuel cracking is also there
only thermal treatment and then coking. So, hydro treating maybe of different technology RDS,
residual sulfurization and then vacuum residue through sulfurization, HYVAL. HYVAL is
developed by Francis Oswald group, this is one hydro treating process.
And OCR is on steam catalyst replacement process in this case hydrogen addition takes place.
And hydro cracking is H-oil, LC-Fining, Hycon and ABC icon is a Shell technology. ABC
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technology. So, these are the technology licences for hydro cracking and fluid cracking fluid
catalytic cracking can also be used for this conversion. And then the carbon rejection say
delayed coking, fluid coking, Flexi coking already we have discussed about delayed coking.
So, this coking can also take place for the conversions of this heavy crude to liquid part and
then to further to hydro processing to get the commercial fuel. And we can get hydro
visbreaking or we can get solvent deasphating, solvent deasphalting DAO, asphatene oil, then
again hydro processing and commercial fuels. And asphaltenes we can separate from this SD
unit which can be used for other applications like road making, etc.
So, this is the conventional refinery closer with heavy crude oil. And from this basis, we can
summarise that heavy crude oil is transported to refinery conventionally from the production
field.
And then require high pumping cost. Desalting is not so easy at the refinery side and fractional
distillation produces different liquid products gas and residues. The produce liquid products and
residues undergo primary and secondary conversion reactions. And then primary conversion
includes cracking, hydro treating, solvent deasphalting, visbreaking, coking etcetera and
secondary processing includes hydro processing. So, this is about our conventional technology.
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Now, what are the difficulties with the, these conventional processes? Say we need to add some
diluent, we are adding some diluent then again diluents recovery operations. It, It affects the
economy of the process. So supply concerns the from where we will get the diluent and
whatever diluent we will add and how will recover it from it ok, then high pumping cost an
expensive regeneration and the cycle of the diluent.
So, these are the difficulty with the diluent part and then heated pipelines. So we are we are
using the diluent. But if the temperature ambient temperature changes to the path of the
pipeline, then again that can be the flow can be seized; so we have to maintain the pipeline
heated through the distance. So, high capital and operating costs is needed and low reliability.
We do not know either it will work or it may be affected by some external agency factors or
maybe some fault at any time.
So, it is not so, reliable solution so reliability is less. And very high viscosity It is very high
viscosity so, shipping problems it will arise and high metals, I have already discussed the
refining problems will be there and high CCR again refining problems and high carbon need
expensive hydrogenation. And that hydrogenation unit is very, very essential for this and this
hydrogenation in the refinery, this is the expensive part of a refinery.
So, that is why the difficulty with a crude heavy crude operation at the refinery side is limited
by these factors, it also are restricted by these factors. So, we will try to get some preliminary
removal of the impurities at the production side. So, oil head processing of heavy crude oil can
reduce the transportation and refining cost. So oil head processing is implemented.
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So, for that purpose for oil head processing, what are the technology available, we have
discussed some of those here that is Heavy Oil Upgrading technology, HTL and then improved
delayed coking unit, IDCU and then Shell upgraded technology and GHU Upgrading process
that is genoil hydrocoversion upgrader and solvent extractions, ROSE TM already have
discussed about the solvent deasphalting process. The same process that is ROSE team can be
used for solvent recovery can be done at super critical condition.
Now we see say HTL TM process. So, this HTL TM process, this is developed by the Ivanhoe
Energy incorporation. This is the proprietary heavy oil to light oil technology and is designed to
cost effectively process heavy oil in the field and produce a stable significantly upgraded
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synthetic oil product. So, Tar sand can also be used to convert synthetic crude to this crude.
And the energy is recovered.
The byproduct energy can be used to generate steam or electricity. So, this is the flow sheet. So,
in this case, this is the main reactor where sand is used. So, heated sand helps comes in contact
with the crude and then cracks the hydrocarbons and then lighter parts goes there. So, this is a
rapid thermal processing methods so, this RTP, rapid thermal processing reactor.
So in this case, the process is based on a circulating transport bed of hot sand to heat the heavy
feedstock and convert them to lighter products. Then the upgraded products and the sand are
separated in a cyclone. This is a cyclone. It is separated upgraded products and sand. Sand is
separated here. Upgraded products is going there and then it is again recycled back. So, this is
the process it is going on and here we are getting the synthetic crude.
Then Cyclone and the products are quenched are routed to the atmospheric distillation unit. So,
here it is going to this and this atmospheric distilled distillation unit and we will get some heat.
Though we can get the product this heat from the bottom you can send there and then it is going
there. So, some heat recovery can take place here also. So HTL TM upgrading technology is
unique thermal tracking technology.
So, in this case, what is happening the heaviest molecules which are present here, that are that
those are being cracked, lighter one is not being cracked, light that is not cracked, is being
there. So, heavier is basically cracked so, in the selective thermal cracking process. And then
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upgraded product does not require diluents or blending agents to move to the product through a
pipeline.
So, now synthetic crude we are getting which is having lower viscosity than the feedstock. And
it does not need any diluent and that is one great advantage for oil site processing of the heavy
crude. And the by-product energy can also be recovered. And this technology HTL TM
technology that can be used in small scale is appropriate to grow field cited upgrading capacity
along with resource development, so, minimum scale up these 10,000 to 15,000 barrels per day.
An integrated HTL, heavy oil production processing reduces liquid solid and gaseous waste and
emissions.
Next we will see the improved delayed coking unit. So, this improved delayed coking and we
already have discussed about the delayed coking unit. So, similar delayed coking unit will be
used here, but that will be having some specific nature and it is improved than the conventional
delayed coking unit. In the conventional delayed coking unit, we had 16 to 18 hours of cycle
time, but in this case it is reduced to 6 hours. So it is more efficient than that one.
And this ICDU has revolutionised by eliminating in-situ de-coking process, In-situ de-coking
process. That is the time has been reduced means it is continuous type operations in-situ
delayed coking process. So 4 hours’ time for its coke removal is not necessary. So can upgrade
low API crude at the well head, tar sands between heavy oil and other heavy feedstock can be
processed by this process.
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And it improves the coker efficiency profitability, reliability and safety and significant
improvement in quality and volume of liquid products by this process. And handles virtually
any pumpable hydrocarbon feed and reduce your coking yield by this. It reduces coke yield and
significantly heat recovery from Steam production. Now we will see the flow sheet for IDCU
process.
So here we are having Oil well we are getting so then we are adding steam and heating then
flush drum. Flush drum will give us some light crude and then it is going to coke drum we are
getting heater and then we have coke drum. Then coke drum, it is kept for some time and then
we get vapours from it and get fractionated and again we are getting light crude. And then we
are getting light crude, so heavy oil, heavy crude here, tar sand heavy crude here so we are we
are getting light crude.
In that in case of VR vacuum residue delayed coking unit, we we had vacuum residue here and
we got gas a liquid product as well as coke from this place. But here we are getting pitch we are
getting pitch and we are we are getting the liquid part here which is the light crude. So, this
light crude will be transported to the refinery for further processing.
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Next, Shell upgraded technology, shell upgraded technology, and this technology is developed
by Shell. We will discuss this one before that you see here the IDCU this is and the previous
one also this this is on carbon reaction method, application of thermal method the hydrogen is
added here, but here this your shell upgraded technology, upgraded technology we see this
process processes crude between from oil sands into synthetic crude oil.
It also produces synthetic crude oil from the bitumen and extra heavy crude oil. So, this is based
on hydrogenation. So, hydrogenation takes place here. So, hydrogen is added to convert
bitumen from Shell Muskeg River Mine in Athabasca oil sands into refinery ready sweet or
light crude oil. So, this is different from that of improved delayed coking unit. This unit, this
process is based on hydrogenation and the previous one is based on carbon rejection routes.
And this shell upgraded technology has a rated processing capacity up 255,000 barrels per day
of 40,500 metre per day. So, it is the capacity and in this case as you are using the tar sands, so,
the removal impurities removal is needed. So, your Shells Enhance treatment technology, it
used to remove the sand clay, fine clay and water from oil sands froth to make clean bitumen
suitable for operating by this hydrogenation method.
If we have more impurities and hydrogen if we added then more hydrogen requirement will be
there and the process will be less economic. So, those are removed first, by cleaned by this shell
enhance froth processing treatment technology. And it produces lower levels of sulphur dioxide
emissions than the alternative programme, because already it is removed the sulphur is removed
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through the shells in enhance froth treatment technology. So, these are the basic features of the
shell upgraded technology.
Now, GHUR Upgrading process. So, Genoil hydroconversion process, this is also based on
hydro conversion and then hydrogen addition methods. So, Genoil hydrocarbon conversion
upgrader is a flexible hydro conversion process its conversion and hydrogenation is in one stage
and then applicable for sour, acidic, heavy crude and heavy refinery feedstocks. This can be
flexible in feedstocks can be handled here.
And then, proprietary devices to mix the hydrogen and hydrocarbon stream so, hydrogen and
hydrocarbons stream is mixed in a proprietary device and super saturation of hydrocarbon with
hydrogen. Hydrogen super saturation takes place high amount of hydrogen in sent and high
conversion of heat under moderate operating conditions and then stable products at high
conversion level.
So, they have claimed that at high conversion level it can give our stable products. And
premium quality sweet synthetic crude can be achieved through this route because hydrogen
addition is taking place. So removes the need for expensive diluent blending. Again there is no
need to diluent addition and then pumping. So reducing these and flexibility of operation and
upgraded economical at 10,000 BPD capacity should be at lower capacity relatively it can be
economical used.
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And operating cost is lower than the existing process. These are the claims why these genoil the
genoil is available in this website.
And if we see the basic features of is GHUR Upgrading process then you see that this genoil
GHUR can be utilised to upgrade high sulphur, acidic, heavy crude, bitumen and refinery
residue streams through the hydro processing to produce naphtha, kerosene, diesel and vacuum
gas oil. This process scheme is based on fixed bed reactor and the reactors are in sequence, the
sequences are in sequence.
So different, different reactions takes place in sequence. So this is a fixed bed reactor system.
So the first reactor it is a Guard Bed HDM, hydro demetalization catalyst is the main in the first
reactor, so, hydro demetalization, so demetalization catalyst takes place first. Then second
reactor with the highly active HDS, HDN and HYC catalyst, hydro desulfurization catalyst,
hydro denitrogenisation catalyst and hydro cracking catalyst. So, these catalysts are there in this
reactor.
And then unconverted residue which is not being converted the residues sent to synthesis gas
unit need for H2 recovery and then left over gases are used for IGCC application.
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Now, we will compare this GHU advanced delayed coking, so, GHU technology and advanced
delayed coking. So, this is a carbon rejection method and this is a hydrogen addition method. If
we think about the type of processes, then if we see the residue conversion, you can get here up
to 90% here 70 to 85%. If the temperature it is low, medium, this is high that because hydrogen
addition low temperature coking is high temperature.
Volume output we get 100 to 104% hydrogen additions we are doing so, volume addition may
take place. Coke production, there is no coke production for here we can get 20 to 25% coke
production. Desulphurization is here in case of hydrogenation unit but here we do not get any
desulphurization. Hydrotreating process includes hydro treating, it does not hydrotreating, it
does not include hydro treating, request further hydro treating.
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And this is equipment fewer equipments are GHU or more processing is needed in delayed
coking and water usage says 10 to 15% less than coking or air cooled and the natural gas uses
this optional or none here, it is available in some cases. Natural gas usage is there to heat, the
preheat the feedstock. So, that way, this is taken from the difference. So, now what we are
getting the conventionally which is practised that heavy crude oil then it is diluent addition and
then transport to refinery and processing at refinery side.
This is this is replaced now by the introduction of oil head processing, then synthetic crude or
light crude, lighter crude then it is coming to refinery for further processing.
So, Heavy oil we have it is the processing is added here, added processing. Then it is maybe
added with diluent or may not been added to diluent depending upon the quality produced in
this state and it is sent to the refinery, and as usual the operation is there refining operation will
be there, in that way, we can able to remove the asphaltenes at the product side. So, the load or
the excess burden to the refinery site is reduced.
And the quality of the products is also reduced and the creation of pollution is also reduced by
this process. So upto this in this class, so thank you much for your patience.
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Energy Production
Lecture-20
Tutorial 4
Hi friends, now we will have a tutorial session and in this session we will solve some numerical
problems based on our discussion in the last 4 classes.
The first problem states, a vacuum residue has the following properties that Conradson carbon
ratio CCR is 15 weight percent API gravity 8.5 degree API and sulphur content 3.0 weight
percent. It is fed into delayed coker, delayed coker at rate of 2 lakhs pound per hour determine
the production rate of gas, Naphtha, VGO and coke on the basis of empirical formula. If the
sulphur is distributed in the gas, naphtha, VGO and coke products as 30% 5% 35% and 30%
respectively, find out the concentration of sulphur in these products.
So, this is a problem based on delayed coking. And it is the properties of the feedstock given
that is CCR API. Both are given and sulphur content is also given. Now after the delayed
cooking, we will be getting different products that gas products will get, will get naphtha, will
get VGO, we will get coke. So, these are the major products of the delayed coking process. And
then we have to find out the sulphur content in this and relative amount of different products is
already given.
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So, 30% for gas, 5% for naphtha, 35% for VGO and 30% for coke so, we have to solve the
problem. So now we will see what data is given we have feed rate 2 lakhs pound per hour and
then CCR is 15% and sulphur is 3% in the feed and API is 8.5 for the feed. So then what we
will do? We will use the empirical relationship to determine different products. As you have
discussed in our previous classes that using some empirical formula, we can predict what will
be the product distribution for a delayed coking process.
So here we had this expression gas = 7.8 + 0.144 x CCR % is the weight percentage of CCR. If
we put here then we will get by using this formula we can get the gas weight percent. How
much gas it will be produced, and accordingly we can get the production date also how many
pounds per hour. So in this case, what is the CCR in our case we have 15%. So, 15, if we would
15 x0.144 x 7.8 = 9.96 and then 9.96 this is in percent gas in percent.
So that is equal to 9.96% is so how much we had we had two lakhs, so 2 lakhs per hour, we had
two lakhs pound per hour. So, 2 lakhs pound into this percent that is 0.0996 that is equal to
19,920 pound per hour. Then for the Naphtha this is equal to what will be the percentage of that
the 11.29 + 0.343 x CCR weight %. So we will put 15 and will apply this formula for getting
16.44 weight percent.
And again we will multiply with the actual feed and then we will multiply this percent with it
and are getting 32,880 pound per hour. Similarly, for Coke, we had the empirical relationship if
that is equal to coke in % = 1.6 x CCR in weight%. So 1.6 x 15. So, we are getting 24 wt% =
48000 pound per hour. And gas oil, we can calculate by the difference.
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So, 100% that it also in percentage so 100 minus gas percentage minus naphtha percent minus
coke percentage. So we will be getting 100 - 9.96 - 16.44 - 24. So that is equal to 49.60. And
that is equivalent to 99,200 pound per hour. So now we are getting by summing up we are
getting 100% and this is our product distribution which is a pattern of the distribution of the
products.
And then this is the total amount the product is formed that is equal to 2 lakhs pound per hour
and this is in mass basis, the distribution of different products. Then, we have to find sulphur in
these products. So, how much sulphur we had originally it is given the 3% in the feed. So, 2
lakhs x 0.03 = 6000 pound sulphur is present in it. So, here the basis is say one hour operation.
See the plant operates on one hour then it will consume 2 lakhs pound of feedstock and that will
be having 6000 pound of sulphur. Then we will see, what is the Sulphur in gas?
So, we have 6000 x 30% sulphur is coming as it is given totals sulphur which are in the feed
30% is coming to the gas and then 5% to naphtha, then 35% to VGO and again 30% to coke.
So, this data will be using. So how much sulphur we had and how much what is the percentage
of that sulphur transferred to a particular type of product that we will consider.
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So in this case, we had 6000 pound of gas production per hour and 30% sulphur is coming here
that is 30% of sulphur is converted. So we have 0.3. So, the 1800 pound we are getting here.
And then sulphur in naphtha, that is equal to 6000 originally, 6000 pound sulphur was present
in the feed. So 30% is converted to gas it is coming to the gas. So, that is the gas sulphur
content is on it will be that is 6000 x 30% that is into 0.3.
And naphtha 6000 total amount of sulphur present in the feed into the how many percentage
converted into, transfered into Naphtha? That is 5% so 6000 x 0.05 = 300 pound and for VGO,
it is again 6000 x 35% so 0.35 = 2100 pound and for coke 6,000 x 0.3 = 1800 pound. So, these
are the mass of the sulphur present in different products stream.
Then what will be the percentage? So, then we can convert it into percentage because you have
already calculated what will be the mass of different products we are getting through this
process in one hour. So, then, concentration of sulphur in gas will be this is the sulphur in the
gas and this is the total mass of the gas. So, the sulphur mass of sulphur into mass of gas in to
100. That is the percentage of sulphur in the gas stream.
Similarly, the concentration of sulphur in naphtha there is a mass of naphtha in the mass of
sulphur in naphtha divided by mass of naphtha into 100, that is 0.91% and then concentration of
sulphur in VGO, mass of sulphur in VGO divided by mass of VGO into 100. So, 2.12% and for
coke again the sulphur in coke that is equal to 1800 divided by total Mass of coke, 48,000 into
100 so 3.75% (1800*100/48000=3.75%).
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So, now we are able to determine that what will be the product distribution and how the sulphur
will be distributed in different products.
Now, we are coming to the next problem. So, problem 2, it states that it is it is required to
decoke a visbreaker coil with an inside diameter as 9 centimetre and 700 metre long with a coke
layer of 0.35 centimetre thickness. This is done in two steps. First step, AR introduced to
combust the coke layer whose density is 1202 kg per metre square. In the second step, steam at
450 degrees centigrade and flow rate of 1000 kg per hour is introduced to the coil to remove the
debris and cleaning up.
The exit temperature is 700 degrees centigrade. Coke contains 92% carbon and 8% weight
sulphur. So, these are the data provided. Then for how long should steam be switched on in
hours? We can assume the specific heat of steam is 2.13 kilo joules per kg degree centigrade.
Heat of carbon combustion the combustion of carbon that is equal to 32,770 kilo joules per kg
and then heat of sulphur combustion 9300 kilo joules per kg. So, this this information is given
to us.
Then what we have to do? We have to calculate what is the time required to pass steam to the
coil. So, this problem is a, is related on visbreaking. So, in visbreaking we have coil say so, we
are we are giving feed in, this is product out. Say in and out. So, here the diameter of this we
take some part of it this part. So, it will be like this. So it has diameter of 9 centimetre and
inside these diameter there are some coke deposition during the visbreaking process, both sides
there is some coke deposition process inside the tube.
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So, these thickness is 0.35 centimetres and this length is equal to 7 metre. This is the problem
statement. Now, once the visbreaking is completed the coke deposition has taken place. So, if
we want to use this coil again so, we have to remove the coke from the inside of the coil. So,
this can be done by providing air. So, what the air will do? That C + O2 that will be CO2, so,
this reaction will take place and during this reaction heat will be generated.
And that heat will be taken up by the steam as the steam inlet temperature is equal to 450
degrees centigrade and then when it is going out then the temperature is coming out it is 700
degrees centigrade. So, heat released by this reaction by the coke will be taken up by the steam
and then its temperature will increase. So, if we do the energy balance, then we can be able to
calculate the energy transferred from this reaction to the steam.
And accordingly we can calculate the time required to flow the steam as we have we have
steam flow rate, it is given and specific heat is also given. And combustion for this reaction is
also given. And again if sulphur is present, so sulphur will also be react with oxygen and it will
give us SO2. So that details is also given. So this is an energy balance problem. So, we will
solve it now.
So, volume of the coke layer, we can calculate as we have told that this is the case. We have
layer. So, what will be the volume of this layer, we can calculate. So, we have this is diameter
and this is equal to say thickness D and there the thickness is small, and we can approximate
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and this is equal to 700 metre L so 2πrlh, so, this is equal to h. So 2πrlh, this will be the volume
or πDlh, D is the diameter and r is the radius.
These are same so radius here we are having diameter. So, πDlh, so, this formula π 3.14 into 9
centimetres, so converted 0.09 metres. So D Now we're having L is also given 700 metre long.
So, this equal to 700 and this is not 7, this is 700 metre, so 700 metre. And then this is equal to
the thickness this thickness h to this thickness. So, this is a volume of this coke layer. So, how
much coke was deposited in volume this h.
Then what will be the weight of this? that is equal to we must say mass of this. We can say
mass of this Coke is equal to volume into its density. Density is given. That is equal to 1202 kg
per metre cube that was given. So, multiply this x 1202 x 0.6924 = 832.2 kg. So, this amount of
Coke is deposited inside the coil then heat of combustion of coke. What will be the heat of
combustion of coke?
Because this coke has carbon and sulphur 92% carbon and 8% sulphur it is given. So, what is
the mass of coke we are getting 0.92 of that will be the mass of carbon and that will be
combusted to CO2. So, for that ΔH value = 32,770 kilojoules per kg. So, now we are having the
total mass in kg so, multiply it by this. So, you are getting 25.1x106 kilojoule by approximation
it is and then heat of sulphur composition in coke.
So, how much sulphur is present in coke here 8% So, total mass of the Coke into 0.08 that is the
mass of the sulphur then the heat released due to the combustion of Sulphur to sulphur dioxide.
So, that is multiplied 9300 that is equal to 0.62 x 106 kilojoule. So, what is a total heat released
by these two reactions? This plus this one so are getting 25.72 x106 kilojoule.
So, this is heat released by the combustion reaction now this is taken up by the steam. So, so if
we consider that m, m is given. So m is mass of the flow rate of steam m is mass flow rate of
steam, then m Cp dT, ΔT that is Tout - Tin, temperature difference into mass of steam into Cp
average specific heat of steam. Then we will be having this Cs and if we can use this formula
and put the value of this we can get the rate of heat gained by steam, because this mass is
related to the mass flow rate.
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So, that it will be heat flow rate, it will be in a ms Cs and Tout - Tin. So, in this case what is our
ms it is given 1000 kg per hour 1000 kg per hour steam it is given. So, 1000 we are putting then
Cs it is given how much it is 2.13 kilojoule per kg per degree centigrade. So, we will put this
value here and then temperature difference how much 700 output and input 450 so 700 - 450.
So, then we are getting 0.53 x 106 kilojoule per hour.
So, this is the heat taken up by the steam per hour. But how much steam, how much heat has to
be taken up by the steam this much. So, what will be the time required to transfer the total heat
generated during oxidation process to the steam that will be 25.72 x 106 / 0.53 x 106 = 48.5
hour. So, 48.5 hour the steam switch has to be kept on.
Next problem. So now we are coming to problem number 3. So, this problem says gas oil with
API gravity of 30, 1 barrel container 306 pound and a sulphur content of 1.5 weight basis is fed
into a hydrotreater. It is required to carry out hydro desulphurization at the severity of 90%.
Calculate the hydrogen required and the API gravity of the product. The amount of hydrogen
required can be calculated based on correlation given as:
SCF hydrogen per barrel is equal to 110.8 into Sf plus 10.2 into HDS% minus 659. So, this Sf
is the weight percentage of sulphur in the feed and HDS is the percent of hydrodesulphurization
required that is degree of severity. The increase in product API can be calculated as:ΔAPIp =
0.00297 x (SCF H2 / barrel) - 0.11205 (API)f + 5.5419.
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So, this empirical relationship is given. We can use it to calculate the changes in API due to this
process. So this equation is used for feed sulphur content of 0.5 to 6.0 weight percent. So, in our
case, 1.5 wt% is provided. So, this formula we can use to calculate the API change due to this
process. And what is the hydrogen requirement that can also be calculated by this empirical
formula. So, we are going to do that. So, how will do it?
We are assuming that one barrel of gas oil so API is equal to 30 that means 306 pound per
barrel, it is provided. What will be the sulphur in feed 15% it is, so we have to 306 pound into
0.15 so 4.6 pound per barrel feed we are having that sulphur. Then what will be the total
hydrogen required? SCFB H2, that is equal to it is given this formula is given. So 110.8 x SF
and SF = 1.5 + 10.2 x degree of severity.
That is it is given 90%. So 90% severity is required so we will be putting here 90 - 659, it is
coming to 425 SCF by per barrel. And ΔAPI for the product permission we are getting 0.00297
into this was given SCF and then 0.11205 into what is this this this 30 is equal to API. How
much API feed had so this plus 5.5419 and it is given. So that is coming equal to 3.4. So 3.4
ΔAPI is changing.
So what will be the product so 30 + 3.4 = 33.4. Okay. So degree API is increasing. That means
the product is becoming lighter through hydro processing the products become lighter.
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Next problem statement states, 100 pound per hour residue was introduced to a deasphalting
process, which operates at 220 degree Fahrenheit. The residue has the following properties
degree API 6.6 Degree API 6.6 sulphur content 4.8 weight % is solvent enters the process at a
rate of 600 barrel per hour. The DAO that is deasphalted oil produced has degree API of 19.8.
Calculate the yield of DAO and its sulphur content in weight %.
It is given at 220 degree Fahrenheit the DAO% is equal to 45% of the residue. It can be
assumed that the percent sulphur in DAO is related with the yield of DAO production. The
sulphur in DAO maybe around 30% of its amount, in original feed, when the DAO yield is
around 50 volume percent, so, this is a problem statement. So, what we have to do? We have to
calculate the yield of DAO and we have to calculate the sulphur content in it in weight basis or
mass basis.
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So, here, what is the solvent to oil ratio 600 pound per hour, we have 100 pound per hour
residue and solvent is 600 pound per hour. So, what is the ratio 600 / 100, = 6. And then what is
the DAO? How much DAO is produced that is equal to 45% its residual part is coming as DAO
so, 0.45 x 100 = 45 pounds per hour. So, this is our DAO production the first part is done.
And then DAO which is produced what is the API, degree API? 19.8 gives SG so, that is equal
to SG of 93.5. So what is this Degree API = 141.5 / specific gravity - 131.5 as you have
discussed, so, here in this case API is available that is equal to 19.8. So, SG we can calculate by
this expression and that is that is equal to 0.935 and residue API equal to 9.9 as already given.
So, in that case, we can get the SG also by the by using this formula here it is coming 1.0246
So, specific gravity of feed and specific gravity of product we are able to calculate. Then what
will be the percentage yield. That is equal to 45 divided by specific gravity of it. That will be
the volume. That will be the mass divided by this so, it is the volume of the DAO.
And then what is the total volume of the residue? That is 100 by the mass and then divided by
this specific gravity that is the volume. So, this volume of DAO divided by the volume of the
residue or the feedstock into 100. So, 49.3% DAO yield. Now it is given that sulphur content is
dependent on that DAO yield. And it is also given if DAO yield is around 50% the sulphur 30%
of sulphur will be transferred to DAO.
So, we are having here sulphur present in DAO = 4.8 Lb x 0.3 because, we have 4.8% sulphur
was originally present in feedstock So, 30% of it is being converted. So, that is equal to 1.44
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pound is coming to that DAO. So, then what will be weight percentage of sulphur in DAO?
That is this into this is divided by 45 into 100. The mass of sulphur divided the mass of DAO
into 100. So, there is a percent of 3.2%. So, that was we are asked to calculate and were able to
solve it.
Our next problem is a feed of VGO of 37,500 BPCD that is barrel per calendar day is hydro
cracked to maximise the ATK aviation turbine kerosene production using 3 weight %
hydrogen. The API of the feed is 20 and the mean average boiling point that is TB is equal to
575 degree Fahrenheit. The process produces gases gasoline, heavy naphtha and ATK. Make
material balance around this hydro cracker the following correlations can be used.
So, hydro cracking severity we can calculate by using these correlations that is 0.6621 x H x SG
where H is the weight percent of hydrogen added. And SG is a specific gravity and then VH is
the cubic feet of hydrogen produce per barrel of feed. And gasoline liquid yield can be
calculated by this empirical relationship.
That is volume percent that is liquid volume percentage equal to this one - 0.03734 x APIf2 +
1.57575 APIf + 0.014923 K - 1.36473 VH -VH / K. So, VH already it is given and then can be
calculated by TB1/3 / SG and this TB in Rankine scale.
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And Butane productions in volume percent, we can calculate by this empirical relationship.
These productions will be dependent on the liquid volume percent of gasoline and API of the
feed. Similarly heavy Naphtha can be the liquid volume of the heavy naphtha can be computed
by this empirical relationship which is based on the gasoline percentage and APIf. APIf of the
feed okay. The following equation can be used to convert liquid volume percent into weight
percent for hydrocarbon products.
That is product weight % = 0.8672 x product LV% - 0.9969. So, this is the problem statement.
Now, we have to do a mass balance of this.
So, from feed API of 20 the specific gravity we can calculate 0.934. The same expressions
Specific gravity = 141.5 /specific gravity. So, API = 141.5 /specific gravity - 131.5. The same
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formula we can use. And then hydrogen we have 3% we are adding in this case, then VH will be
how much 0.6621 x 3 x 0.934 because this x sulphur content SF x Specific Gravity.
So we are getting 1.855 feet cube per barrel and then K, K = TB1/3/ SG so TB in Rankine. So,
this was 575 Fahrenheit, so + 460 there is an Rankine to the for one third by this so, that is
equal to 10.83. Then what will be the gasoline liquid volume, this empirical formula we will
put. So, this is API of the feed and then this is feed and this empirical formula we are already
given.
This is equal to K value. So, we are putting the empirical formula and we are getting the value
of 14.18 liquid volume percent. And gasoline wt% equal to how much? We will put that
relationship which is given to convert vol% to wt% that is .8672 x 14.18 that is 14.18 is the
liquid volume percent - 0.9969, so it is coming 11.30%.
Similarly, for gas what will be the liquid volume percent? So, this one we will be putting the
same expressions as provided. So, we are getting value of 5.04% and for heavy naphtha LV%
equal to this expressions we had that is the gasoline production and then degree of feed APIf so,
then you are getting 19.94%. And the weight percent if we want to convert, then these volume
percent into this minus this already the expression is given.
So we get in 16.29% for heavy naphtha after for ATK we are getting 100 we have the feed plus
3 hydrogen we are adding then we are getting the difference of this, this is the difference of
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other masses. This is our input. This is our mass of the feedstock. This is our mass of other
products. So remaining is the mass of the ATK weight percent that you can calculate.
And this is a summary of the material balance which we have, hydrogen we are adding and 103
we are getting and then we are getting the products this, this one gasoline and this one and this
one are 1,2,3 so mass balance we are getting so upto this in this class, thank you very much for
your patience.
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Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee
Lecture - 21
Gaseous Fuels: Properties and Routes for Energy Production
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic gaseous fuels, properties, and routes for energy
production. In this course, so far we have discussed on the utilization of coal and petroleum
which are fossil fuels, and solid and liquid in nature, but now we will be discussing on the
gaseous wells and how this can be used in a more cleaner of sense, most conventional routes
and how it can be processed through a more cleaner routes. So, that we will discuss in this
class.
The content of this; the gaseous fuels and their types, properties of gaseous fuels, naturally
available gaseous fuels, application of gaseous fuels in combustion for heat and electricity
production and reforming for hydrogen, chemicals and high energy density fuel production.
So we will see at first what are the conventional routes, that is, basically that gas can also be
used for the production of heat and electricity. It can be used in transport sector as well as for
electricity productions in power plant.
We may converts gaseous fuels to syngas and syngas to different types of chemicals or liquid
fuels so that energy density will be high and we can moreover get hydrogen from this syngas
or from this methane or natural gas, so that will be one cleaner option for its utilization. Now,
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we will see the gaseous fuel types.
So what are the types of gaseous fuels that we will see here and this is the fuel in gas phase
and it burns and gives heat, this is the definition of gaseous fuels. So, the gaseous substance
that burns in air and release enough heat. Indeed clean combustion and higher combustion
efficiency it has and the use of gaseous fuels user convenience and you see some example
kerosene and LPG. Obviously, we will prefer the use of LPG for cooking purpose and then
transportation feasible through network of pipelines.
So, gas can be transferred from one place to others with pipeline. If we see the types, so one
is available in nature, some gaseous fuels which are available in nature; so natural gas,
compressed natural gas, liquefied natural gas, those are available, coalbed methane is also
one naturally available gas and gas hydrate. So these are the naturally available gaseous fuels.
We can produce from the solid fuels like say water gas, producer gas, coal gas and town gas,
and syngas.
Already we have discussed these things how the coal gas, producer gas, syngas, etc. can be
produced from the coal and petcoke and produced from petroleum. From petroleum, we can
get LPG and we can get refinery gasses. Produced from fermentation, from fermentations in
anaerobic digestions, we can get biogas, we can get landfill gas. So these are different types
of gaseous fuels, which we can get and we can use these resources for energy production in
cleaner route. We will discuss how this can be used in a cleaner process or cleaner routes.
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Now this slide shows us some statistics, the availability of gaseous fuels, say 87% global
energy consumption depends upon fossil fuels as you know. The natural gas stands for
approximate 21% percent of the world's energy consumptions as per this reference. Then it is
estimated the proven natural gas reserve is 185.7 trillion cubic meter, this is the British
Petroleum 2014 report; and coalbed methane is 17 trillion cubic meter.
Then methane hydrates 3 trillion cubic meter, that is as per 2004 data, and then animal
husbandry, the methane from the biogas, so that is also one good source of the gas, biogas
from the cow dung or other animal manures or any other animal rejects. Now we will see the
basic properties of gaseous fuels. So like coal and petroleum, these gaseous fuels will also
have some specific properties and some of those properties are very very important to
consider it as a very good candidate for energy production.
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So some of those properties are composition, then high calorific value and low calorific
value, then density and dimensionless density or relative density, and then Wobbe number
and Wobbe index, then temperature of dew point and moisture, explosibility limits,
stoichiometric air, octane number; so all those properties are important to consider the
gaseous fuels as energy candidate.
Now here we see the typical composition of different type of gas; so natural gas, LPG, coal
gas, producer gas, syngas, water gas. So if we see here in these gases, the composition is
different, so somewhere we are having CH4 92% for natural gas and higher hydrocarbon 5%
and inert 3%. So here we see heating value is 41. Then you go for LPG, propane and butane
higher hydrocarbon we are having here and also we are getting very high heating value,
whereas coal gas we have hydrogen 48%, CO 5%, CH4 34%, CO2 13%, but its heating value
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is 20.2 megajoule per meter cube.
Producer gas is further it is less, very less heating value it has, and your syngas we are having
up to 9.3 to 14.9, for this case is hydrogen 20 to 30%, carbon monoxide 40 to 60%, CH4 5%,
and CO2 5 to 15% like this. So in this case also, the heating value is not very high. Water gas
also has very low heating value. So to be energy candidate, obviously the heating value is
very important and we see that the LPG is having the highest heating value among others
followed by natural gas.
So which one is having higher heating value and which one is lower heating value that
demarcation has been made by this one that the high calorific we can consider and high
heating value in 39 megajoule per meter cube or more and then it is less than 27 megajoule
per meter cube, it is considered as low calorific value containing gas.
Then we see the density, what is density yow that mass/volume and then dimensionless
density = density of gas/density of air at the same conditions, so that will be the relative
density. Then Wobbe number is defined as that gross calorific value that a high calorific
value in megajoule per meter cube unit divided by relative density to the power 0.5, so this is
the Wobbe number definition.
Then, this will be coming into megajoule per meter cube unit and these are different
components, different types of gas, which are having different Wobbe number. So what is the
significance of this number? You see say I have a gas mixture, I am using it for a particular
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application, I want to change one component from the mixture, see is it possible that can be
decided by Wobbe index, Wobbe number. So similar Wobbe number means the similar
amount of energy is released by unit volume of gas.
So, if I want to change one component by other, then if both are having the similar Wobbe
number, then there will be no problem during the combustions to meet the heat requirement
for the process. So that is the importance of Wobbe index or Wobbe number. So if 2 fuels
have identical Wobbe indices, then for given pressure and valve settings, the energy output
will also be identical. So that is one important parameter.
Now temperature of dew point and moisture. So this is the dew point definition the
significance is different for different cases. So if we consider the compressed air industry,
then dew point is always a measurement of water content, but in this gas industry and natural
gas industry, water content is stated in terms of pounds of moisture per million standard cubic
feet. Dew point often refers to the hydrocarbon dew point or that is HDP or HCDP.
It is the temperature at which the hydrocarbon components of any hydrocarbon rich gas
mixture such as natural gas will start to condense out of the gaseous phase, so minimum
temperature when it will start to condense, the hydrocarbon gas will start to condense. So this
is your dew point. So we have seen that higher molecular weight hydrocarbon is giving
higher heating value, there is LPG having higher heating value, and in this case liquid and air
transfer is also possible depending upon the pressure and temperature.
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So the industries care about the hydrocarbon dew point. So dew point will influence how
much molecules will be in gas phase, gas phase means it is easy to use, and liquid phase is
giving us higher hydrocarbon is giving us more heating value. So the hydrocarbon dew point
is important that it will decide whether the hydrocarbon will be in gas phase or in liquid
phase, that is why this hydrocarbon dew point is considered by the gas industry.
Now explosibility limits. In explosibility limits as you know if we want to get explosions or
say firing from any material, then we need 3 things; that is your oxygen, fuel, and your
sufficient heat or some ignition source. So these things are required, that is, fire triangle also
we can say. So if we have sufficient amount of gas, oxygen is less, so we may not get firing.
So for the explosion, for catching fire, we need oxygen and gas and some temperature.
So what will be happening, there will be one lower limit and there will be an upper limit for
the concentration of gas in the air mixture. So gas and air, below certain concentration of gas,
it will be a lean gas, so it will not be able to burn, and after certain concentration of the gas in
the mixture, it will be rich in gas, and also there will be no burning or combustion in this
process. So the upper concentration is upper limit and the lower concentration is lower limit.
Within this upper to lower limit, the gas explosion will take place.
So some examples are given here. Low explosion level and upper explosion level for
hydrogen is 4, this is for 4 and this is for 7.5, so 4% hydrogen and 75% percent hydrogen, so
these are the limits. Similarly, for methane 5 to 15, C2H5, 3 to 12.4, and 2.1 to 9.5 likewise.
So now if we have a mixture, then what will be the LEL and what will be the UEL if we have
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a gas mixture. Then, we have to consider the individual gas mixture and their LEL and UEL
and we can put this in these expressions.
So, that is LEL mixture is equal to 1divided by sum of xi by LELi, then what is the mass
fraction of particular component divided by LELi of that component plus, similarly if you
have n numbers we have to add n in this, this, this term that is xi by LELi, then we will be
getting the overall LEL of the mixture.
Then stoichiometric air requirement, that is also important properties that for a particular gas
fuel what is the air requirement stoichiometry, so some example is given here. It say that if
air is very high, air is more, then air will be in excess, so there will be heat loss; and air is
less, complete combustion will not take place. So there will be some optimizations and
people have worked on it and found out that 14.7 to 1% this air-fuel ratio is required for
stoichiometric conversions, but if we provide stoichiometric air, then the process will not be
that efficient.
We need some excess amount of oxygen and that oxygen the excess amount is defined by
lambda. So lambda 1 is stoichiometric. If it is more than one, that means you are getting some
excess oxygen. So it is found that this 5% excess oxygen, it gives the best fuel economy. So,
we will see what is the stoichiometric ratio and then what will be the oxygen required for the
combustion of this fuel that we can determine if we can know the stoichiometric air
requirement. So this is one important property of gaseous fuel.
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Octane number we have already discussed that it is related to the antiknock property of that.
So octane number is the measure of engine knocks resistance of a given fuel and octane
number of a particular fuel blend is determined under specific operating conditions as you
have discussed in case of petroleum and its different petroleum products, particularly for
gasoline.
So similar test is done for testing the knocking property of this gaseous fuel and here the
same definition of octane number as we have discussed iso-octane has 100 and then n-
heptane has 0 and octane number is equal to content of iso-octane in percentage in the
mixture which has the similar type of knocking property of that particular fuel.
Then we will see the naturally available gaseous fuels. So naturally available gaseous fuels
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we have already discussed. We have natural gas, which can exist in lithosphere, separately or
accompany the oil, it may be separately gas or may be along with the oil, it is naturally
available, that is natural gas. This natural gas can occur separately, diluted in oil, and diluted
in water that is gas hydrates, and diluted in rocks that is coal bed methane.
So, these are the natural source of gaseous fuels and this natural gas can exist in different
forms and some acronyms are natural gas NG, then compressed natural gas CNG, liquefied
natural gas LNG, and low calorific natural gas LCNG. So these are the acronyms of natural
gas.
Now we will see what NG, CNG, LNG are? So you know that natural gas at ordinary
temperature and pressure, normal temperature and pressure, it is in gas phase. So if we can
change the temperature and pressure, it can be converted to liquid phase or it can be
compressed. So some pressure temperature curve shows that this is the critical point for this,
this is the critical point for the natural gas. The critical pressure is equal to 45.96 Bar and
temperature is -82.7, so we have -82.7 and this is your 45.96 Bar.
So our temperature is normal temperature is say 30 degree, so in that case, it comes into gas
phase. So how we will store it, that this can be stored in cylindrical or spherical vessels, steel,
aluminum or made of some composite and those standard, these are defined by the standards.
It should have some quality as mentioned in the standards. You see this natural gas net in the
country. So, this we have on dotted line so that is your GAIL’s existing facilities.
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So, GAIL, Gas Authority of India Limited, so this is one Indian company Navratna company,
so this company is exclusively involved for the gas business and this is their existing plant.
This is the pipeline for the transport of gaseous fuels and there are some expansion programs.
This is your proposed GAIL pipeline. So this red or the proposed gas will be supplied
through this line different parts of the country, it will be connected through this pipeline.
Then private players, there are some private players also who are involved in this business,
and these private players’ proposed pipelines. So these are the proposed pipelines of gas
supply for the private player. So this is the availability of natural gas in the country, and we
will give some information here.
So we will get some information here, that is GAIL India limited main player in gas
transport. A total 5300 km gas pipeline is available in the country in 11 states and Hajira-
Bilaspur-Jagdispur 2800 km. It has a capacity of 60 MCMD and 900 mm diameter and
pressure 20 to 40 Bar and there are some booster pumps at 200 to 350 km away. So, the gas is
transferred through pipelines.
During the transfer, it loses its pressure, so some booster pump is required to generate further
pressure to pressurize it to movement from one place to other, so that is the role of the
booster and this is the pipeline specification. Apart from this, we have Iran-Pakistan-India
pipeline 2300 km and Myanmar-Bangladesh-India pipeline.
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So these are the summary of planned additions to pipeline infrastructure. Say existing till
2012, we had 306 million metric standard cubic meter per day MMSCMD and then length is
12144. Then we have expected addition in 12th plan, 416 that was 15928 km kilometers and
then expected addition in 13th plan that its design capacity 60 in this plan and then it is 3360
km pipeline addition.
Capacity addition beyond 13th plan and till 2030 that is beyond 13th plan we are having this
and this is 1295 km of pipeline addition. So, total 815 MMSCMD capacity with 32727 km
pipe length is under proposal.
Then we are coming to coal bed methane. So coal bed methane, obviously the name indicates
that it is available in the coal seam, it is coal bed. So in some hard coal deposits, methane is
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absorbed in coal under great pressure. So, the methane content in coal depends on the
coalfields’ features and the composition of this coal bed methane in basically 96% of
methane and 3% nitrogen and rest is other compounds.
During mining process, the pressure reduction takes place, so once the pressure is reduced,
then the absorbed gas comes out or dissolved, so we can get the coal bed methane by that
way. To make the process of de-methanization more effective, coal field is set by blasting or
by using explosives. Then mine-methane is collected in the steel pipelines and transported
from the mine, and we will see due to the processing applied, the mine methane has a
considerable content of air, it contains around 20 to 50% of air.
Then gas hydrates is another type of gaseous fuels available in hydrate forms and see this is
the structure of gas hydrates. It has a crystalline structure and methane are higher and higher
hydrocarbons associated with water molecules are present in hydrate form as a solid form and
then if we can break this, then we can get methane. So, the hydrates are crystalline structure
consisting of combined water and gas molecules. Normally they are in the form of water ice
and give off methane when heated.
So thing required, so this figure shows that this is our sea floor, so below the sea floor the gas
hydrate stability zone we are getting, so above also we can get some hydrate, but this hydrate
stable, but methane concentration too low for formation, so methane concentration is very
less in this, so this part is very useful. So methane gas that is available here can be extracted,
but this is not a very matured technology, investigations are going on how to use these gas
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hydrates as energy product.
In India also, we have some reserve in a Godavari basin then that can be used and
government of India is also investing good amount of money for the research on this area.
The content of methane is as high as 164 meter cube methane in 1 meter cube of hydrate, so 1
meter cube hydrate can give us 164 meter cube of methane. Deposits of hydrates are located
on continental slopes under oceans and also in the permafrost regions, already we have
discussed.
Due to climatic change and geological conditions, excavation of hydrates is not cost effective
nowadays, so this is not a very cost effective option to use this commercially, but research is
going on and in near future, this resource may also be used.
So now we will see how these various types of gases can be used and conventionally used. So
this can be used for heat and electricity production, very conventional method. An application
for liquid fuel and hydrogen production, in application for liquid fuels, methanol, DME, and
hydrogen these can be produced. So we have natural gas say, so we will follow the
combustion route, we will get hot flue gas, and then heat recovery, it will give us process heat
and electricity through the steam and gas turbine.
So, this is a very conventional method, but we can use this natural gas through reforming,
then we can get a syngas, then syngas cleaning and conditioning, it will be the feedstock for
different type of products, may be liquid fuel, maybe chemicals or maybe hydrogen. So that
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way, these routes are not well explored, so research is going on for the development of new
technology, even in small scale technology, for the utilization of natural gas through these
routes.
This is a segment wise demand for natural gas from 2012-13 to 2029-30. So industrial sector
say 20 MMSCMD in 2012-13 is expected to be 63.91 MMSCMD. Similarly for all sectors, it
is expected the natural gas utilization will increase in near future, for everywhere we are
getting increase and significant increase, total 242.66 MMSCMD to it is expected that it will
be 746.03 MMSCMD.
Conventionally, we use the LPG, we use CNG or natural gas or LNG we use. An LPG as you
know that it is highly volatile liquid and expands to 247 times of its liquid volume and
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Mercaptans are available in it, say 50 ppm. Liquefaction pressure, propane it is 10 bar and
butane 3 bar, propane propane and butane are the major components of the LPG we know
and in this case 14.2 kg MS cylinders for domestic use it is available, but for commercial, we
have 5, 19, and 47.5 kg cylinder.
Compressed natural gas, the natural gas is compressed which is called CNG and is stored at
20 to 22 megapascal storage pressure, so 200 to 220 atmospheric pressure. So LNG, similarly
liquefied natural gas, the natural gas can be liquefied if the temperature is reduced to -161
degree centigrade, and when it expands, it can expand to around 600 times of its liquid
volume. So this is the application for electricity production as you have discussed for coal
and other fuels, also the petroleum.
Also, the similar way the gas can be used for electricity production through the combustion
route. So combustion, then flue gas, then heat turbine and turbine, and then this is going to
your alternator and we are getting the electricity. Similarly again, the exhaust from the
turbines can be used in machine to boiler for heat recovery and then steam turbine and then
electricity and from this, condensed water can come here and it is again go to the boiler.
So that way in a conventional route, the gas can be used for the production of electricity and
heat. So now, we will see in the next classes how the gaseous fuels, particularly the natural
gas can be used for the production of chemicals, liquid fuels, and hydrogen. Thank you very
much for your patience.
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Lecture - 22
Syngas Production from Natural Gas
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic gaseous fuels, syngas production from natural
gas. In the previous class, we have seen that natural gas can be used conventionally for the
heat application or it can be used in power plant for electricity production. We have also
discussed that this can be converted to syngas and then syngas to different types of chemicals
including hydrogen. So if we can do it, then we can reduce emission level due to the
utilization of syngas.
In this class, we will be focusing on how the natural gas can be converted to syngas, later
next we will discuss how the syngas can be converted to liquid fuel and also how we can get
hydrogen from natural gas.
So the contents of this class is your reforming as a cleaner route for natural gas utilization;
then types of reformers or reforming that is SMR, dry reforming, ATR, CPOX, bi-reforming
tri-reforming, etc.; and then comparison of different types of reforming; and then reforming
reactors.
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If we see the reforming, that means that it will be reformed the molecules, the methane will
be converted to other molecules. In this process, the syngas is produced, hydrogen and CO
containing syngas by the thermal process, it may be exothermic or endothermic, both
reactions take place in this and depending upon the nature of reforming process, the del H
value changes. Normally it is a catalytic process, but without catalyst also the reforming can
take place, and if we use catalyst, we will get better performance.
What is happening by this process, we can eliminate the oxygen from the initial fuel mixture
that improves the overall system efficiency by minimizing energy losses from catalytic
combustion. This product which we are getting that syngas, this will be used for heat
application, for steam generation and for different types of chemical synthesis. So that is the
major advantage of this process for the conversion of natural gas to syngas and then syngas to
other chemicals. So this is our reforming process, CH4 will be reformed to CO+H2, that is
called syngas.
(Refer Slide time: 03:34)
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Then we can get different types of reforming process as you have mentioned and the most
important are steam reforming, then partial oxidation, auto thermal reforming, then dry
reforming or combined reforming of methane that is called bi-reforming, then tri-reforming
of methane, and reforming with membrane. So these are the different types of reforming
processes available in literature and some of these are applied in commercial scale and some
of these are still under development stage.
The first 3 are mostly used in industry. Other these are under development and demonstration
scale and these will be having better feature for the control of carbon dioxide.
Now we will see what SMR is, that is steam methane reforming. So in this case, we will be
using methane and steam as a reacting agent and the reaction will be CH4+H2O both remain
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in gas phase, it will give us CO and 3H2. So, this one SMR1. In this reaction, we can get
206.2 kilojoule/mol energy, this energy is required, that is endothermic process. Then another
reaction may take place, CH4+2H2O that is CO2+4H2, so carbon monoxide can be produced,
carbon dioxide also can be produced and here 164.7 kilojoule/mol energy is required for this
reaction.
Then we can get water-gas-shift reaction in the reforming reactor also, that is CO which is
produced here that can also react with H2O which is available in the reactor and then converts
to CO2+H2, so this reaction is exothermic. So overall, it is endothermic reaction. Then
another important feature is that H2/CO ratio, this H2 and CO which is available in syngas,
the ratio of these 2 components are very very important because this will decide the
suitability of the syngas for its downstream applications.
Different downstream applications require different ratio of H2 is to CO. So in this case, we

can get this ratio as 3-5, so the very high ratio we can get with respect to other reforming and
the temperature requirement is 700-850 degree centigrade and pressure is 15-30 bar. So, this
is a commercial process and in this process catalyst is normally used. If we do not use
catalyst, then also we will get some syngas formation, but basically nickel or on ceramic
support, this catalyst nickel based catalyst on ceramic support with or without some promoter
or stabilizers these catalysts have been used in the SMR process.
The precious metals offers alternative to the nickel and supports may be strong, inert,
thermally and chemically stable. So these are the catalyst for this reaction. It requires high
geometric surface area, high heat transfer coefficient, low pressure drop, and less carbon
deposition. So during this process, carbon deposition takes place and the catalyst should have
that property where the low carbon deposition will be achieved.
This process we will discuss in detail because we see here hydrogen is maximum. So if we
want to get hydrogen from the syngas, the steam reforming may be one of the important
process or route and we will discuss in next class in more detail.
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Now we will see some aspect of the SMR reactor. So here is the SMR reactor schematic say.
So we have these are the tubes that is called reformatives. So from this, we are putting natural
gas and steam, both natural gas and steam. So, then high temperature will be provided in this
reactor, these are the tubes through, inside of the tube we are having the hydrocarbon and
steam, outside we are having high temperature by burning some fuel gas.
So here, the burners are there, so high temperature is generated, and there will be some
reforming reactions inside the tube and we will get the product from the bottom of this
tubular reactor or tubes of the reformer. The syngas we can get 850 degree centigrade, 20-30
bar, and 70% hydrogen in dry gas. So this is the steam reforming reactor and these are the
reactions already we have discussed, endothermic and exothermic reactions, both are
available during the process, and overall it is endothermic reaction.
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Next, we are coming to partial oxidation, that is POX, and catalytic partial oxidation CPOX.
So these methods is also used largely and here as you see partial oxidation so you will be
providing less amount of oxygen. So CH4 will be converted to CO+2H2 that is the required in
syngas. So then here we can get H2/CO ratio 2-1.5 and temperature is higher 1200-1400
degree centigrade and then pressure 50-70 bar.
So here, methane will be partially converted to this one, that is one reaction; another it is
possible methane is reacting with 2O2, then it is CO2+H2O, then CO2+H2O further it can give
up CO+2H2. Other reactions which can take place here CH4 +H2O which is produced in this
H2 can react with the methane also and it can give CO+3H2 and CH4+CO2 which generated
this reaction that can also give a CO+H2 so that is why we can get H2/CO ratio as equal 2-2.5
and this is exothermic process and faster than steam reforming and requires a smaller reactor
vessels.
So advantage of this, we do not need to give much external energy for this reactions. Then if
we see the catalyst part, then also we will see that the first row of transition metals nickel and
cobalt and precious metals ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, platinum, and iridium those are
used as a catalyst for this reaction and the relative rates of carbon depositions are in the order,
that is nickel greater than palladium greater than ruthenium, then it is greater than Ru, and
then it is greater than Pt, so this is greater than iridium okay.
So carbon deposition is a major issue on nickel catalyst which may reduce the number of
active sites. So heavy carbon formation may give increase in the pressure on the feed side
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that is the pores will be blocked and more pressure drop will get during the reactions and in
the reactor.
So we will see the reactor configurations. So we will be having 2 zones in this case. The first
is your flame zone and another is your heat exchanger zone. So flame zone means here
hydrocarbons, in our case methane, then oxygen, those will be combusted and possibly low
amount of steam react together. So here, some reaction takes place and then CO and H2 form
here and then at high temperature we recover excess heat.
So, this is the features of this, but this is for POX, but if we use CPOX, then we can have
some catalyst layer here at the first flame and then we will be having some catalyst here, so
catalyst will help the reactions. So conversion of the process will be more than the POX.
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Then we are going to ATR, auto thermal reforming. So in this case, we use steam and
oxygen, so steam and oxygen, so the reactions are the methane plus steam then will be
CO+3H2, it will give also CH4+1/2O2, then it is CO+2H2 and then this is the heating value -
36 megajoule per kilo mol and overall it is endothermic process. H2/CO ratio here we can get
around 2 and temperature is 850-1000 degree centigrade and pressure is 20-100 bar.
So what we see here are 2 types of reactions. So this reaction is basically for SMR and this
reaction is for partial oxidation. So SMR plus partial oxidation basically gives us ATR and
nickel based catalyst had been used for this reforming process.
If we see the reactor configurations, as you have discussed the first the hydrocarbon or
methane will be combusted and may use some oxygen and steam here and then some
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reforming reactions will take place in this zone. Now catalyst will be available here and then
we will get syngas. So the reactions already we have discussed that CH4+O2 this will be there
and then deforming will be taking place CH4+ this H2 which is forming this and CH4+CO2,
then we can get this one. So this is the basics of the ATR process.
So by proper adjustment of oxygen and steam to carbon ratios, the partial combustions in the
thermal zone supplies the heat for completing the subsequent endothermic steam and CO2
reforming reactions, that is 2 reactions which we are getting, this heat generated, that is used
in the second case.
Next we are coming to DRM, that is dry reforming of methane. So dry reforming means there
will be no steam use, obviously carbon dioxide is used for the reforming purpose. So reaction
is methane + carbon dioxide 2CO+2H2 in gaseous phase and this is our ΔH 247
kilojoule/mol, so endothermic reaction again, and your temperature 630-850 degree
centigrade and pressure 1-20 bar and here the H2/CO ratio is less, 0.4-1.5 and here we can get
nickel based catalysts are used widely.
The presence of CO2 gives rise to more chance of carbon formation, so as we are using
carbon dioxide as the reactant for the reforming process, the carbon deposition is more in this
type of reforming process and that is the major disadvantage of dry reforming and that is the
more challenging part also and that is why it has not got industrial application yet. Then
efforts are on to improve this process, how to reduce the carbon deposition in DRM.
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Development of active catalyst materials but with a very low coke formation rate, either on
the catalyst or in the cold zones of the reactor is the main challenge just we have discussed.
Then we are coming to bi-reforming, then in this case we will be using 2 reforming agents, so
here methane plus steam and then carbon monoxide. So here, we will be having methane plus
steam CO+3H2, ΔH = 206.2 kilojoule/mol, then CH4 + steam, this reaction can also take
place and then the ΔH is this one and CO+H2O that can give us CO2+H2 and other reactions
which is taking place here CH4+CO2 it is giving us 2CO+2H2. So in this case, we can use
carbon dioxide and steam as a reactant for the reforming process.
Overall is -41.2 kilojoule/mol and H2/CO ratio is 2 and temperature 700-950 degree
centigrade and pressure 10-30 bar. So one of the important advantage of this process is that it
can use carbon dioxide as a reacting agent. So it helps to reduce the carbon emission and
increase the carbon footprint. Here also, nickel based catalysts are used and nano-composite
that is nickel zirconium oxide is superior to conventional nickel zirconium oxide, that means
efforts are on to increase superior quality catalyst using nano-particles for this particular
process.
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Then we will discuss the tri-reforming. So here, we will be using 3 agents; oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and steam for the conversion of the methane, that is why it is tri-reforming. So major
reactions are here; CH4+1/2O2, CO+2H2O, this is your ΔH value and then CH4+CO2 it will
give us 2CO+2H2 and then this is del H value, and CH4+H2, it will give H2O, it will give
CO+3H2 with this heating value and CH4+2O2, CO2+2H2O, heating value is this one. So
overall heating value 166 kilojoule/mol and temperature 1000 degree centigrade, and pressure
20 bar, hydrogen to carbon monoxide ratio 1.2-1.5.
So here, we are getting tri-reforming, that is carbon dioxide reforming, steam reforming, and
methane oxidation reactions. So these are the features of tri-reforming and catalysts are
basically nickel-based catalyst and some examples are given here, nickel, calcium oxide,
zirconium; nickel, cerium oxide, lanthanum oxide and aluminum and corderite; nickel ceria
and then lanthanum doping. So these are some example of this catalyst used in this reaction.
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Now we will compare different type of reforming processes. So steam reforming, partial
oxidation and then bi-reforming and ATR we will discuss. So here are reforming reactants as
we have discussed, operating conditions we have discussed, methane conversions we will see
here how it changes and all of these are having some advantage and some disadvantage, so
that part we will see here.
So steam reforming gives us 65-95% of methane conversion, partial oxidation 95-100%, and
then it gives auto thermal 95-100%, and dry reforming 70-96%. So these are different
methane conversions reported in literature. Advantage as you have discussed that the steam
reforming can give us maximum H2/CO ratio, so when we are interested to get hydrogen
from the syngas, then this process will prefer. Steam as you are using steam, it may induce
some corrosion problems also and that is its disadvantage.
Similarly for partial oxidation, high cost of air separation units, we have to separate the
oxygen from the air, so that increases the cost for the process and no direct heat exchanger is
needed and more compact than steam reforming and low reformer vessel cost, so these are
the advantage of this partial oxidation.
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Similarly auto thermal process, we have high cost of air separation unit. Advantage is all heat
needed is supplied by partial oxidation and then that heat is used for reforming, so more
compact than steam reformer. Then dry reforming as you have discussed that it uses carbon
dioxide, so that is the major advantage of this process and conversion of greenhouse gas into
fuel or to syngas.
Specific ratio of methane, steam, and carbon monoxide 3:2:1 can produce a gas mixture with
essentially a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen and CO2, so this is required for liquid fuel synthesis,
methanol synthesis, etc. So that is the advantage of this process, but if we can develop
suitable catalyst and coke deposition problem can be reduced, so this process can be
attractive, but this is the challenge for the process.
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Now we will see the reforming reactors. So different types of reactor configurations or
reactor types have been used, out of those fixed bed tubular reactor this is mostly used in
commercial scale for larger reformer units. We see here feed inlet, it goes here and then it
goes through this tube as we have discussed in the previous slide, so these are the tubes
through which the feed hydrocarbon and other reactants goes through. Then after reforming,
it is going for as a product.
So in this case, the tubular reactors, in the tubes in this reactor, the reforming reaction takes
place and the temperature is given by the combustion of another fuel gas at the outside of the
tubes. So in commercial scale if we see, one furnace contains 500-600 tubes with inner
diameter of 70-130 millimeter and length of 7-12 meter and conversion section methane and
steam are preheated to 500 degree centigrade.
Then there are some radiant sections and catalytic sections and the catalyst used for the
conversions of the methane to syngas, it is top fired, it can be bottom fired, it can be terrace
wall, side fired. So, the feed can be at the top, bottom, or side of the wall, anywhere it can be
done.
Then we are coming to microchannel reactor. So because of the latest development on this
technology on this reactor part, if we use the microchannel, then the performance or
economics of the process can be improved because it reduces the mass and heat transfer
limitation. So if you can reduce the diameter of this, it is almost similar to say tubular reactor,
but if we can reduce the diameter very, very small and then we can coat some catalyst inner
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part of this tube, so very small diameter and the inner side coating or washcoating of the
catalyst, so that will increase the performance of the reactor and this is a microchannel
reactor.
Here, critical channel dimension we see 50 to 5000 micrometer. So, we had 70 millimeter,
here we are having 50 to 5000 micrometer. So because of the reductions of this tube size, the
performance increases because of the reduction in different mass and heat transfer losses.
Here also, it is laminar flow regime and large amount of surface area per unit volume
increase the overall productivity per unit volume. So, you can get more productivity per unit
volume in this reactor.
Then another development is monolithic reactor. So, it is like say honeycomb structure we
can say. These are the number of comb or circular or the square shaped channels are made
and this is a honeycomb like structure. So, it is also similar to the microchannel, here also we
can put catalyst loading inside and washcoating and only the improvement in the design is
available in this case and long parallel and usually straight channels and catalyst washcoated
walls.
Physical properties of monolith depend on specific requirements of process and good thermal
conductivity for rapid heating and of washcoat. Washcoat thermal expansion of same order of
magnitude as the support. Cell density here, what is the cell density, where you see here in
this case, so number of cells are there, so that is CPSI that is channels per square inch, that is
very important that will decide the dimensions of the channels also, so that influences the
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performance of the process and CPSI is 1/d2channel in inch.
So 3 modeling zone, the gas to the in interior of the channel, washcoat, and channel wall; so
these are 3 parts, this one, this one and in between.
Now, comparison of different reactor types. If we compare the fixed bed and tubular 700-950
degree centigrade, 10-25 bar, and regular/irregular packing materials, raschig rings are used,
high production capacity it has, less heat transfer efficiency as you are talking about the
limited sense is reduced by the reductions of the diameter of the tubes, and then larger
footprint and catalyst deactivation starts at 700 degree centigrade okay.
Then we see microchannel. The temperature is given here that is 15 bar and 860-900 degree
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centigrade, the washcoated catalyst, uniform temperature, low rate of excess air, reduces the
cost of blower or compressors, their requirement reduces, and then thermal losses below 5%
for scaled-up plant, and then it requires advanced technology. This technology is not very
matured, some plants have come up and it is still development stage and it is having small
capacity also and many reactors can be arranged in parallel for high throughput.
The monolithic, also the similar operating conditions it is having and same type of catalyst is
also used. It has also similar properties, low pressure drop, good mass transfer interphase,
good thermal and mechanical properties, simpler scale up due to specific geometries. These
are the disadvantages that the ceramic monoliths have poor thermal conductivity, hence metal
monoliths are preferred. Up to this in this class. Thank you very much for your patience.
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Lecture - 23
Syngas to Liquid Fuel Production
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic syngas to liquid fuel production. So in the
previous class, we have discussed how the syngas can be produced from the natural gas and
now we are going to discuss how this syngas will be converted to liquid fuels.
So the contents of this class is why syngas to liquid fuel and then some important routes for
liquid fuel production from syngas. So, why syngas to liquid fuel? Already we have discussed
that if we convert syngas to liquid fuel, then we will be getting more market, we will be
getting the value-added products, different types of chemicals or some liquid fuels. So that is
the major features of this liquid fuel conversion.
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Now we see natural gas which is available in nature, so from this reserve, it can go through
the pipeline and then it can be used in different application, particularly for heat application,
say it go to conventional market or it can be liquefied. So liquefied natural gas, then also we
have some supply chain arrangement already existing and then it will go into conventional
market. So these are the 2 conventional routes, but if you go through this third one route that
is the GTL route, then this is a new technology.
Here we get some large existing transport fuels, market, we have good market and can get
chemicals also. So that is the advantage and that is why people are trying to convert it into
liquid fuels. Another is natural gas has low energy density, but if it is converted to liquid
fuels, energy density will be increased, so application of these in transport fuel will be easier
than the natural gas.
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Now we will see different methods which are used for this syngas to liquid fuel conversion.
So, one is Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. So in Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, syngas is converted to
liquid fuels that is called say diesel, petrol, kerosene, etc. So what happens in this case? At
first, we get wax, then wax is hydrocracked to get different products of it after fractionation.
So the basic reaction so you can see here CO+H2 we have in the syngas so that will produce
the hydrocarbon chain as mentioned here CH2n.
So this hydrocarbon chain we can get or nCO+(2n+1)H2, this reaction can take place
CnH2n+2+nH2O. So we are getting paraffin type of compounds. Again same other reaction can
take place nCO+2nH2, so CnH2n+nH2O, olefin type of compounds you may get. Again
CO+H2O -> CO2+H2, water-gas shift reaction can also take place. So overall reaction is
strongly exothermic, -180 kilojoule/mol in these reactions. So we are getting basically
hydrocarbons or paraffin and olefins basically.
So once the paraffins are produced and carbon number is, if this n number, higher, then we
will be getting wax. So that wax is the major product by this fast type of this FT synthesis,
then that will be converted to different liquid.
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So if you see the flow sheet, then we are having the syngas, so 2:1 hydrogen is to CO ratio,
then it is coming to FT reactor, then FT reactor will basically give us olefins and paraffin type
of compounds, so higher carbon paraffins means wax. So we will be having wax here or we
may get some oil, light oil, and light wax will also get. So it will be gas phase, it is coming
here, so it is going out as a vapor, and then it is coming as gas and vapor.
So gas is recycled and the condensed part is coming out that is we are talking about light oil
and light wax and this is wax from the bottom of the reactor we are getting. So this light wax
and heavy wax, these 2 wax will be hydrocracked here. So after hydrocracking, there will be
the conversions of the high molecular weight paraffins to low molecular weight paraffins and
then we will get the distillation and we will get different fractions.
So, we will get off gas that can be combustion as shown and then naphtha, we can get
kerosene, we can get distillate, diesel FT fuel, other FT products. So that way, we can get the
liquid fuels from the natural gas. Now these reactions at what part we are taking the reactions
and what type of catalyst we can use that will influence the distributions of these different
products and that part will go to discuss now.
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So here we see the process conditions and catalyst. So H2/CO ratio is 2-2.2 and then pressure
is 15-30 bar and temperature as we mentioned there are 2 temperature range has been
reported, that is 325-370 degrees centigrade high temperature and low temperature 220-270
degree centigrade. Obviously, we will see the variations in the product quality by the
application of different temperature range and GHSV, gas hourly space velocity, is 700 per
hour.
The catalyst basically has been used is iron based, cobalt based, and ZSM-5 supported
bimetallic FT catalyst for gasoline synthesis. So this Fe based, iron based, catalyst are fuel
flexible, but Co based catalyst suitable for high hydrogen/CO ratio and preferable for natural
gas based syngas. So we are talking about natural gas, so CO will be preferred for this case.
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As we mentioned, we have 2 temperature range, one is 300-350 and another is 220-270
degrees centigrade and under these 2 different operations, we will see the distributions of the
product. So here high temperature range is 300-350 degrees centigrade, we are getting C5+ is
equal to 50-80% and here we are getting C5+ 20-30%. So low wax we are getting, high
temperature, lower percentage of low wax, and here we are getting 50% of wax. So wax we
are getting higher when the temperature is less.
Gasoline to diesel ratio at high temperature we are getting more gasoline, at low temperature
we are getting more diesel. At high temperature, we are getting cetane number 50-60, low
temperature we are getting cetane number 80. So at low temperature, we are getting more
diesel with more cetane number. So depending upon the need in the market, we can choose
what type of FT synthesis reaction we will prefer, at low temperature or high temperature.
Now we will show some commercial plant available in the world for this liquid fuel
production from the natural gas. So one is Australia here, then Qatar, Italy, South Africa and
then Malaysia. So here some plants are already available on the basis of natural gas and these
are the capacity. So we see here these are very big capacity also and with it, they have used
proprietary catalyst and some iron based and proprietary catalyst not shown here.
The technology licensers are Shell and Axens with Eni and ISP and Gasel TM technology is
also used some cases. So these are the technology licensers and we also see that the plants are
not very old, it is started in 90s and 2006 one like this
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Now we are coming to methanol synthesis. So methanol can be produced from syngas. So
how we will do it, so this is our biomass waste to syngas, but in our case, this is methane,
reforming, then it will give us syngas. So then that syngas which we are getting that will be
converted to methanol. So what is the condition, we need one catalyst, that is copper based
catalyst has been used widely and copper zinc oxide alumina and then H2:CO ratio 2:1 and
this is the reactions. So that way, we can produce methanol.
Overall reactions very simple we have mentioned here, but this is not very simple because it
is gas phase, gas and solid phase reaction. So I will discuss more. Then for this conversion, 2
technology licensers are capturing the market basically. So one is ICI technology and other is
Lurgi technology. So this ICI process was first commercialized in 1970 and currently
accounts for more than 70% of undergoing projects. So, this ICI process is having more
application.
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Now we will see what are the reactions which take place during this methanol synthesis? So
actually we have seen that CO and H2 we have, so it is giving CH3OH and we need some
carbon dioxide for the initiation of the methanol reactions and so that CO2+H2 ->CO+H2O
and it is believed that CO is first converted to CO2 and then CO2 reacts with CO and H2 and
then it gives methanol. So the CO2+ this H2, this is the major reactions for methanol
synthesis.
So from these different reactions, we have different ΔH value as mentioned here, somewhere
we are getting exothermic, somewhere we are getting endothermic. So the one important
condition or pre-requirement to get required conversion syngas to methanol, the R-value that
is described as H2:CO ratio that is around equal to 2, it is used for this application, but here
later another factor has been developed because of this complex reaction scenario, that is
what is R is equal to it is given here, H2-CO2/CO+CO2.
So this what is the concentration of these 3 gases that will give the R-value as per this
expression. So R-value is basically around 2, when we maintain it at around 2, we get
suitable conversations of the syngas to methanol. As it is a solid-gas phase reaction in the
conventional reactors, so one pass conversions of CO is around 25%, so that is why we need
a very big reactor for the conversion of syngas to methanol. The process operates at 220-250
degrees centigrade and 5 to 8 megapascal pressure and uses a series of catalytic adiabatic
reactor beds.
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So this is the important features of the methanol synthesis reactions. So apart from those
major reactions, there are some other reactions that take place. As you see here, methanol is
converted to CH3OCH3, dimethyl ether, and then dimethyl ether to hydrocarbons and +H2O
and you methanol +CO+2H2O that can also give us CH3CH2OH. So what we are getting,
some side reactions are going on in this reactor that produces hydrocarbons, higher alcohols,
even some amount of ether.
So these are the other reactions which can take place. So we can get syngas R-value around 2,
so methanol reactors, we can get the unconverted syngas recycling and then methanol
purifications. So this is the concept of methanol production and the catalyst basically copper
and zinc oxide based catalyst and other catalysts have been used of chromium zinc oxide,
zirconium potassium, zirconium manganese potassium, and zirconium zinc oxide on high
pressure 240-300 bar, so this is not that efficient one because high pressure and high
temperature is required.
So once we get the methanol, so that can be used as a building block for different types of
chemicals. Some of the chemicals which you can get as mentioned here we can get dimethyl
ether, we can get ethylene, we can get propylene, we can get polyolefin, we can get oxo-
chemicals, methyl acetate, acetic anhydride, acetic acid, acetate ester, keten, diketens, etc.
and many more.
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So conventionally, methanol is produced in a gas-solid phase reactor and heterogeneous
catalysts are used and we have already seen that 25% conversion is possible and the catalyst
requires high purity of the syngas. If small amount of sulphur is present, then the catalyst life
reduces and it harms the whole process. So to eliminate those limitations, the low temperature
low pressure methanol synthesis methods are being developed and in this case, we use some
homogeneous phase reactions and homogenous catalysts are used.
Some examples are Brookhaven National Laboratory, BNL, method. So they have a
homogeneous nickel catalyst and alkoxide in an organic solvent that is triethylene glycol
dimethyl ether, triglyme, so this organic solvent is used where nickel catalyst and alkoxides
are mixed. Then in this liquid phase, syngas is passed through it and reaction takes place.
Another is methyl formate formation method. So this employs a mixture of copper-based
oxide and alkoxide as a catalyst.
So one is nickel-based catalyst, another is copper-based catalyst, and then alkoxide and this
triglyme media solvent that people have used and studied the conversion of syngas to
methanol. Basic reaction has been reported as CH3OH+CO, HCOOCH3 particularly for
methyl formate process, so we are getting methyl formate, and then methyl formate is further
converted to methanol okay.
So both these processes we see here, this requires around 100 degrees centigrade and it
requires 20-25 bar, unlike say 60-80 or 90 bar or somewhere 200 bar, we are getting here
with 20-25 bar and temperature is also less 100 degree centigrade. So, now it has been
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reported that if we can use some nano-material based catalyst, then this performance will can
be further increased, but this is under development stage and not in commercial scale.
Now we will see how we will select the reactor type, what will be the type of reactor for the
methanol synthesis? So this is the thumb rule we can say that the reactor selection for
methanol synthesis we have given here say we have liquid-liquid reactions may take place,
liquid-solid reaction may take place, liquid gas solid reaction may take place, gas liquid solid
reaction can take place.
So different types of phases may be available during the reactor and depending upon that, we
can select a particular type of reactor for that too far from that specific reaction. In our case,
we have syngas that is CO+H2 in gas phase and then solid catalyst. So we need gas and solid,
so this is our domain, we have to choose, so for this application you get multi bed reactor,
multi tubular reactor, fluidized bed reactor, and monolithic reactor.
So these reactors are more suitable for the conversions of syngas to methanol. What we have
discussed, there is a multi tubular reactor that is used commercially in most of the technology
available in market.
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We see the typical plant operation, the catalyst lifetime is about 2 years, but if sulphur is
present, then it reduces. So sulphur condition, sulphur in the syngas should be less than 0.5
ppm. Catalyst deactivation also occurs due to thermal sintering of catalyst. Above 300 degree
centigrade, copper oxide starts to crystallize which reduces the activity of catalyst. Then plant
economy is the function of operating temperature, pressure, and recycle ratio.
As we have discussed, the carbon dioxide is required for the reactions and 5-8% of carbon
dioxide in syngas feed is required to initiate the methanol synthesis reactions. The
temperature of the reactor is controlled by controlling steam pressure through shell side.
We see the reaction mechanism. So overall the reactions although we have CO+H2O, it is
giving up CO2+H2 and then CH3OH. So carbon monoxide is converted to CO2 and then it is
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giving us methanol, this is the overall reaction, but how it happens, this is not very so simple.
Then Froment proposed a redox type of mechanism. So here carbon dioxide, so what happens
in this case?
So you are using your syngas and it is going through the catalyst bed, so diffusion of the gas
molecules to the pores is the first step, then the active sites are there in the catalyst, so
reactions of the active site takes place. So when carbon dioxide it is coming with this reactor
site say solid s+ so that is it is giving us O2+Os solid and then CO or it can also give this Os,
one Os and another s, carbon dioxide can also mix with these and gives us CO3 2s, two sides
commonly it gives CO3.2s.
Then CO3.2s some ages may combine and give this one, further this can combine with
another s and then it can give this one. So that way, different types of products, intermediate
products are formed. Here also, we can get Os which we are getting that can react with Hs
another site containing hydrogen so that can give us this one, similarly this, this one, so this
ultimately we are getting H2O, we are ultimately getting CH3OH and here hydrogen is added,
CO2 and hydrogen that we are talking about CO2 and hydrogen.
So this hydrogen is converted to 2Hs, so this is the source for Hs and this is the source of Hs.
So this is the scheme through which the methanol and water is formed. This is proposed by
Froment and they have modeled the reaction.
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Now coming to DME synthesis. So DME synthesis, we can get here as we have seen that
methanol to DME, just dehydration reaction is required, so we can get the methanol first from
the syngas, then dehydration, will be using some special catalyst, and after dehydration, we
will get the DME or direct from syngas to DME is also possible using another type of
catalyst, bi-functional catalyst we can do it, but here basics will be we are having a biomass
waste at this zone, but we can use methane also.
Then gasification will be replaced by reforming and then we will get syngas and this will be
the reactions, already we have discussed this one and this is methanol, this is dehydration and
DME or this is direct route also, but here we see H2/CO requirement is 1:1, but here we need
2:1 for methanol, then further dehydration. So, this is the difference between the H2/CO
requirements for these two routes.
This is your flow sheet say natural gas, it will go to reformer, so if it is steam use of
reforming, then we can get more hydrogen, hydrogen can be separated and 1:1 H2/CO
requirement for direct method and 2:1 for methanol synthesis route, so that is 2 to 2.5 is
maintained here, rest hydrogen is recovered, then it is going to methanol, then methanol
unconverted syngas, then it is dehydrated.
For dehydration, it is going to DME reactor and after dehydration, we will get DME, DME
will be separated, and again if unconverted methanol that will be recycled back here for the
further DME conversion and here we will be getting the water. So this is the flow sheet
through which the DME can be produced from the natural gas.
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So DME synthesis, we see reactions and catalyst. So using dehydration catalyst like alumina
along with copper, zinc, and aluminum based catalyst we can get DME from the methanol. If
we get DME, then it has low ignition temperature, very high cetane number, high oxygen
content, very low particulate emissions, that is the advantage of DME. It is suitable as source
of hydrogen for fuel cells.
It can also be used as additive to bio fuels to improve their ignition characteristics, LPG
substitutes, and diesel engine, it has versatile application. Then these are the technology
licensers for DME that is Chevron, Haldor Topsoe, TOTAL, NKK, Itochu, Mitsubishi etc.
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Now we will see some example of DME plants. So China is the leader of the DME synthesis
and China’s current annual output of DME is 120,000 tons. It plans to produce 20 million
tons of DME based on coal feedstock by 2020 and already on the roll is 200,000 tons coal to
DME plant at Shanghai, so coal to syngas and like this, so natural gas can also be processed
like this to syngas, natural gas to syngas and then syngas to DME. Other countries which are
taking strides in setting up DME plants are Japan, Iran, Russia, and Qatar.
Note there are some issues with syngas utilization from stranded natural gas. So natural gas
may be available in some remote area in less amount, in that case the technology should be
different. So small scale reactors are basically needed for that application and it has been
reported that the gas to liquid conversion processes can be economically feasible when the
plant capacity is very high, that is 30,000 barrels per day or more, but these stranded natural
gases will be having less reserve and it is in remote area, so we need to convert it at lesser
amount, so that is why it requires some development in the reactor side.
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So small scale plants for fuel production from syngas is required and recently smaller scale
GTL plants are designed to be economic at 1500 barrels per day to 15,000 barrels per day. So
initially, it was reported 30,000 barrels per day will be economic, but due to the development
in the reactor side, now it is possible to 1500 barrels per day to 15,000 barrels per day. The
Velocys have reported it.
Then the Velocys’ first commercial plant is now under constructions and the plant is jointly
ventured between Velocys, Waste Management. Another plant in planning stage is
Ashtabula, Ohio near Lake Erie using natural gas from the Marcellus Shale. So, initial
productions will be 2,800 barrels per day.
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Then Oberon fuel has developed small scale methanol plant which can utilize syngas from
natural gas as well as biogas containing 50% of carbon dioxide. Typical capacity of the plant
using syngas derived from natural gas as well as biogas is 10,000 gallons for day DME or
11,300 gallons per day methanol. Footprint of the plant is 40,000 square feet. Feedstock
required is 12,40,000 standard cubic feet natural gas per day, 15,40,000 standard cubic feet
biogas per day.
So we have discussed on the processes how to convert liquid fuel from the syngas which can
be derived from the natural gas, so up to this in this class. Thank you very much for your
patience.
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Lecture - 24
Hydrogen Production from Natural Gas
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic hydrogen production from natural gas. In the last
classes, we have discussed on the utilization of natural gas and we have seen that it can be
used through the conventional route for electricity production or it can be used to produce
syngas and further liquid fuels and it can also be produced to hydrogen. As you know that the
hydrogen is considered as a green fuel and the future fuel also.
So in this class, we will discuss on this content the hydrogen as a green fuel, then hydrogen
production routes, then natural gas as a feedstock for hydrogen, and the routes for hydrogen
production from natural gas that are reforming and decomposition of methane.
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So as you know that the hydrogen is having very high energy density and heating value is
142 megajoule/kg and we also know that hydrogen can be combusted and there will be no
carbon dioxide emission. One important feature of hydrogen is that it can be used in fuel cell
and electricity can be generated. So here, this figure shows us the electricity generation in the
hydrogen fuel cell. So when hydrogen is used as a fuel in this fuel cell where in the anode this
hydrogen is coming and then in this here it is converted to H+ and e-.
Then H+ is transported from anodic to cathodic chamber through this membrane, hydrogen
transfer membrane, and it is coming to this cathode where oxygen is supplied. So oxygen
reacts with H+ and e-, e- or electron which is generated here in the anode, it is transported
through the external circuit and comes here, and then this electron and then H+ which is
transported to this membrane and this oxygen reacts and converts to H2O. As a result what
we get, get electricity here. So electricity is the very cleaner mode of energy, that is why
hydrogen is considered as the green energy.
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So this hydrogen can be produced from different resources and we will briefly discuss that.
So this can be produced from reforming of hydrocarbons or biomass, gasification of
carbonaceous feedstock, decomposition of hydrocarbons like say methane, then thermolysis
of water, electrolysis of water, photolysis, then dark fermentation and microbial electrolysis.
So these are the different methods, which have been reported for the production of hydrogen
and we will see the comparison of these processes.
So reforming process as you know it may be of different types, just we have discussed in the
previous class; it may be auto thermal, it may be steam reforming, it may be dry reforming or
tri deforming, anything it may be.
We will be comparing those things say steam reforming, partial oxidation, autothermal
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reforming, plasma reforming, biomass gasification, methane catalytic decomposition, and
coal gasification. If we see here, these are the different feedstocks, some are hydrocarbons,
biomass, and coal. The efficiency for hydrogen production is also different and maturity level
is also different.
Some other examples are say biomass reforming, plasma cracking, liquid phase reforming,
thermolysis, electrolysis, and photolysis. So if we compare, we can see that either
hydrocarbons or biomass or coal are the carbonaceous materials that have been used for the
reforming process and efficiency is also different. Most important is that their maturity level
if you see some are very few are in commercial scale, all are in maturity, either long term
maturity or medium term or under development.
So these are the different technologies which are available for hydrogen production. The
commercial processes are reforming, then biomass gasification, then coal gasification, and
here we are having electrolysis. So basically if we see the methods, then we will be having
some important data that is the steam reforming, partial reforming that captures maximum
share for the hydrogen production, followed by gasification of coal and biomass, and then
electrolysis.
Others are very less, contribution of other processes is very less in commercial scale, they are
under development. Now we will discuss on reforming because it will be using hydrocarbons
and basically in our case it is natural gas. So natural gas or methane will be converting to
hydrogen through the reforming processes.
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Different reforming processes are dry forming, steam reforming, partial oxidation,
autothermal forming and tri reforming. As we have discussed in a previous class and as
evident here also, we see each H2/CO ratio is maximum in case of steam deforming. As we
are interested to get the hydrogen through this route, so obviously the steam deforming can be
more suitable route for the hydrogen production. So, we will be discussing some more on
steam reforming and already we have discussed other reforming in previous class.
So in steam reforming, steam is used for the reforming purpose. So, this is our say
hydrocarbon and then this is our steam, it will gives us nCO and H2 rich gas and this is del H
value. So what we are getting here, so if it is C1, then n1, then it is methane, this is
representing methane. Then SMR reactor, it requires steam. What would be the ratio of the
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steam and methane that is very important, that is it requires is S/C, steam by methane ratio as
1:1 and if we give more steam and more S/C ratio, we can get more hydrogen.
The SMR has efficiency of around say 70-80% and carbon dioxide emission is 7 kg carbon
dioxide per kg of hydrogen produced.
In this case catalyst as we have discussed in the previous class that nickel based catalyst are
used, so mostly used, but other catalyst are transition metals that is iron, cobalt, nickel,
copper and the noble metals these are have been reported and these are the active ingredients
for the catalyst and some support is required, so basically gamma alumina, CaOAl2O3, MgO,
MgAl2O4, TiO2, ZrO2, SiO2 have been used. Among them, these are very commercially
available.
So these catalysts also coke deposition is a problem for this catalyst and if sulphur and
halogen compounds may also deactivate the catalyst. Some industrial catalyst suppliers we
see that is Baden Aniline and Soda Factory BASF, Haldor Topsoe and United Catalysts these
are the players for the catalyst supply in commercial scale for SMR.
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Now, we will see the mechanism. What is the mechanism for the production of hydrogen
through this route? So we have hydrocarbon and we have steam, so steam, and we have some
catalyst. So it is gas and solid phase reactions. So we will be having steam, so that steam
reacts with surface nickel atoms which is available in the catalyst and then it forms adsorbed
oxygen atoms and gaseous hydrogen, this is the first step it is assumed.
So H2O it is in the support of the catalyst sides, the nickel sides, it is giving us H2+Os which
is adsorbed. Then again methane we have also, so methane reacts with surface nickel atoms
and then it yields CH2 radicals which is adsorbed and adsorbed H atom, so CH4 with catalyst
side it is giving us CH2 in adsorbed form and hydrogen also as adsorbed form. So these
adsorbed radicals and H and O will further react. So we will see here, the adsorbed radicals
and adsorbed oxygen react to yield adsorbed CHO.
So this is the reaction CH2s+Os it is giving CHOs+Hs. Then CHO which is adsorbed that can
also be converted to other forms, so as mentioned here that may be possible that CHO is
converted to COs+Hs adsorbed COs and adsorbed hydrogen and CO is with adsorbed oxygen
that can give CO2 adsorbed + sides and then CHO adsorbed can react with oxygen adsorbed
and also it can give a CO2 adsorbed and hydrogen adsorbed.
So these are the different species which are generated during the process in the catalyst and
those with the help of the catalyst and these intermediates the COs can give a CO and the
sides and then CO2s can give a CO2 and sides and Hs can gives us H2 and sides. That means
after desorption of those gas, the sides are made free, so catalyst is now free, our feedstock is
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converted to product and that is fuel rich of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, also having
carbon dioxide. So this is the mechanism of the SMR reaction
Now, we will see how the natural gas can be processed through this route. So here we have
say natural gas, so that natural gas certainly will have some sulphur and that sulphur will be
the poison to the catalyst, so we have to remove it. So for this removing, we are using
hydrogen here, so desulphurization unit, DSU, as a first step of the process. Then some
catalyst are used that is cobalt molybdenum catalyst, Co-Mo catalyst, and then it is 290-370
degree centigrade and then this is your catalyst where then zinc oxide bed is also used and
then alumina guard.
So these are the series of oxides are used in which the DSU reaction is taking place and H2S
and halides are separated from the natural gas. The natural gas will be going to now reformer
SMR and before going to that, it has gone through the pre-reforming state to raise the
temperature from 290 to say it is up to 525 degrees centigrade and then it will be going to
SMR reactor where the temperature is higher that is 800-900 degrees centigrade. So here
after this SMR reaction, so CO and H2 gas will be there.
So there will be some shift reactions to produce more hydrogen. So high temperature shift,
water gas shift reaction is taking place here with the help of Fe/Cr2O3 catalyst at 340 degree
to 360 degree centigrade, that is the high temperature water shift reaction with a S/C ratio of
2.5-3. Then, we will be getting more hydrogen rich gas and that will go for pressure swing
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adsorption for the separation of hydrogen and then some of it is going to low temperature
water gas shift reaction and here Fe/Cr2O3 catalyst and 2.5-3 that is S/C ratio.
Then it is going for carbon dioxide absorption. Then after SMR, it is going to shift reaction, it
may be at a high temperature water gas or it may be at low temperature water gas reaction,
then after that it is going for carbon dioxide separation and then we are getting 97 to 99%
purity of hydrogen or here we also get PSA through the pressure swing adsorption we can get
the 99.99% purity of hydrogen.
So then we will see how the PSA works, so pressure swing adsorption. Pressure swing
adsorption works to separate the impurities present in the hydrogen. Different types of
adsorbents are used for the separation of different types of impurities in the gas stream like
say silica gel, activated carbon, molecular sieve, and activated alumina have been reported.
These components are suitable to remove different type of impurities like silica gel for
ethane, propane, butane, etc; activated carbon for methane, carbon dioxide; molecular sieve
for methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and activated alumina for water.
So these are the different adsorbents, which are used for the separations of other gas
components. So here, we use the feed gas hydrogen plus impurities at high pressure. Then it
is going through different adsorbent beds and we are getting hydrogen rich gas here and this
is our tail gas, hydrogen lean gas, so there is less hydrogen in this gas stream.
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So this PSA works in a cycle. So if we have some adsorption part, so gas adsorption takes
place in this case. Then depressurization takes, so high pressure pressurize, gas adsorptions,
then we are depressurizing it and then purging it and again re-pressurizing it. So it has some
cycle and different operations have certain span in the whole cycle. So, this is the way the
hydrogen is produced from the natural gas through steam reforming.
Now we will discuss on the methane decomposition. How the methane can be converted to
hydrogen through decomposition. So this can be done. The decarburation dry natural gas
cracking is a promising alternative and carbon free technology and this can be converted to
solid carbon plus hydrogen as per these reactions. So del H is 75.6 kilojoule/mol. These
reactions requires high temperature, you know it is around say 1200 degrees centigrade
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temperature is required because the carbon and hydrogen bond is just double bond and so
break it, so it requires high temperature.
In this case, carbon dioxide emission from burning of process fuel that is your methane is
around 0.05 mol CO2 per mol of hydrogen, which is very less with respect to that used for
SMR that is equal to 0.43 mol carbon dioxide per mol of hydrogen.
So these things methane to carbon formations and hydrogen production, it is a thermal

process, but it is difficult to perform without the presence of catalyst. So use of catalyst
reduces the temperature from 1200 to say 500 degrees centigrade and different types of
catalyst can be used. For this, the reactor configurations may also be varied, fixed bed to
fluidized bed, people have used fixed-bed reactors and alternating between different
conditions or a fluidized bed or regenerator combination they have used. Out of these 2
reactors, the fluidized bed offers the flexibility and ease of continuous operation.
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Now if we think about the methane decomposition, then we can get different methods. One is
your thermal cracking, another is your catalytic methane cracking or you can get plasma
cracking or you can get molten media cracking. So this thermal cracking, thermal black
process and advanced thermolysis. This is catalytic methane, metal catalyzed and carbon
catalyzed cracking. You have plasma cracking, thermal cracking and electrochemical plasma.
You have molten media cracking, thermal molten media and catalyzed molten media. So
these are different types of methods people have used for the production of hydrogen by the
decomposition of methane.
Now, we will see the thermal cracking. As you mentioned that it is a thermal process, we
have to apply heat and around 1200 degrees centigrade, the methane will be converted to
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carbon and hydrogen, but as you mentioned that it is endothermic process and also it is not
that efficient, the high temperature requirement is there and this temperature can be reduced
by application of catalyst, and then it will be termed as catalytic method not a thermal one.
Thermal cracking of methane, the first industrial implementation of this thermal cracking of
methane was initiated by the European Commission as this SOLHYCARB project in 2009 to
produce hydrogen and carbon black, and in this project, the solar power reactor with capacity
of 10 kilowatt was tested for a temperature range of say 1467-1997 degrees centigrade and
the pressure of 1 bar and the 55% energy efficiency was achieved. So the major problem in
continuous operation of thermal cracking of natural gas is the plugging of reactor due to the
carbon deposition.
So then the catalytic methane decomposition developed, and in this case, the temperature
requirement can be reduced from 1200 degrees centigrade to 500 degrees centigrade and
different types of catalyst have been tested as shown here using nickel based, iron based,
carbon-based catalyst and then these are some other catalyst and this is your say non-catalytic
decomposition. So when we are not using any catalyst, our requirement is 1100-1300 degrees
centigrade.
Whereas we are using the catalyst, the temperature requirement is decreasing and ultimately
we are able to get the 500-700 degrees centigrade by using nickel-based catalyst. So that is
the advantage of the use of the catalyst, and when we use these different catalysts, the type of
carbon which is deposited on the catalyst bed is also different, we see here. So for this nickel-
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based catalyst, we can get carbon filaments, for Fe-based catalyst we can get carbon
filaments; for carbon-based turbo static carbon and carbon filaments, and here graphite
carbon and turbo static carbon we can get.
So, different types of carbon can be formed by this way. Obviously, the transition metals
have been used for the production of catalyst and nickel-based catalyst is having more
capacity to get the cracking at lower temperature.
Then plasma cracking of methane, so as you know that plasma is an ionized gas and it can be
produced at high temperature and this can be used for the cracking of the methane also. So
based on the method applied to generate plasma and the temperature difference between the
electrons and heavy particles, the plasma technology is classified into 2 types, one is your
high temperature thermal and non-thermal, one is thermal by using high temperature and
another is your non-thermal, the electrochemical plasma.
So 2 types of plasma we can produce. So out of these 2 if you use a thermal plasma, the
temperature will be very high and uses an electrical power of around 1 kilowatt and the
reactor attains temperature around 5000-10,000 degrees centigrade, so use of this technology
is not possible for this case. So, the non-thermal electrochemical plasma can be produced and
used for the conversion of this methane to hydrogen, and in this case, the temperature is
around 350-750 degrees centigrade.
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This plasma cracking of the methane has some advantage also. It has high thermal efficiency,
it has high purity of hydrogen, simultaneous production of valuable byproduct carbon, and
very low carbon dioxide emissions. So these are the advantage of this, but the consumption of
relatively high electric energy in plasma process can make this apparently uneconomical and
make their applicability restricted to large-scale application.
Then, molten salt media cracking of the methane. So people tried to get the high temperature
of a molten salt media to crack the methane, and when the carbon is produced by the cracking
of methane, that carbon is also lighter than the density of the molten salt, so it can be go up
and can be easily separated. So here, we see methane is coming from the bottom. So this is
our molten salt, this is where the reaction takes place, gas and liquid phase reaction, then
carbon is formed and hydrogen is formed.
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So hydrogen as a gas it is going out and carbon as a solid it is floated as the density of carbon
is lesser than the density of the salt media. So carbon will goes up and it will be separated
from the top. So this is a mechanism through which carbon is separated from the salt media.
This technology offers the opportunity to operate the hydrogen production reactor in
continuous mode and deactivating of catalyst is eliminated there, there is no chance of the
deactivating of catalyst.
The compatibility between hydrogen, carbon, and molten media and the stability of molten
media at various temperature ranges will be the major challenge for this process and presently
this technology is under development. So we have discussed different types of processes
which can be used for the production of hydrogen from the methane or the natural gas, and
once we can get hydrogen that can be considered as a green fuel, so up to this in this class.
Thank you very much for your patience.
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Lecture - 25
Tutorial 5
Hi friends, now we will have a tutorial session which is based on the last 4 classes. In this
class, we will solve some numerical problems.
Our first problem statement says the gas produced by steam reformer is exiting at a pressure
of 2144 kilopascal and has the following composition. Determine the partial pressure of each
component. So here a table is given component and molar fraction that is hydrogen, H2O,
CO, CO2, CH4. Hydrogen is 0.392, H2O 0.438, CO 0.081, CO2 0.080, and CH4 0.009. So this
is the problem statement and we have to determine the partial pressure of each component,
mole fraction is given and total pressure is also given, so we can measure it. Now let us see.
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So what is our step one, we have to calculate the partial pressure of each gas in the steam
exiting the reformer. So we can use which formula, that is Pi = Yi x P where Pi is the partial
pressure, Y is the mole fraction and then P is the absolute pressure, the total pressure of the
system. So in our case what is our PH2O, partial pressure of steam, then that is equal to mole
fraction into the absolute pressure. So absolute pressure is given, that is the total pressure,
that is 2144 kilopascal, this into the mole fraction of H2O.
How much it is, mole fraction is 0.438. So we will write here 0.438 x 2144, it is coming
939.072 kilopascal. Similarly for carbon monoxide, the mole fraction of carbon monoxide
into total pressure, so we are having 0.081 x 2144, so 173.664 kilopascal. Similarly for
carbon dioxide, partial pressure = YCO2 x P, so that is = 0.080 x 2144, so 171.52 and similarly
for methane that is equal to 0.009 x 2144 = 19.296 kilopascal.
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So now we will come to problem number 2. So problem number 2 states that in the steam
reforming process for producing hydrogen, part of the reformer exit gas is being burned with
10% percent excess oxygen from air in order to supply heat for the reforming reaction to
occur. The fuel being burned has the following composition, that is component and mole
percent. So H2 41.9%, H2O 5.1%, CO 1.7%, CO2 41.9%, CH4 9.4%. The combustion
reactions occurring inside the firebox are shown below.
These are the reaction that is CH4+2O2 ->CO2 +2H2O, CO+1/2O2 -> CO2, and H2+1/2O2 ->
H2O. The combustion of methane is only 87%, another condition is methane conversion is
87% complete. So determine the composition of the gas produced by the combustion reaction
assuming an air composition of 21 mol % oxygen and 79 mol % nitrogen. So in this problem,
what we have to do? We have to determine the composition of the gas produced by the
combustion reaction in the outside of the reforming tube.
So if we have one reformer here, so these are the tubes. When the reforming is taking place,
then under reforming the gas is going out and here we are putting this gas that is your some
part of this gas is recycled back and then it is fed here and this is burnt in this chamber, this is
burnt, and then the burnt gas is getting out. So we have to calculate the composition at this
position, here, what is the gas composition and this is the gas composition which is given it is
coming here.
We are also providing oxygen or basically here oxygen plus nitrogen. So oxygen plus
nitrogen is provided here at the outside of the tubes and some gas with this composition is
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burnt here and is getting out, basically it is a combustion problem, although it is related with
reformer, but it is basically a combustion problem. So mass balance will do and we will be
able to determine the composition of the gas which is going out from this.
See for this problem, we will take one basis. So our basis is 100 moles of fuel gas which we
are using for the combustion in the outer side of the reformer and then we will go for mass
balance. So for CH4 balance, methane balance, we have input = output + consumption.
Obviously input = output + consumption because the CH4 is consumed, so how much input
we had minus consumption is our output. In this case input is equal to how much 9.4%. So
we have 100 moles, so 9.4 moles of CH4 we are getting.
Then what is the conversion of CH4, 87% of it is converted, so 0.87 x 9.4, so that is equal to
will be the conversion of it. So how much methane is remaining in the outlet, so that is equal
to input - consumption. So input is our 9.4 and consumption is 0.87 x 9.4, so this one, so =
1.222 mole. So this mole of methane is getting out of the reactor, that is for methane, and
since no information is given about the fractional conversion of reaction 2 and 3, so what are
the reactions 2 and 3, CO to CO2 and H2+1/2O2 it is giving us H2O.
So these reactions either the CO is converted completely or not hydrogen is completely or

not, so we are assuming that the CO is completely converted to CO2 and H2 is completely
converted to H2O. So under this condition, how do you get, nCOout = nH2out = 0, that means
these are completely converted, so no CO, no H2 is available in the output of this.
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Then we go for carbon dioxide balance. So carbon dioxide balance will again use input +
generation = output. In this case, carbon dioxide is generated unlike methane, methane was
being consumed, but here carbon dioxide is generated, so this expression will be used. So we
have to find out that generation. So how we can determine the generation? We have to see the
reactions first. So what are the reactions? We have these reactions. So these reactions also
give carbon dioxide, this reaction also give carbon dioxide, so reaction 1 and reaction 2.
So how many moles of methane is used that many moles of carbon dioxide is also produced
and how many moles of CO is used that much of carbon dioxide is also produced, so that part
we will discuss. So what is this, consumed equal to number of moles of CH4 reacted and
number of CO reacted and what is this number of nCH4 reacted, that is 9.4 x 0.87, this part,
and what is nCO, the percentage of CO is 1.7, so out of 100, 1.7 moles was present, so this is
this plus this, that is equal to 9.88 moles of CO2 is generated.
So this is the generation of CO2. Then what would be the output of this, input + generation.
So what was the input, that carbon dioxide was available in it as 41.9%, so 41.9 moles are
originally available in the inlet of the gas and now 9.88 moles is generated during the process,
so this plus this will be 51.78 moles of carbon dioxide will be available at the output.
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Next we see the H2O balance, mass balance for H2O. Then what we will get, again input +
generation = output, the same formula we will use. In this case, what is the input, input is
given as 5.1%, so we are having say 5.1 moles, so it is given here in this table 5.1, so that
5.1% we are considering, 5.1 moles. The amount of water generated by the chemical
reactions will be given by this, nH2Ogenerated = nH2reacted + 2nCH4reacted because this was the
formula, here the reactions, so H2+ 1/2O2 -> H2O.
So how much hydrogen is used that much H2O is produced and this is how much methane is
used two of that will be the H2O production. So that is why we will be getting this balance
number of moles of hydrogen reacted = number of moles of hydrogen reacted + 2 x number
of moles of methane reacted. So number of moles of hydrogen reacted as we are considering
that hydrogen is 100% converted, so 41.9 it is available as the hydrogen concentration in the
inlet gas is 41.9%.
So out of 100 moles that is 41.9 moles of hydrogen is available + 2 x methane converted. So
methane how much was available 9.4 x 0.87 that was the conversion and 2 moles will be
generated, 2 moles of H2O will be generated from 1 mole of methane, so 2 x this x this will
be our H2O generated due to methane. So this overall we are getting moles of H2O generated
= 58.256 moles. So what would be the output, input + generation, so input how much we
have 5.1% and so 5.1 moles we had out of 100 moles and now we are getting 58.256, so we
are getting 63.356 moles of H2O.
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Next we will see our oxygen balance because we have to determine the composition of the
outlet gas which will be containing nitrogen also, so where from the nitrogen is coming, from
the oxygen it is coming. So oxygen we have used 10% excess, that means I have to determine
stoichiometrically how much oxygen is required, so 10% of that as excess is provided. So
here we need not to consider how much methane is converted in the reactor in real case, we
have to consider stoichiometrically how much oxygen is required for the conversion of all the
methane available in it, so that we will consider here.
So what is this nO2 number of moles of oxygen required for methane conversion is your 2
moles of O2 per mole of methane, that is why for complete conversion stoichiometrically, we
need 2 x 9.4 moles as 9.4 moles of methane is available originally in the inlet gas. So 2 x 9.4
= 18.8 moles of oxygen is required for the conversion of CH4 to H2O and CO2 and then
similarly for CO, carbon monoxide to CO2 conversion, we need 1 / 2 mole of oxygen for 1
mole of CO, this is not CH4 this is CO, so what we are getting 1.7 x mole of CO, we have 1.7
x half of it, so that is equal to 0.85 moles O2 is required.
Then for the hydrogen to H2O production, we need oxygen and that 1/2 mole of O2 is
required for 1/2 mole of hydrogen, therefore hydrogen is present 41.9 and all hydrogen is
converted, so 1/2 of 41.9 that is 20.95 moles oxygen is required for this reaction.
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So what will be our total oxygen consumption? The oxygen consumed for the methane
reaction for the CO and for the hydrogen, so that is 40.6 moles we have got, that is equal to
20.95+18.8+0.85, so this is equal to 40.6, so that moles we are getting. So now this is the
stoichiometric requirement, now 10% excess has been provided. So what was the oxygen
provided, so there is 1.10 x 40.6 moles that is equal to 44.66 moles, so that much of oxygen is
provided.
So oxygen actually consumed equal to how much, that is equal to 87% of methane
conversion. So 2 x 0.87 x 9.4 + 100% of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. So 1.7 x 1 / 2 +
41.9 x 1 / 2 = 38.156 moles of O2, so this 44.66 we are giving and 38.156 moles of O2 is
being used for the conversion process, so remaining will be available in the exit gas so 44.66-
38.156 = 6.504 moles of oxygen will be available.
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Then what about the nitrogen, so as you know that nitrogen will not react, so how much
nitrogen is getting in that will go out. So in this case, how much is in, that is how much
oxygen is used if we know, then you can determine how much nitrogen is being used. So that
0.79 / 0.21 x the moles of oxygen used. So moles of oxygen used = 44.66 which is supplied
to the inlet gas, so that is equal to 44.66, so it is coming is equal to 168.01 moles nitrogen.
So this nitrogen we are giving here. Now what will be the compositions of the outlet gas
then? It will be having number of methane which is unconverted and the number of moles of
carbon dioxide and the moles of steam and moles of nitrogen and moles of oxygen which is
not used. So already we have got 1.222 for methane, for nCO2 we have got 51.78, H2O we
have got 63.356, nitrogen we have got 168.01, and for oxygen we have got 6.504 which is
going out. So total is 290.87 moles.
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So now we can determine the percentage, so what will be the percentage of methane equal to
mole of methane/total mole x 100, so that way we will get it hence for mole of methane 1.222
/ 290.87, so this is the fraction. For H2O we are getting 63.356 / 290.87 that is 0.2178, this is
63.356 okay. Then we are getting for YO2 that is equal to 6504 / 280.87 = 0.024 and for YCO2
so 0.178 because this is equal to how much, we have carbon dioxide, so this is 51.78, so
51.78 / 290.87 = 0.17.
Then we are getting say YN2, YN2 = moles of nitrogen / moles of total outlet stream, so that is
equal 168.01 / 290.87 = 0.5776. So now we are able to get the composition of the outlet gas.
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So next problem statement says dry methane is burned with dry air. Both are 25 degree
centigrade initially. The flame temperature is 1300 degree centigrade. If the complete
combustion is assumed, how much excess air is being used. The reaction is CH4+2O2 
CO2+2H2O. The standard heat of reaction is -8.028 x 105 joule per gram mole of CH4.
Mean molar specific heat of gases between 25 degree centigrade and 1300 degree centigrade
are in joule per gram mole K that is equal to CO2 51.88, O2 34.01, H2O 40.45, and N2 32.21.
So this is the problem statement and then what we have to do, how much excess air is
required so that we have to calculate. So how we can do it, let us see.
So what is the reaction given, CH4+2O2  CO2+2H2O. Then let us assume that number of
moles of O2 in the feed is equal to y and the reference temperature is 25 degree centigrade
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and the enthalpy of both CH4, O2 and N2 is 0 at 25 degree centigrade, this way base case it is
given.
Then for complete conversion of methane, what is our condition, say we have, this is our
inlet, all are CH4, oxygen and nitrogen it is there here we are providing. So nitrogen will be
there, oxygen will be there, methane will be there. See we have 1 mole of methane, we are
having y mole of O2 and then 3.76 mole of nitrogen because 21% is oxygen and 79% is
nitrogen, that is why this mole ratio will be 3.76. So if y is oxygen, then 3.76 will be nitrogen,
enthalpy for all it is 0.
Then outlet temperature is 1300 degree centigrade and in this case methane will not be
available, but oxygen will be available because excess oxygen is used, so how much y is
given, so rest will be y - 2 because 1 mole methane consumes 2 mole of oxygen, so y - 2 is
the remaining oxygen and then nitrogen how much was available that will be available, there
is no reaction with it, so 3.76y. Then CO2, 1 mole of methane will give 1 mole of carbon
dioxide and 1 mole of methane will give 2 moles of H2O.
So we are getting 2 mole of H2O and then enthalpy of these already we can calculate that =
34.01 x 1300 - 25, why because these value are given here for CO2 this one, oxygen 34.01,
H2O 40.45, and N2 of 32.21. So at the outlet, all those gas will be available and their enthalpy
values are also provided here okay, so this we have to multiply by the moles x this x this one,
mCpdT, so mCpdT, m with respect to mole, so Cp is given here, so this is our dT 1300-25, so
this is our enthalpy value.
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Then we will get the sheet balance. Then we will calculate the value of y and that will be the
excess oxygen required for this combustion. So here accumulation = input - output +
generation. So this is the heat balance we are consuming. So input equal to zero, ΔH is not
there because all are at 25 degree centigrade so that is our base case, so minus output, y-2
oxygen is there, so x 32.01+3.76y for nitrogen and then 32.31+51.88+40.45x 2 that is the
composition which we are getting, that is H2O and CO2 and then ΔT.
So this is your mCP and this is your ΔT, mCpΔT that is the output which we are getting with
the gas stream. Generation we are getting, what is that, during this heat generated that is
equal to -8.028 x 105. So by this accumulation is equal to 0, so by rearranging we are getting
this formula and y = 3.6416 moles, so this is our y we are getting. So then what is the excess
air, why this much oxygen was required, 2 moles were stoichiometrically, so (3.64–2)/ 2 x
100 = 82% excess air was used.
Therefore 3.6416 moles oxygen was fed for each mole of CH4 and excess air was 82%. So
now we are able to solve the problems, so up to this in this class. Thank you very much for
your patience.
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Lecture - 26
Solar Energy 1
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the second part of the course that is renewable energy
production. In the first part, we have covered how the fossil fuels can be processed to produce
clean energy and in this part we will discuss on the renewable energy production and in the
introduction class we have discussed that different types of renewable energy resources are
solar energy, hydroenergy, biomass energy, wave and tides, geothermal energy, etc. So we
will discuss on this topic in this part along with energy conservation and now we will discuss
on solar energy.
The contents are sun as a source of energy, then solar radiation and spectrum, then solar
insolation, then application of solar energy, advantage and disadvantage of solar energy, then
techniques for solar energy production or conversion to usable form that is solar thermal and
solar photovoltaic. So in the first part, we will be discussing up to advantage and
disadvantage and the second next class we will discuss this part.
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So as you know that sun is the source of all type of energy in the ecosystem and we cannot
consider any life without the energy, and if we see the components of ecosystem, obviously
the biotic component are most important one and then abiotic components which are required
for the survival of that and another is your sunlight that is the energy. So this energy is very
very important component for the ecosystem. This energy comes from the sunlight as you
know, the solar radiation that is accepted by the plants.
The plants use it for the conversion of organic compound through photosynthesis and that is
the source of energy to others that is the producers, then consumers. So if we see the primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers, all living organisms are dependent on this energy stored in
the food produced by the primary producers. Now we will see how much energy is coming
from solar system to the earth and how much is being consumed by different living
organisms and what is the scope for the utilization of solar energy to convert it into some
other usable forms.
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So here this figure shows us that incoming solar radiation is around say 4.98 into 10 to the
power 6 unit. If this is the total radiation, then out of it non-utilized is 4.97 into 10 to the
power 6 unit. So, only 0.2% solar energy is used by the autotroph for the production of
organic compound and it is around say 4660 unit. So out of this 4660 unit which is taken up
by the producers or the plants and grasses etc, so they sent around 630 units to herbivores and
rest is lost, either respiration, decompositions and not utilized, that is the sediment
So, this is the distribution of the total 4660 units of energy and 630 is coming to herbivores,
then out of 630, 125 is going to carnivorous. So, these are the distribution of solar energy
which is coming to the earth and taken up by the plants through its photosynthesis for organic
compound productions and the forward flow. So, it is very clear that most of the solar energy
is remained unused, and if we can develop technology to harness this one to convert the solar
energy to usable form, then it can be a good option and that can be renewable energy for our
use. Then, you see what is the source of this solar energy?
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We know that there are different types of fusion reactions are going on in the sun and the
energy is released due to these fusion reactions, so here say deuterium, tritium they are fusing
and producing helium and then neutron and energy is released. So this huge amount of energy
produced in the sun it is taking some time to come at the surface of the sun, say it may take
thousands of years, and then when it is coming to surface of the sun, then it is radiated and it
is coming towards the earth.
If we see from the sun the energy is coming to the earth, so out of the total radiation which is
coming towards the earth, around 46% is absorbed by the earth and 6% percent is deflected
by the earth’s surface. So remaining part of the energy is not able to come to the earth’s
surface because of clouds and ionosphere, etc. So, we see here energy dispersed in the
atmosphere is around say this 8% percent and energy absorbed by the vapors and ozone and
dust is around 19% percent and for cloud we see a 4% percent energy is absorbed by clouds
and 17% percent is reflected by the clouds.
So, this is the total energy distributions from the sun which is coming through the different
sources to the different parts and ultimately we are getting 46% percent of energy absorbed
by the earth. Now this energy comes to the earth in terms of radiations and with a very high
speed and that say it takes 8 minutes to reach outer atmosphere of the earth that is 93 million
miles away from the sun. So, this is the way the radiation reaches to the earth’s surface.
Now if I want to use this energy, if we are interested to use these energy, we have to know
more about the characteristics of these and then we have to think how the technology can be
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developed. So, we will see now what is the maximum available solar energy per unit area per
unit time, on that way solar constant has been defined.
Solar constant is the maximum intensity of solar radiation which is defined as the total energy
received from the sun per unit time one a surface of unit area kept perpendicular to the
radiation in space just outside the earth’s atmosphere, so in the earth’s atmosphere its end at
that time if we place a surface which is perpendicular to the radiation so per unit area per unit
time how much radiation is coming that is called the solar constant and this value is 1366
watt per meter square.
This figure shows us that UV, visible, and infrared all are available in the solar radiations and
we see spectral irradiance is highest in case of visible light, so this is within say 400 to 700
nanometer of wavelength.
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Now, we will see the different wavelength of solar radiations we have that is visible light
here to here. Other we have say gamma ray, x-ray we have, infrared. So more the wavelength
as you know the energy is less, and so that is why this part is having high energy, this part is
having less energy. So these are the different types of rays which are available in the solar
radiations coming to the earth.
So we have to trap these, the energy associated with this radiation and convert it into usable
form, so that is the basic concept of the energy conversion from solar to electricity. Now, we
will see the solar insolation. So we have discussed about the solar constant that is the
maximum possible energy intensity which is coming to the earth at the atmosphere of earth's
end and now at any location on the earth’s surface, the radiation is also coming and that
radiation intensity will be defining a solar insolation.
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So the solar radiation received on a flat horizontal surface at a particular location on earth at a
particular instant of time is called the solar insolation and usually expressed as watt per meter
square. So the solar constant was also watt per meter square, then insolation is also watt per
meter square.
Now there are many factors which influence the solar insolation, what are those? Angle of
incidence, daily variation, then seasonal variations and geographical location of the particular
surface, then atmospheric clarity, then shadows of trees, tall structures, adjacent solar panels,
then degree of latitude for the location and area of surface, what is the surface we are
considering for the collecting of the solar radiations that will also influence.
Then solar insolation is not available equally everywhere in the world because all those
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factors are not equal, it is variable, that is why the solar insolation is also different from place
to place. Now we will see what are those factors. So we have seen that angle of incidence is
the important factor for the insolation.
So what that angle of incidence is, say if we have one flat plate, then that plate is fixed on a
particular area, then sun rays are incident on it so that incident beam and the normal to the
plate will make some angle, here the theta, that is called your angle of incidence. So the angle
between the incident beam and normal to the surface is, this theta is your angle of incidence.
Now so if it is our Ibn, this is the intensity of light here, so in this case normal to this we will
be getting In, so In is equal to Ibn into cos theta, so this is the relationship between this In and
Ibn.
Now the angle of incidence, this will also depend upon many factors like say angle of
declination, angle of tilt, then hour angle, latitude associated with a place. So these are the
different factors which influence the angle of incidence. Now the fixed type of collector
surface S should be so oriented that it collects maximum energy from the sun, so that is the
main objective that maximum energy will be collected on the collector.
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Then see what is the tilt angle. So if we keep one plate, then from the horizontal line it will
make an angle, so this is a horizontal plane, then this surface is making angle, so this is called
beta or tilt angle. So this tilt angle will be 0 when the surface is horizontal at that place or it
will be 90 degree when the surface is vertical to the surface. So beta is always positive and
this beta for a fixed collector it is fixed, but for sun tracking collectors, this beta value can
change with time to track the sun to get the maximum radiation from it.
Now hour angle is also one important term which is related to the energy production or the
capturing of the radiation from the sun by the collector.
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So here we see this hour angle is defined as the angle traced by sun in one hour with
reference to 12 noon. So at 12 o’ clock in the noon, w is equal to 0, then what will be the
value of hour angle, we can calculate by using this formula, w is equal to 15 into ST minus
12 where ST is the local solar time. So at 9 a.m. if we want to find out the w value, so w at 9
a.m. will be 15 into 9 minus 12, so minus 45 degree. So this side we are getting minus 45
degree, here we are getting. Now at 6 p.m. that will be 15 into 6+12, 18 minus 12, so 90
degree, so we will be getting 90 degree at 6 p.m.
So here we are having this angle, so this is our hour angle. So hour angle will also influence
the intensity of solar radiations on a on a plate or collector.
Then angle of declination, that is another parameter which is defined as the angle between the
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line connecting the center of earth and sun with the equator plane. So equator plane we have
here and this is our sun and earth, so this angle is our angle of declination. So angle of
declination will vary from time to time, seasonally throughout the year this value will change.
As we know that the maximum value is +23.45 degree on 21 June and minimum is -23.45
degree on December 21. The angle del that is the declination angle is at two equinoxes that is
March 21 and September 21, the del will be 0.
So what we will see, this is 21 December and here it is we are getting 21 June, so this is 2 and
this is our 0, so this is our 0 value, two equinoxes we are getting here. So we can calculate
what will be the del value on any time by this formula, del is equal to 23.45sin 360/365 into
284+n where n is the day of the year counted from the 1 January, say 1st January, 2nd
January like this how many days from the 1st January that is, if we put here, then we will get
the value of del. This value will also influence the solar radiation incident on a particular area
of a collector.
Then latitude will also influence the insolation value. So here what is this, as you know that
this is the angle between the radial line joining the center of the earth and the point where the
collector is situated with the equatorial plane. So this is our equatorial plane and this is our
point where we have put a plate collector say, so this is our collector, this is our point on the
earth’s surface, so this point and this is connected by this earth’s radius, and this is our
equatorial plane, so this angle is called latitude.
So latitude will influence the solar insolation on the surface of this collector along with this
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beta also, this is our horizontal plane to the surface and this is also the beta is our tilt angle.
So tilt angle and latitude both will influence the insolation value at this point or at any point.
So these are the factors which influence the availability of insolation on sun. Now what we
will do with this solar energy, initially the solar technology for the conversion of this energy
of the radiation to the electricity was not matured and at that time also the solar energy was
used.
Important applications of this energy are water heating and then air heating for agriculture
and industrial applications like say drying up any crops or any feedstock for processing or
even say waste sludge, sludge drying everything are some example. These are some example
of the application of solar energy directly in industry and in agriculture. Then heating and
cooling of buildings, to heat and cool building that solar energy can also be used.
So we have to design the buildings in such a way that we can capture energy when needed
from the sun and we can avoid energy from sun when needed, so there is passive design of
buildings, we will discuss that. Then cold storage for preservation of food that is also an
application of solar energy, people have used it, cooking of food, then greenhouses, just I
have told that we have to design the building in such a way that it will be consuming less
amount of energy, distillation of water and water pumping, solar furnaces, and then power
generation and solar photovoltaic.
These are the two latest development on the solar technology, that is power generation and
then solar photovoltaic, we will discuss those part in the next class.
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Now we see the heating and cooling of buildings, how this can be done? So if we see that
during summer, the sun will be literally at more elevation and then it will be coming to the
top part of the roof and if it is extended, some part is extended at the roof, so that summer sun
can be arrested, it will not be allowed to come into the house to some extent we can manage,
but in winter, here the sunlight can come through the windows.
So these windows which is the light which is coming in the house, then we can store it, we
can make some stone floor so that will be capturing the heat which is coming through the
solar radiation inside the room and then you can put some insulation, so more higher the
insulation we will be able to keep the heat in the room for a longer period. So one is your we
have collection, then another is your storage by using this material so you can store the heat,
and then reduction by insulation, these are the principles to design the buildings that is called
passive building design.
So passive solar design that is nothing but a set of practices that accommodate the local
climate by letting the sun into the house into the building in the winter and keeping the sun
out in the summer, so this is the principle it is designed in such a way.
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Some example is here. Homes in Montana and California with a passive solar design heats
the house in the winter and cools the home in the summer and here we see here, this is our
summer sun at higher elevation, so it is coming here, and that winter sun at lower elevations,
the sun is coming to inside the room. So if we have that we are talking about that absorbers,
we have to use some materials which can absorb heat and we will also use some thermal
mass though thermal mass can capture more heat than them.
So we can select some thermal mass which can store the heat and can supply to the room and
we should have some ventilation arrangement also. So these are the technique or processes or
the practices we can say through which we can make the building a green building and reduce
the energy requirement for the building and this can be done basically by using windows in
the south face.
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So efficient heating starts with proper collection of solar energy that can be achieved by
keeping south facing windows and appropriate landscaping and then that is the collection
part. Storage we can do using thermal mass, some examples are here water, iron, wood, brick,
concrete, loose stone, the different amount of energy they can store per cubic feet per degree
Fahrenheit, so it is given, some data are given.
Insulation that also to reduce the loss from the room and on external walls, roofs, and the
floors we can use some insulating materials so that the building can be of green building in
nature.
By this design, it has been reported that a passively heated homes uses about 60-75% of solar
energy that hits it walls and windows. The Center for Renewable Resources, USA estimates
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that in almost any climate, a well designed passive solar home can reduce energy bills by
75% with an added construction cost of about 5-10%. About 20% of energy used for water
and space heating.
The major factor for which the solar energy is not being used widely is its cost, previously it
was very costly, but now the cost has reduced and application of solar energy is becoming a
reality and people are getting more interest day by day to use solar energy in different
applications.
Now advantage and disadvantages of this solar energy if we think, then obviously whatever
the reaction is taking place for the production of this energy solar energy that is taken place in
sun, so earth is not getting any pollutants from this. So all polluting byproducts through
chemical, radioactive, and thermonuclear sources, those are inside the earth, only pure form
of energy reaching to the earth, that is one major advantage of this solar energy that it is
pollution free.
The energy reaching the earth is incredible, it is huge amount of energy. A calculation says
that 30 days of sunshine striking the earth have the energy equivalent of the total of all the
planet’s fossil fuels, both used and unused. So these are the advantages of this process, it can
be very good to renewable source, it will never end. It also has some disadvantages because
sunshine is not a continuous process, it is not continuously, it is not consistent, there is a
cloud, there may be rainy season, or at the night time we will not get sunshine.
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So what we have to do, solar energy is a diffuse source, so to harness it, we must concentrate
it into an amount and from that we can use such as heat and electricity, etc. So we have to
store, we have to convert the solar energy into some form of electricity, then we have to store
it, then only this technology will be very very interesting and a great success. So, up to this in
this class. Thank you very much for your patience
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Lecture – 27
Solar Energy 2
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic renewable energy that is solar energy production
part 2.
The content of this discussion is the techniques for solar energy conversion to usable form,
that is solar thermal and solar photovoltaic.
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So if you see the solar energy can be used into different forms into different routes. So solar
energy is converted to organic food, organic materials through the plants, through
photosynthesis. Solar energy can be used to produce hydrogen, photocatalysis routes. Solar
energy can be converted to electricity through photovoltaic routes. Solar energy can be
converted to heating through thermal route and then that heat can be used further for the
production of electricity.
So there are a number of ways or the routes through which the solar energy can be converted
to usable form. So this is a very complex process, still the simulation of this process is not
possible, this is under development, that is the hydrogen production through photolysis, this
is already developed, this photovoltaic is also developed. So, we will discuss this thermal
route and photovoltaic routes for the production of electricity by this solar energy. So we
have thermal conversion and we have PV conversion, basically we will be concentrating on
these two routes.
Now see already passive design of building helps us to get solar energy for heating
applications, that is not actively or directly using some liquid or something to capture the
energy and then like this, that is that building is designed in such a way that we are able to get
some amount of energy automatically by that way, but by using some heating device also, we
can collect more energy for this application. Here at the rooftop, we can use some heating
device that is collector that will collect the heat.
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Then we can send the liquid or that is water here cold water, it will pass through it, the
sunlight is coming here and the water is heated and it is coming to this, and then there is some
heat transfer, so then that way we can get the energy collected at the top is available in the
room and then we can exchange this energy here also. So, here we have used some external
device which is collecting the solar radiation and helping to heat the liquid pass through this
particularly designed device so that is called solar thermal technology and where the thermal
collectors for water heating, space heating and other uses we can use.
So we can send here the water or we can send here air also, if we send air, then also air will
be heated and the room will also be heated, and if we use the water, then also the water will
be heated and then can be used for other application, but this technology normally the
temperature of water does not rise very high, then the temperature of water maybe 60-70 like
this, 70 degree centigrade like this.
So, solar thermal collector, which we are using at the top, that may be of different types. It
may be flat plate collector, it may be evacuated tube collectors, or it may be a concentrating
collectors. So there are basically 3 types of collectors so far has been reported that is a flat
plate, evacuated tube, and then concentrating collectors. So, we will be discussing these one
by one. The main uses are water heating and space heating for homes and business
establishment by this technology.
But when we use concentrating collectors, then we can get very high temperature water or
even can produce high temperature steam and that can be used for the production of
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electricity in steam turbine. Now, we will see the flat plate collectors. A flat plate collector
consist basically an insulated metal box with the glass or plastic cover and then a dark-
colored absorber plates, so this is the construction of different parts of a flat plate collectors.
Solar radiation is absorbed by the absorber plate and transferred to the fluid that circulates
through the collector in tubes and in air dry collector the circulating fluid is air whereas water
can be used also as a fluid, and in some cases some anti-freezing agent is also used, otherwise
if the temperature is lower inside the room below say 0 degree centigrade, it will be frozen,
so that anti-freezing agent is also used to capture the sunlight when the temperature is very
very less it is say below 0 degrees centigrade.
Here we see the flat plate collectors, here water is coming here, so we have your absorber
plate, then sunlight is coming here and then absorber plates will absorb it and it will be heated
up and then through which the tubes the water is going through so that will be heated and will
be coming out. So, this is a very simple design of this, primitive design we can say, that is it
is a box type arrangement.
Then from the top, the sun is coming, sunlight is coming and then from this we are having the
water flow or air flow and we are getting here the heated water, but this method as I have
mentioned that 30 to 70 degree centigrade temperature rise can be available in this case, we
cannot get very high pressures steam that is the flat plate collectors, and basically these are
used in home applications like residential hot water heating.
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Then evacuated tube solar thermal design came later. These collectors use a thermos bottle
type arrangement or collector. So in this case, the vacuum is created so that the vacuum due
to the availability of vacuum it is able to give the high temperature water, so the temperature
of the outlet of this collector is more than that of the flat plate collector and the vacuum acts
as insulator and reducing any heat loss significantly to the surrounding atmosphere either
through convections or radiations making the collector much more efficient than the initial
insinuating that flat plate collectors have to offer. So this is the features of this evacuated tube
solar thermal collectors.
Then we are coming to concentrating collectors. So this is the latest development of this
collector, that is sunrays after incident those are directed in such a way that will be focused
on a certain point or in a central line. So the concentration of radiation will be higher at the
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receiver. So here we have two things, one is your concentrators and another is your receiver.
So concentrators or collectors, so those are initially collecting the sunrays and then it is
focusing these rays to a focal point, on a certain point that is the receiver.
So one is collectors and another is receivers. So depending upon the shapes of these
collectors and receivers, the extent of concentration also varies which is defined by the
optical concentration ratio that is average flux over the receiver divided by flux over the
aperture of the collectors, that is how much insolation is coming on the collector and then
how much insolation we are getting at the receiver. So receiver insolation divided by the
collector insolation that is we can say optical concentration ratio.
As you see here for this, we need some mechanical help, that mechanical design will play a
role, we may we may need to change the orientation of the collector or we have to equip it in
such a way that maximum concentration is possible. So here we see the plane reflector plane
receiver if we use, then the concentration ratio can be 1 to 4, but if we use the conical
reflector and then cylindrical receiver, then you can get 4 to 10, if we use parabolic
cylindrical reflector and cylindrical receiver, then you can get 10 to 100.
When it is paraboloidal reflector and spherical receiver that will give us 10,000 up to. So that
is the maximum capacity or the maximum concentration we can get by this type of
arrangement.
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So we see here the different types of concentrating collectors, one is your parabolic trough
system, so this is trough systems, like this type of structure it is the trough. So it will be if we
have a tube here so water, rays will be coming here and these after reflection it is going and
concentrating on this, so this is our receiver, so this is a parabolic trough. So it may be a
parabolic dish, so here the parabolic surface, rays are coming, then incident, after its
reflection it is going and then it is it is focusing on a point.
So there are some mirrors, here also some mirrors are there. So rays are coming and it is
being reflected and it is being concentrated. So here it is, this rod is there, here the point is
there for the concentration, and a receiver for the collecting of the concentrated rays. Here,
we may have the power tower, so power tower, so we have mirror at the bottom, so ray will
come and it will be reflected and will be focused on the point at the top, so this is called
power tower. So these are 3 major important designs for the collection of the sunrays by these
concentrating collectors.
Apart from these, we have stationary concentrating collector. So stationary concentrating

collectors use compound parabolic reflectors and flat reflectors are used for directing solar
energy to an accompanying absorber or aperture through a wide acceptance angle. So as the
wide acceptance angle means due to the use of wide acceptance angle, these reflectors
eliminates the need for a sun tracker, so sun tracker is not needed for this type of the
stationery concentrating collectors.
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These are some photographs how it looks like, so parabolic disc and parabolic trough, so how
it looks like it is shown here. So you see here, it is a disc that is after reflections it
concentrates to this one point and then here it is a tube, so it is concentrated on a tube, that is
the parabolic trough.
Now, we will see how can we calculate the performance of a flat plate collector, the primitive
one say, how can we determine the collector efficiency, we will discuss now. So in a flat
plate, as you have seen that one flat surface is there, so where we have here one surface and
then sunray will come and it will be taken up by the plate and some amount of energy will go
out. So energy in is your Ein and energy out is Eout. So Ein–Eout, so that is the energy taken
up by the water or we can say that energy gained by the system.
So useful energy gain we can say that is equal to, Qu that is equal to Ein-Eout, that is energy
which is coming inside this that will be absorbed first, that will be collected by the collector,
then it is absorbed from the top and the transmitted towards the bottom where the liquid is
flowing. So we have two terms here say collector efficiency that will influence the overall
efficiency of the process, then absorptivity of collector, how the collector is able to absorb the
solar radiation that will also influence the overall performance.
Then transmissivity of glass cover, so one glass cover at the top, so how it is transmitting the
light so that will also influence the overall performance and here we have insulation, here
through which the water is passing through the tube we have some insulation, so there will be
some losses of heat energy through this if insulation is not proper, so that insulation loss is
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there, so overall loss coefficient is also considered which is important and will influence on
the overall performance of the system.
This Tf and To, temperature of the fluid in the tubes and the ambient temperature that will
also influence the performance. Another is important incident solar radiations on collectors,
what is the radiation it is coming on the collector that will also influence the process
performance. So if we want to get the collector efficiency here, this equal to obviously how
much energy we are getting that is Ein-Eout divided by how much energy was available in
the incident rays.
So if the surface area is Ac and It is incident solar radiation, so this is our total solar radiation
in kilowatt per meter squared unit and this is our energy we are getting amount of heat we are
getting from the system, so this by this, Qu/Ac into It is our collector efficiency.
Now efficiency is equal to Qu/AcIt, but now what is our Qu, Qu is also this one that Fa, Fr
that is equal to collector efficiency into Ac into alpha tau It – UL Tuf-Ta. So this is the
expression for the Qu. So if we put this expression in place of Qu, so efficiency will be like
this. So efficiency is equal to Qu/AcIt into FR tau alpha – FRUL into Tfo-Tu/IT. So now this
equal to y is equal to mx+c type of expression, y is equal to a+b type of expression.
So if we plot efficiency versus this, we can measure the Tf, we can measure Tm Me and we
can measure the intensity of the light which is coming that IT. So then we can plot and we
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can get the value of this A and B and A and B we can get the value of FR we can get the UL
like this. So now we can get the value of A and B.
Now, solar thermal power plant. So how the solar technique, thermal technique can be used
for the electricity production that part will discuss now. So we have some say some collector
here, so we have collector, so that is a parabolic trough collector here, so these are the tubes
so we are sending cold water, so it is going through these tubes and it is heated up and
ultimately we are getting steam. So this steam is going and this can be used for different
applications.
It can be used in hot tank and it can be going for the super heater and this can be used in a
turbine for the electricity production. So this is the method through which the electricity is
produced. The steam is generated here, it goes through this and it is after super heating, it
goes there to the turbines, which is coupled with the generator, which gives us electricity and
the exhaust steam is condensed and again used here or it can be sent here for the heat
recovery or like this So this is the arrangement for the use of heat captured by the steam in
this plant.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:03
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So one example of this power tower in Barstow, California. This figure shows that how the
solar energy is produced by the capturing of solar lights. So this is 10 megawatt solar power
plant in Barstow, California, that is 1900 heliostats, each 20 feet by 20 feet is used and a
central 295 five feet tower. So all are focused in this tower and then it gives us that amount of
electricity.
Now we are coming to solar photovoltaic. So solar photovoltaic, it is another type of

technology and which is the latest development of the solar technology and most important
one, which can give us electricity directly without the production of steam, unlike solar
thermal route. So here what happens, solar energy comes on some surface which is having an
N and P type semiconductors and then when the solar cell is P type semiconductor and N
type semiconductor.
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The solar light hitting the cell produces negatively charged electrons and positively charged
holes, so negatively charged electrons and positively charged holes. So sunlight is falling on
it and these holes and electrons and generated and then electrons are moving towards this N-
type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor, those are the positive holes are moving
towards it and they are collecting these things, and when we will add external load, then we
will get electricity through it.
So we are getting the electricity now. So this method is the most important method for the
conversion of electricity from the solar rays.
Now we will see different types of materials for the PV cells and their efficiency. So solar
cell, it may be silicon semiconductor, it may be compound semiconductor, it may be organic
semiconductor. So silicon semiconductor, it may be crystalline or amorphous and crystalline
maybe single crystal maybe poly crystalline, and their conversion efficiency for the single
crystalline 10 to 17%, for poly crystalline 10 to 13%, it may be non-crystalline that is 7 to
10%.
Compound semiconductor that is gallium arsenide, it is 18 to 30% conversion efficiency.

Organic semiconductor that is dye-sensitized type, it is 7 to 8% and organic thin layer type 2
to 3%. So these are the different types of materials have been investigated for the production
of electricity in a PV photovoltaic mode. Then conversion efficiency, obviously electricity
output by energy of insolation on cell into 100 that will be in the percentage.
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Now we will see the volt and current which can be achieved in this PV cell. So this is for low
insolation, this is the graph people have reported and for high insolation. So 0.5 volt for
silicon photovoltaic cell is available for a single cell and intensity of insolation and size of
cell will also influence the amount of voltage generated.
Now this is one photograph for PV cell which can give some details on this. So here, we have
these are aluminum electrode and this blue colored film that is anti reflection film and then
black surface, this black surface is P-type conductor semiconductor and all black surface is
aluminum electrode with full reflection and this is front surface N-type side, so N-type side
and P-type side is backside, that is black side.
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This is your PV module, one module single crystal, and this is your polycrystalline, so this is
poly crystalline, this is single crystalline. So single crystals which has more capacity 128
watt, this is 120 watt, same size both are having, but single crystal will give some more
capacity as it is evident from this.
Then there is the hierarchy of the PV cells, so a single cell we see here, 2-3 watt, so this is
black and blue, so alumina and N and P type that we were talking about the N type and P type
semiconductor, so we are using it and 2-3 watt is generated, so you have 0.5 volt and 5-6
amps and 2-3 watt, so about 10 cm size. Then gradually the improvement came and then
module structure came, so this is our module, so this module is able to give 20-30 volt, 5-6
amps and then 100-200 watt and 1 meter its size.
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The number of modules was put in arrays and then we get array that is say 200-300 volt it is
possible, 50 amps to 200 amps is possible, 10-50 kilowatt capacity was developed, and the
size is around 30 meter. So gradually the PV cells developed.
This is the roughly size of PV power station. If we need to get say 20 kilowatt power through
PV techniques, then it requires 10 meter by 20 meter roof area. So 1 kilowatt PV need 10
meter square area for its production.
Now the temperature also influences the performance of this process. The temperature
increases, efficiency of the process decreases. As shown here say a typical 25 degree
centigrade we are having, if it is an amorphous silicon PV cell, then this will be having
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around 8% percent efficiency. If we go to say 65 degrees centigrade which is available in
some places during summer at the rooftop, then there it is slightly less than this.
In this case for crystalline cell if it is around say 13% percent, so here it is coming to say
11%, so 2% down due to the increase in temperature from 25 to 65 degrees centigrade. So
that way we have come to know that the efficiency of PV cell can also be changed with
increasing the temperature. So up to this in this class. Thank you very much for your
patience.
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Lecture - 28
Wind Energy 1
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic wind energy. As you know, the wind is nothing
but the flow of air or the motion of air. All we have seen that in case of fan, we get air motion
and we have to apply electricity, then electricity helps the movement of the fan blade and that
is electrical to mechanical energy conversion and then movement of the fan blade gives some
motion to the air, so that is the air is getting some motion, and it is getting some energy inside
it that is the kinetic energy of the air when it is in motion.
So that way, electrical energy is converted to the kinetic energy of the air in case of fan. Now
if you can develop a certain device which can work in the reverse principle of the fan, then
we can be able to convert the kinetic energy stored in the air into electrical energy. So, the
principle of wind energy is this one and we will discuss more about this wind energy in two
classes.
In this class, our content is the wind as a source of energy, then wind energy system. We will
also discuss types of wind machines and then energy production from wind and wind energy
computation and the nature of wind and selection of site.
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Now, we will see wind as a source of energy. As you know that wind is nothing but the
motion of air, so air gets some velocity and this is because of the uneven heating of the
earth’s surface. Earth’s surface we have land area, we have water. So land and water both are
not equally heated. So we know that the land gets heated very quickly with respect to water
and again gets cooled very quickly with respect to water. So during daytime, the land area
gets heated quickly and becomes warmer than the water.
So air at the land being warm up goes upward and the cold air on the water moves towards
the land area. So we get one movement of air or the motion of air that is called wind, so that
wind is generated in the daytime in that way, and the nighttime the reverse directions we can
get. So, this is the reason why we can get the wind and this wind gives some kinetic energy to
the air and that kinetic energy we can convert into the electrical energy.
Once we want to get the electrical energy or mechanical energy from the wind, then we have
to get good velocity of the wind and we know that the more wind speed more is the velocity
of atmospheric air and more is the kinetic energy.
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So now we will see the wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of
atmospheric air. It has been used for hundreds of years for sailing, grinding grains and for
irrigation. So these are the ancient applications of the wind energy and recent application is
the electricity production. So wind energy systems convert this kinetic energy into more
useful forms of the power.
Then in 2017, report says that in the world we have 539,581 megawatts wind energy
production capacity and the total production of this 539,581 megawatt electricity is produced
in the world, out of this around 85% that is equal to 456,572 megawatt is produced in 10 top
countries and this 15% is produced in the rest of the world. So if we think about the top 10
countries around the world producing wind energy, the China ranks the first position, it is
188,232 megawatt capacity and its share is 35%.
So in China around 35% energy is produced from the wind. For US, the second position,
89,077 megawatt that is 17% share, for Germany the third position 56,132 megawatt and the
share is 10%, for India we have 32,848 megawatt with a share of 6% energy. So out of the
total energy produced in the country, we are having 6% percent of the wind energy. Spain,
we have 23,170 megawatt and 4% that is their share, then United Kingdom 18,872, it has 3%
share.
Then France 13,759 megawatt with 3% percent share, then Brazil 12,763 megawatt with 2%
share, Canada 12,239 megawatt with 2% percent share, and Italy 9,479 megawatt with 2%
share. So this is the statistics of the wind energy productions around the globe as per 2017
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data.
Now if we think about the wind energy system, then we can get 3 major terms; one is wind
machine, then windmill, and wind turbines. So wind machines machine convert the wind
energy into useful form of energy that is a very generic common name wind machine. Then
windmill works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind to mechanical
energy, so windmill really when the kinetic energy of wind is converted to mechanical energy
specifically that is windmill, and wind turbines that transform the energy in the wind into
mechanical power which is further transferred into electrical energy.
So the wind turbine is the latest development and it helps to generate electricity from the
wind. Now how the kinetic energy of air is transferred into electrical energy that is the point
we have to understand. So when the wind is available when the air is in a motion and we have
some windmill, say windmill has some blades, some rotor, and then wind flows it is blocked
by the blades, and then downwind of the blades, there is some low pressure creation and that
low pressure gives a lift to the blades, that is one force the blade is getting.
Another is a drag force when the wind is blowing and then there is some resistance the blade
is giving some resistance there were some a drag force on it, and then the drag force as well
as the lift both helps to rotate the rotor. This is the mechanism, the rotor rotates and then the
blades also rotate. So if the rotor is fixed with a shaft, then shaft will also rotate, and one side
of that shaft can be connected to turbine and then turbine to generator, so then electricity can
be produced.
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So the force of the lift is actually much stronger than the winds force against the front side of
the blade which is called drag, and the combination of lift and drag is what causes the rotor to
spin. This rotating action then turns a generator which creates electricity. So, this is the
mechanism through which electricity is produced. Now the wind power which is available
that is proportional to the cubic root of the velocity of the wind.
So if the wind speed doubles, then the power potential will increase 8 times. So wind energy
technologies use the energy in wind for practical purposes such as generating electricity,
charging batteries, pumping water and grinding grains, already we have discussed.
Now we will see the wind energy systems. So here, this figure shows us 2 systems, one is
your old windmill and another is a new wind turbine. So old windmill we have brick tower
where in both the cases we see the blades or the rotor is placed at certain elevation, so not at
the immediate surface of the earth, it is put at certain height. So the height is required because
as you go up the wind velocity increases.
At the surface, the resistance is more so wind velocity is less, if we go up, then the velocity
will be higher, and more the velocity, obviously more will be the energy potential. So around
30 meters height, the windmill is installed here, so that is the old model and this in case of
new model we are getting that is new wind turbine the blades are different, the fiberglass
blades we are getting are here we are having wooden blades. So this is the basic difference
between 2 types of windmills and wind turbine.
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For getting optimum efficiency or considerable performance, the wind speed should be 16 to
20 and the height may be at 50 meter. So these are the typical values which give us optimum
result. Now we see the wind turbine, the size is 2 megawatt, from handle to 2 megawatt
capacity wind turbine is available and typical is 250 kilowatt and then rotor diameter 25 to 30
meter and tower height is 30 to 40 mete. So this is the descriptions of wind system.
Then we will see the types of wind machines. So wind machines that helps to convert
electrical energy to any useable form of energy, so that wind machines may be of 2 types, one
is your horizontal axis machines and vertical axis machines. So there are 2 types of machines.
So here we see this is your horizontal axis machine, in this machine, we are seeing here the
axis of rotation is parallel to the direction of the wind stream. So this is our axis of rotation,
so we need also flowing in these directions and rotor is also there.
So we see here rotor axis is horizontal and can be adjusted so that it is parallel to the direction
of the wind. So this rotor which we are having here this is axis is parallel to the direction of
the wind, and it is not necessary that every time the wind is flowing in the same direction, so
the direction will change, when the wind direction will change, the rotor movement the
direction can also be changed in this design.
So horizontal axis windmill can further be classified as single blade, double blade, and multi
blades. So these blade, we have 3 blades we are seeing that may be single, double, or multi
blade system we may have.
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Then we will see vertical axis machines, so this is an example of vertical axis. So this is our
axis vertical and these are our blades. So in this case, this is the simplest of the modern types
of windmill which works like a cup anemometer and rotor axis is vertical and fixed and then
the machine has become popular since it requires relatively low air speed or air velocity or
wind velocity. So low velocity of winds can even generate electricity by this type of
machines with respect to horizontal axis windmill.
Now we will see the comparison between these 2, horizontal axis and vertical axis machines.
So in case of horizontal axis, a controller is required for proper orientations. So when the
wind speed is changing, then the directions of the rotor will also change by use of some
controller, this is very important for horizontal axis machines, but in case of vertical axis not
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necessary, no controller is required because this is fixed.
Then variable speed power transmission for better control, then simpler power transmission
system for the rotor to the axis, variable blade pitch can tolerate wider fluctuations in wind
speed in case of horizontal axis machines. For vertical the machine performance even at low
wind velocity running 8 kilometer per hour to 16 kilometer per hour. The horizontal axis is
lightweight and vertical axis it is bulky having much material.
Horizontal axis high tower ensures greater wind speed and low height installation leads to
lower available wind speed in case of vertical axis. So it is very clear to us that vertical axis
height is lesser than that of the horizontal axis machines. Now we will see how to calculate
the power productions or power efficiency or power potential of wind machines or wind.
So power production from wind. Now we will see the kinetic energy of a mass of m moving
at a speed of v is 1/2mv2. We know that kinetic energy is equal to 1/2mv2. So what will be the
power potential, the power potential will be 1/2 x mass flow rate, so this m will be mass flow
rate, x v square (Power potential = ½(mass flow rate)v2), that means that this much of power I
can get for unit time, this is the power potential.
Now the mass of air passing in unit time through an area A, so this is our area A, cross
sectional area, wind is flowing in this direction, so what will happen in this case, what will
the mass of it, mass is volume x density, so volume of air x density of air. So volume of air
means area x the linear velocity. So that is A is the area x v where v is the wind speed, so this
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is our volume of air which is passing through this cross sectional area in unit time, so that is
the v.
So if we multiply it with the ρ of air, so this is the mass flow rate is equal to ρ x A x v. So in
this expression, what we can get 1/2mv2, 1/2 m is equal to ρ x A x v and v2, so we are getting
1/2 x ρ x A x v3 where A is a constant for this particular A, but this is our power potential,
1/2ρAv3.
Now the power potential which is available in the wind that wind will not be converted or
will not be available for its transfer because after getting resistance at the blade, the wind will
reduce its velocity to 0, that is why the energy which is available with the wind the complete
conversion will not be possible and it has been proved by different researchers particularly
the Albert Betz in 1929, he has recommended and proved that around 59.3% of energy
associated with the wind may be transferred in the turbine.
So the power potential we can express or the turbine power we can express as 1/2 x ρ x A x
v3 which we had into some constant that is Cp, so Cp is called the power coefficient, and this
Cp is the power coefficient, so what we are getting now P = 1/2ρAv3Cp. Now A, Cp, ρ and
1/2 or A may change, ρ is the property of the wind, and Cp is also a power coefficient, so
these are constant and 1/2 x this equal to constant, we are considering is equal to k, so this is
equal to k.
So k x A x v3, this is our power potential and this 1/2 x ρ x Cp that is almost around to 0.37, it
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has been proved by many experimentation and approximately this can be 0.37 for air. So if
this is, then what will be our total power potential in terms of electricity, so that will be this x
0.37 x A x v3 x some efficiency factors, this is for wind energy which will be available, then
wind to mechanical conversion and mechanical to electrical conversions and there will be
transmission.
So another 3 types of efficiency we have to multiply, efficiency mechanical, efficiency

electrical, and efficiency transmission so that we have to consider.
So overall power will be getting 0.37 x efficiency of mechanical conversion, kinetic to

mechanical, then mechanical to electrical, and thereafter transmission, so then the machinery
is used for the transmission so that there will be always having some efficiency term. So this
and we have (v/10)3 because this power efficiency we are considering these power potential it
is considered in terms of kilowatt, so here we are having what unit, this unit if we want to
convert into kilowatt that is divided by 1000 and that is written v/10 to the power cube.
So v3 we had already, now v3/10, 1000 is there, so v/10 to the power cube that has been
made. So this is the expression which is used to calculate the power potential in kilowatt unit
when the v is meter per second, the wind speed is in meter per second. So this way we can
calculate the power potential of the windmill.
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Now as you know that the power potential is proportional to the v cube that is the wind
velocity. Now we have one blade, so if we have a rotor, then we have some blades, so these
blades will be moving and then we will get energy. So here, this is the blade tip, so it may be
the end of it or any position it may be, so this wind linear velocity is giving the rotational
movement to the rotor and to the blade also and this movement the RPM will be varying, if
we have 2 different machines with different diameter of the rotor, the RPM will be varying.
So to compare these variations in the RPM in spite of using RPM, another term can be used,
that is tip-speed-ratio. So tip speed ratio is defined as the blade tip speed meter per second by
wind speed, what is the wind speed and what is the blade tip speed we are getting, so that
way we can get one number and that is easy to compare 2 different machines. So this TSR
range is 1 to 15 and it is defined as this blade tip speed/wind speed. Now what is the blade tip
speed in meter per second.
If we know the RPM, then 2πrN, N is the revolution per minute and per 1 revolution it 2pi r it
moves, r is the radius of the blade. So 2πrN, N is the RPM, so that will be the linear distance
covered by the tip. So this is the blade tip speed 2πrN and then this is wind speed so per
minute revolution, so time is our 1 minute, so 60 second, so 60 second x v, so v is the wind
speed.
So now we are getting tip speed ratio is equal to 2πrN/60 x v, where r is the radius at which
SR is calculated, that it speed ratio is calculated and v is the wind speed in meter per second
and N is the RPM. Now we can calculate the speed at any position also, it may be r, many
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many values, so that way that is called speed ratio. So here we have a speed, here we have a
speed because this point has to travel more distance, this point has to travel less distance. So
SR that is speed ratio will be different for these 2 cases where wind speed is fixed.
So that is the concept has been developed to determine the tip speed ratio to compare
different turbine blades and machines.
Next we will see the wind shear. So if we go up, we will see that the wind speed is increased.
So once the wind speed is increased, then obviously the power potential will also be
increased. So there are some mathematical relationships the people try to correlate these
increasing the speed with the height and two types of equations are available, that is
logarithmic equation and power equation. So this is our logarithmic equations, it is clear that
velocity unknown = velocity known x ln (height desired/β)/ln (height known/ β).
So if we have height 1, here is one machine, here one machines we like to put, say this is
your h1 from the base, this is our h2 from the base, so I know there is a wind speed here, so it
is v1 and this is v2, I do not know. So we will be using here that is your height, so velocity
unknown, say v2, it is not known, so here v2 = v1 x ln (height of v1 that is
known/β)/ln(height of v2 that is h2, height h2/β).
So this β is called a roughness constant and this beta value will depend upon the roughness of
the surface and it will vary from place to place, different types of surface, different types of
beta value you will get. Those beta value normally ranges from 0.0001 to 3.0 m. So it has
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wide variations in the beta depending upon the nature of the surface.
The other expression which is used to predict the wind speed at any height if we know the
wind speed at any other height that is equal to that is a power equation, so velocity at
unknown = velocity of known x height of desired and then height of known, so height desired
means that is for unknown and this is for known velocity and height and then to the power
alpha, that is a power expression.
So this alpha is called a wind shear exponent and one thumb rule is that this alpha value is
around 1/7th, so a generally recognized rule of thumb is that wind speed increases as the
1/7th power of the height above ground and here this table give some example of different
terrain and different alpha values, so it is somewhere it is 0.10, 0.14, 0.16, 0.2, 0.2 to 0.24 and
these are the difference conditions.
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Now we will see some wind energy computation. So how the wind energy can be calculated
with some numerical problems, we will discuss now. Say a horizontal axis wind turbine with
30 m rotor diameter produces 1 megawatt electricity at a wind speed of 6 kilometer per hour.
Then calculate the following, blade tip speed for a tip speed ratio of 4.25 and then overall
percent conversion efficiency of the wind turbine from wind energy to electricity, air density
is 1.225 kg per meter cube. So this is our problem statement.
We have to calculate the blade tip speed. That means if we have a blade here, so this tip
speed we have to calculate and it is given as that our TSR is equal to 4.25. TSR is equal to we
have come to know that tip speed/wind speed. So tip speed = wind speed x TSR. So here
TSR = 4.25 and wind speed = 60 kilometer per hour, so 60 x 1000 meter/3600 per second. So
we are getting now 70.833 meter per second. So if we convert it into kilometer per hour, then
it is 254.9988 kilometer per hour.
So this is our blade tip speed here, linear velocity of the blade tip we are getting. Second
overall percent conversion efficiency we have to calculate. So now we will see what amount
of electricity we are producing here and what was the maximum potential we have here. So to
calculate potential, we need to get the value of wind speed and here we have v = 60 kilometer
per hour that if you have to convert it into meter per second and so 60 x 1000 meter/3600 that
is meter per second, so that is 16.6666 meter per second, so this is our v.
Then what will be the theoretical energy available, what is the theoretical energy available
1/2 x what is this we need v cube and we need A and we need ρ. So P = 1/2 x ρ x A x v3. So
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1/2 x ρ = 1.225 kg per meter cube and then A is equal to the area, this is the area, the blade
which is having the diameter of how much 30 meter rotor diameter. So πr2, we are having πr2,
πd2/4. So we are getting A = π d2/4 or = πr2.
So this is the area we are having, so that area we will get here and put this value here, rho
value is given here, and v value I have calculated here this one. So by putting these
expressions, we are getting the available energy in the wind is equal to 1/2 x ρ x A x v3, so
this is equal to this megawatt. This will be 2.003361 x 106 watt, that is equal to megawatt we
are getting.
So this is the megawatt energy available in the wind and as electricity we are getting 1
megawatt. So the conversion efficiency we can get 1/2.003361 x 100 = 49.91% or
approximately 50% efficiency we are getting.
Now we will see another problem statement. So this is a figure, it shows that one horizontal
axis windmill is there and what we see the distance is H and this height and the velocity is
related with this formula V = KH2. Then figure 1 shows the variation of the height from the
surface of the earth to wind speed, so this is our velocity and this is our surface of the this is
the trend at which the velocity changes with height. Then it is given as V = KH2, K = 1 per
meter per second.
Calculate the minimum height at which a horizontal axis windmill should be adapted to
generate a wind power density of 10 kilowatt per meter square normal to the direction of the
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wind. So this is our 10 kilowatt per meter square energy potential or energy density that we
have to calculate the height at which the mill has to be put. So now the other information is
given the electrical efficiency and mechanical efficiency of the system are both 0.9 and
whereas the transmission efficiency is 0.52.
So mechanical equal to efficiency electrical equal to 0.9 and efficiency of transmission equal
to 0.52 it is given, so what is our case. Our P is equal to you know 0.37 x n x efficiency of
electricity, efficiency of transmission and then we have (v/10)3, this is the formula we have.
So this formula we have, now in this formula our P is given 10 kilowatt per meter square, so
this is kilowatt per meter square, so kilometer unit, and then we are having so A term is not
there per meter, so A is not here, A has come to this place.
So then we are having this n = 0.9, ηE x 0.9, ηT = 0.52 and v, v is equal to how much that I
know that (v/10)3, this is the expression. So from these expressions, we can calculate the
value of v, so value of v is equal to this much 641/3 that is 4 x 10 meter per second, so 4 x 10
meter per second, then 40 meter per second we are getting that V and that if we get the value
of V, K = 1, so H square equal to we are getting 40, so H = 1/2 of 40, so that is equal to 6.32
meter.
So at 6.32 meter if we put this turbine, then we will get this 10 kilo watt per meter square
power density.
Next we will see the nature of wind and selection of site. Nature of wind means whether it
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will be having sufficient speed or not, that will depend upon many factors, that is your
latitude of the place, altitude of the place, topography of the place, and scale of the hour,
month, and year at what time, in which month and which year; so all those things will
influence the wind speed and the type of wind that we mean. Then suitable sites for the wind
energy installation that is the best sites at offshore and on the sea coast.
It is as we know that day time and night time, there will be wind, in both the cases there will
be direction of wind, so at offshore and on sea coast, this is a best place for the installation of
the wind turbines. The second best sites are in the mountains where the height is high, so air
velocity will be more, so that is also a good location for the installation of the wind turbines.
The lowest level of wind energy is found in planes. So planes it is not so important or so
economic or so feasible to install the wind turbines.
So then for wind turbines, it also requires lot of land, so we need lot of area available for the
installation of the wind turbines because if I put one wind turbine here, so I have to keep
some space between 2 wind turbines for the installation. For example, you see this is our
arrangement of wind turbines, so this is one, another one, another one, another one. So these
and these are rows and these columns also we are having turbine here, turbine here, turbine
here.
So this one turbine to turbine distance and this turbine to turbine distance it has to be
maintained. People try to understand and then to optimize the distance required and basically
after turbine the downstream of that the wind speed becomes less and then we need to give
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some more time to recover this wind velocity and then before reaching to another turbine. So
this gap is necessary. So once the gap is necessary, what will be that land requirement, that
will depend upon the number of turbines I need to install or the capacity of the plant.
The overall capacity of the plant I want to get from the windmills that should be known to us,
so that we can calculate the land requirement. So thumb rule says that spacing of turbines
between 5 and 10 rotor diameter apart. If prevailing winds are generally from the same
direction, turbines may be installed 3 or 4 rotor diameters apart in the direction perpendicular
to the prevailing winds and under multi directional wind conditions spacing of between 5 and
7 rotor diameter is recommended.
Here it is mentioned that a simple rule of thumb the turbines follow the spacing rule of 4 rotor
diameters apart horizontally and 7 rotor diameters apart vertically in the wind’s direction. So
we have made some discussions on wind energy productions. Thank you for your patience.
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Lecture - 29
Wind Energy 2
Hi friends, now we will start discussion on the topic wind energy that is the second part of
wind energy.
The content of today’s class is parts of windmills, the horizontal axis windmill and vertical
axis windmill, rotors of windmills, advantage and disadvantage of windmill, wind energy in
India and future of wind energy.
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Now we will see the important parts of horizontal axis windmill and their role. So this slide
shows us some example of horizontal axis windmill and different parts. We see here 1 that is
blades, 2 is our rotor, 3 is the pitch, 4 is our brake, 5 we have shaft that is your low speed
shaft, this 6 is our gearbox, 7 is our generator, then we have 8 is control unit and controller, 9
is your anemometer, 10 is your wind vane, then 11 is your nacelle, then 12 is our another
shaft that is high speed shaft, then 13 is our yaw drive, 14 yaw motor, and 15 our tower.
This figure shows us different important parts of the horizontal axis windmill. Now we will
see the role of these parts.
So let us see the blades number 1. So blade is the sails basically, it captures the kinetic energy
of the wind and then it moves. Then 2 is rotor, rotor fixes the blades with it and also it is
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attached with the central shaft. This shaft is attached with one generator, so this socket
arrangement is there. This 3 is pitch. The pitch is used to direct the blades in such a way that
it will get maximum amount of wind. So we see the rotor brakes, we have some rotor brakes
here, so this 4 the rotor brakes, the role is to prevent it from very high speed of the axis.
So rotor brakes control over speed and provide parking and emergency braking. So these
brakes can be mounted on the rotor or low speed shaft on the generator that is high speed
shaft. So this is our low speed shaft or it may be high speed shaft or may be in both, so that
way the brakes can work. Then we see low-speed shaft. So low-speed shaft here it is attached
with the rotor and then other side it is getting connected to one generator, but generator will
be of high speed.
So this shaft connected to generator will be getting more speed because the diameter has been
reduced here in the socket, the diameter has been reduced here, so the generator shaft gets
more rpm, so more electricity can be produced. Then the wind turbine shaft is connected to
the center of the rotor, when the rotor spins, the shaft spins as well, in this way the rotor
transfers its mechanical rotational energy to the shaft which enters an electrical generator on
the other end.
Then hub, the hub is important because it gives connection to low-speed shaft as well as the
blades of the rotor, so rotor blades and shaft gets connected with the hub. Then anemometer
is a device used for measuring the wind speed. Wind vane, wind vane that we are talking
about this always gives the direction of wind and this at the bottom is attached to it this
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control unit that control unit gives the signal to the nacelle to move it according to the wind
speed, so the total arrangement moves in such a way that maximum wind can be can be used.
Then the nacelle is a cover housing that houses all the generating components in a wind
turbine including the generator, gearbox, drive train and brake assembly. The yaw drive, this
yaw drive is an important component of the horizontal axis wind turbines’ yaw system and
the to ensure the wind turbine is producing the maximal amount of electrical energy at all
times, the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction
changes.
So when the wind direction changes, so this according to direction of the wind, the total
nacelle will move in that direction and this yaw drive will help for this movement. So these
are the different parts of the horizontal axis windmills. So this yaw drive helps to move the
blade and then this controller this wind vane helps to decide in which directions this
movement should be and this control unit perform this job by its control mechanism.
Now we will see important parts of vertical axis windmill and their role. So this figure shows
a vertical axis windmill. So here our one shaft and then here we have 2 hubs, lower hub and
upper hub. So in this hub, the shaft is attached and the blades are also attached. So both side
we have hub to attach the blades unlike in a horizontal axis one side we had hub. So then we
have guide wire, so guide wire, we have hub, we have rotor, we have rotor here, we have
blades these are the blades, we have shaft.
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Then we have brake arrangement here, and we have gear and generator and base, this is our
base. So these are the different parts of the vertical axis windmill.
We see the guide wire. The vertical axis wind turbine normally needs guide wire to keep the
rotor shaft in a fixed position and maximized possible mechanical vibration. Hub already we
have discussed. Rotor also we have discussed. The shaft it is connected to the turbine one end
and other end it is to the rotor. So the shaft is the part that gets turned by the turbine blades. It
in turn is connected to a generator within the main housing.
Then the blades, as you have seen the blades are like this, it is not similar to that of the
horizontal axis turbines. So these blades may be of 2 types, one is may be of savonius wind
turbine and that is drag force type blade and another is lift force type blades that is called
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Darrieus and giromill wind turbine. Braking, already we have discussed that it can reduce the
high speed of the shaft as well as it can also stop when there is no wind.
So the breaking of a small wind turbine can also be done by dumping energy from the
generator into resistor bank and converting the kinetic energy of the turbine rotation into heat.
So this method is useful if the kinetic load on the generator is suddenly reduced or is too
small to keep the turbine speed within this allowed limit, just we are talking about. Then
cyclically braking causes the blades to slow down, so which increases the stalling effect
reducing the efficiency of the blades.
So this is the role of the braking, so cyclic braking is also not desirable. The gearbox we
know that to control the speed of the shaft. The main function of the gearbox is to take low
rotational speed from shaft and increase the rotational speed of the generator. They are made
up of aluminum alloys, stainless steel, and cast iron. Base, the base is the roof or building on
which it is installed. As you know, the height required for these machines is less than that of
the horizontal axis machines.
Now we will see the rotor part. So rotor of wind machines, so horizontal axis and vertical
axis. If we see the rotor of these, basically the blades which are attached to these 2 types of
machines are different, in case of horizontal we will get multi-blade and we can get propeller
type and vertical axis we can get savonius type or Darrieus type.
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So this is one example of multi-blade type rotor. You see this is our rotor hub and the blades
are connected here. So blade if you see the number of blades are connected in the hub around
12 to 20 number of blades are attached and other part is also connected with a circular rim.
So this is our circular rim connected, and the blade if we see the width also increases as you
go outside. So this is the structure of the multi-blade type rotor and this rotor was previously
used in ancient mills and basically that mills are used for the pumping purpose.
So in this type of rotor when we are having these shafts there and then at the bottom of this
mill, it is also having one water pump.
So we will see this is the case, so we have some multi-blade type rotor here and the multi
blades and we see at the bottom it is connected with the pump. So this pump how it is
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working if we see, so this energy is coming from this machine, so this is lower socket to we
are having in a gearbox so we are having the gear, so this gear diameter is more, and so rpm
will be less here, and this is connected with your crankshaft, so that this crankshaft
arrangement will help to give some vertical movement of the pump rod.
So that way it helps, it will helps to get the water out from these and for pumping purpose. So
that was the initial application of this multiple blade type rotor.
As you see the transmission system consists of a power shaft, a speed reducing gear drive, a
crank shaft connecting rod mechanism and a pump rod. So the gear drive reduces the
horizontal speed by a factor of 3 to 4. So this the gear drive, this is the gear which reduces the
speed by 3 to 4 times reduction, by a factor of 3 or 4. The rotational motion is then converted
into reciprocating motion. The rotational motion is converted to reciprocating motion by the
use of this crankshaft, that we have discussed now, this mechanism which is connected this
shaft.
It is helping to give the reciprocating motion and also which in turn connected by means of
the pump rod to the water pump. So pump rod is used to connect the water pump. So this is
the mechanism and that was used in the previous days. This tower is usually steel truss
construction. It serves the purpose of keeping the rotor and the windmill head at an
appropriate height from the ground where the wind speed is adequate.
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Now propeller type of rotor came later and these are more suitable for the production of
electricity. So in this case, we get 2 or 1 or 3 blades made from glass fiber, reinforced plastic,
and the blades have aerofoil sections with a high thickness-to-chord ratio and yield a high lift
relative to the drag. So it gives high lift and gives more rpm. The diameter of the rotor usually
ranges from 2 meter to 25 meter. The machine is normally used for generating electricity and
then capacity is ranging from a fraction of kilowatt to a few hundred kilowatts being
available.
The main elements of the machine as seen from the outside are the rotor, the nacelle and the
tower. This is basically suitable for obviously the horizontal axis type of turbines, so this
design is usually adapted for large capacity machines. In some cases, the diameter is large
enough to permit ascent through an internal staircase.
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This is our for vertical axis type of machines, this type of rotor is used, savonius rotor. So we
see here one S type of structure is formed. So it consists essentially of a hollow cylinder
approximately elliptical in shape sliced in half. The two halves being fixed, so this is one half
of hollow cylinder two part, so one connected here, this is our rotor, and so these are the
blades, so as a whole it is called savonius rotor. So the torque is produced by the pressure
difference between the two sides of the hub facing the wind. So here the drag force helps to
rotate the rotor blades.
But in case of Darrieus rotor, this consists of a number of aerofoil, so this one, this one, this
one so when the air is coming here, so there will be some lift, so lift will help to move the
rotor and the blades. So Darrieus type is theoretically just as efficient as the propeller type if
wind speed is constant, so its efficiency is better with respect to savonius type and there are
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few major difficulties in protecting the Darrieus turbine from extreme wind conditions.
This is the mechanism you see here. So this will move this direction. So the lift will work in
these directions and it will give some movement.
Now advantage and disadvantage of the wind power if we see. So it is a renewable source of
energy, this is advantage one. Like solar energy wind power systems are non-polluting, no
pollution from the wind power. On a small scale, up to few kilowatt system is costly, but on a
large scale, cost can be competitive with other type of energy available, particularly the
conventional electricity and lower cost can be achieved by mass production. So these are the
advantage of wind, basically it is pollution free.
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On that that way it is pollution free, but it also creates some noise pollution because these
systems are noisy in operation, a large unit can be heard many kilometers away and suitable
sites are sparse. Wind velocity is fluctuating in nature, so every time we may not get wind. It
requires very large land area, so it has to be available, wind speed has to be available, then
only these machines can be applicable for that area.
Then wind power systems have relatively high overall weight, obviously the weight is high
and then the large area is needed. The present systems are not practically maintenance free or
nor reliable. Storms may extremely damage the wind turbine, so we have to take some action
for this.
Now we see the wind power in India. So, major work carried out by the Centre for Wind
Energy Technology, Chennai, established in 1998. In India the cost of wind energy varies
from 3.6 to 4.10 that is slightly higher than that of the conventional energy, the coal waste
energy or very competitive. There are approximately 10,500 WECS that is wind energy
conversion system installed all over the country which are owned by private owners whereas
the total numbers of WECS that is wind energy conversion system owned by the government
is approximately 400.
So maximum private players are taking role for the development of this wind technology in
the country.
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This is the wind map. You see all the coastal areas are having the potential to have the wind
power harnessing.
If we see the energy cost, the cost is also reducing. In 1990, what was the cost here and now
it is expected to reduce here at 2020, and this is our bulk power competitive price band. So
this is our competitive price, in this early stage, the wind energy was costlier, but here now it
is very competitive and it is expected to be lower in near future. Here also the US prediction
of the cost that is, it is expected to reduce by 2030, it is expected to reduce.
When it is at 2010 the price is 100%, it is expected to be around say 60 or 65% at 2030. So
this is the wind energy cost reduction prediction in future.
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These are the future energy expansion, wind energy expansion in India. So northern region,
western region, then southern region and others total 60,000 megawatt electricity production
is expected by 2022. This is the future of wind energy in the country. So, up to this on this
subject. Thank you for your patience.
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Lecture - 30
Tutorial 6
Hi friends, now we will have a tutorial session in which we will solve some numerical
problems based on last 4 classes.
The first problem the statement says estimate the temperature rise of water in the 100 litre
thermosyphon solar water heating system during a typical day of operation. Assume system
has one flat plate collector having absorber plate area of 2 metre square and 5 kilowatt hour
per metre squared solar reductions fall on collector during a typical day. Collector efficiency
is 50%. Also calculate the electricity saved due to use of solar water heater and corresponding
reduction in monthly electricity bill.
Assume electrical geyser had efficiency of 95% and cost of electricity is Rs. 3.5 per unit. So
this is the problem statement. So we have to calculate the electricity saved due to use of solar
heater and corresponding reduction in monthly electricity bill. Now this is a problem on solar
system, that is solar thermal system is available and it is used to heat the water. Now we will
see how to solve this. So if we get the heat balance, the energy absorbed in collector during a
day that is equal to enthalpy change of the water.
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The solar energy will be converted to the heat energy of the water. So energy absorbed in the
collector during the day is equal to enthalpy change of water. So this is an energy balance
equation. So now we will see the enthalpy change of water so that is equal to mass of water to
be heated per day x specific heat of water into temperature difference. So what is the
temperature rise?
Then in our case we have 100 litre thermosyphon solar water heating system, so 100 liter
means equivalent to 100 kg that is 1 kg per litre the density of water is and then specific heat
of water is equal to 4.2 kilojoule per kg per degree centigrade and temperature difference or
temperature rise in this case equal to ΔT degree C. So that is equal to we are getting 420 x
ΔT. So what is the temperature rise, that we have to calculate.
So energy adsorbed in the collector during a day that is equal to solar radiations incident on
collector per day x collector area x efficiency, so the collector efficiency. So then in our case
the solar radiation incident on collector per day is given so that is equal to 5 kilowatt hour per
metre square, so this is our solar radiation on that particular day and then 2 metre square is
our area and then efficiency is 50% percent. So 5 x 2 x 0.5 then we are getting 5 kilowatt
hour.
So now 5 kilowatt hour that is equal to 5 x kilojoules per second, then if we multiply it by 1
hour that means 3600 second, so we are getting 5 x 3600 kilojoule of energy which is coming
through the solar system. Then we have energy taken by the water and now we are getting the
energy received, solar energy converted into heat form in water is equal to this much. So this
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5 x 3600 = 420 x ΔT. Then ΔT = 5 x 3600 / 420, so that is equal to 42.9 degrees centigrade.
So this is the temperature rise of the water.
The next part of the problem we have to solve. So here electrical geyser has efficiency of
95% it is given. So electricity saved is equal to how much, so whatever we are getting this
amount of energy which is converted by the solar system and given to the water that amount
of energy would have come from the electricity, so that is equal to this 5 x 2 x 0.5, but the
efficiency is 95% for the system geyser, so geyser has some efficiency of 95%, so we have to
divide it by 0.95 to get the actual energy electrical energy required to heat the water to rise its
temperature by 42.9 degree centigrade.
Then this much of electricity we are able to save by the use of the solar system in the price of
1 unit = 3.5 and this is the kilowatt hour so that is our unit, so we are having 5.26 x 3.5 = Rs.
18.42, so this is our save per day okay. So reduction in monthly electricity bill is equal to this
18.42 x 30 = Rs. 553.
Now we are coming to problem number 2. So this statement says calculate the efficiency of
flat plate collector having absorptivity as 0.96. Temperature of fluid inside the tubes is 31
degrees centigrade and ambient temperature is 23.2 degrees centigrade. Then transmissivity
of glass cover it 0.92. Assume collector efficiency factor is 0.88 and about 936.8 kilowatt per
metre squared solar radiations incident on the collector with heat transfer coefficient as 43.67.
So this is a problem statement, we have to calculate the efficiency of the flat plate collector.
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Now as already we have discussed in previous class on solar energy, that collector efficiency
= useful energy gained/solar radiation incident on the collector. So useful energy gain is
equal to Qu and Ac is the collector area and IT is our incident solar radiation on collector. So
this is the expression we have and we have also discussed that Qu is nothing but this one, it
will depend upon the collector efficiency, it will depend upon absorptivity of the collector
and then transmissivity of glass cover.
It will also depend upon the heat transfer loss, so overall loss coefficient and temperature
difference between the water and ambient temperature, so that is temperature of fluid in the
tubes and ambient temperature, so that we have discussed and you can be presented that way.
By simplification, the efficiency is equal to Qu/AcIT by it just we have in the previous slide.
So that is equal to (FR (τα)-FRUL(Tf0 - Ta)/IT). So in this case in our case FR is given as 0.88
efficiency factor, the collector efficiency factor 0.88, then τ is equal to given as 0.92
transmissivity and then absorptivity coefficient is equal 0.96. So these are given. So here
transmissivity this one and absorptivity is 0.96 these are given and UL is also given, this is UL
= 43.67 it is given.
So that is the loss in the heat transfer or heat transfer coefficient and then temperature of fluid
inside to is given 31 degrees centigrade, so outside is also given to you. So now Tfo we have
got, Ta we have got that is Ta = 23.2 and IT we have got IT also that is equal to 936.8, IT is
equal to given here 936.8 kilowatt per metre square. So if we put these values in this
expression, then η = 0.88 x 0.92 x 0.96 - FR 0.88 x UL, (43.67) x 31 - 23.2 / IT that is equal to
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936.8, so we are getting this equal to 0.4572 or in percentage it is 45.72%.
Now coming to the next problem, problem number 3 and it states that a home requires 60
kilowatt hour of heat on a winter day to maintain a constant indoor temperature of 25 degrees
centigrade, then how much collector surface area does it need for an all-solar heating system
that has a 30% efficiency. So this is our first part of the problem and the second part how
large does the storage tank have to be to provide this much energy.
So we can assume that the average solar radiation in winter is about 6.5 kilowatt hour per
metre square day and water of hot fluid in secondary loop is 60 degrees centigrade. The heat
capacity of water is 1 kilocalorie per kg per degree centigrade and heat transfer loss in water
can be ignored. So these are our conditions it is given and we have to calculate the surface
area of the collector and we also have to calculate the storage volume the water volume
actually which has to be stored for the transfer of heat absorbed by the system and transfer to
the water.
Since the average solar radiation in water is about 6.5 kilowatt hour per metre square day and
the efficiency of the system is 30%, efficiency is given as 30% and this is our total solar
radiation. So daily the quantity of thermal energy obtained using these collectors, that will be
6.5 kilowatt hour x 30%, 0.3 that is equal to 1.95 kilowatt hour per metre square day, so this
is our effective energy which we are able to get into heat form in the water which can be
transferred into the water.
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Therefore the required collector surface area, what would be the collector surface area we
need, we need 60 kilowatt hour, so then for 60 kilowatt hour for 1 metre square provides 1.95
kilowatt on that day, so 60 / 1.95 = 30.769 metre squared is the collector area which will be
required to get the sufficient amount of energy to maintain the room temperature at 25
degrees centigrade. In second part as there is no heat transfer loss, so what we can assume
that the heat generated by the solar system is equal to heat taken up by the water.
So heat generated by the solar system is equal to how much, we have 60, this is our 60
kilowatt hour, so 60 kilowatt hour that it is required, so 60 into, so it was in kilowatt hour we
have to convert into kilocalorie, so this is the relationship 1 kilowatt hour is equal to 860.421
kilocalorie, so this if we multiply 60 x 860.421 so that that will be in kilo calorie unit. So this
amount of energy is coming from the solar system. Then heat taken up by the water is equal
to mass of water into heat capacity water and temperature difference.
So mass of water we have to calculate here and then heat capacity 1 kilocalorie per kg per
degree centigrade is given and temperature difference as it is given say the hot fluid in
secondary loop is at 60 degrees centigrade and ambient temperature is 25 degrees centigrade,
so the difference is 60 - 25, so we are getting that mass of water into 35 kilocalories, so this is
the kilocalorie and mass will be kg unit. So this energy and this energy will be same.
So 60 x 860.421 kilocalorie is equal to mass of water in kg into 35 kilocalorie, so same unit

we are having. So mass of water in kg that is equal to 60 x 860.421 / 35 = 1475 kg. Now the
density of water is 1 kg per litre, so that will be 1475 litre also. So 1475 litre of the storage
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tank it should have.
Next we are going to problem number 4. So here the statement says calculate the power in the
wind if the wind speed is 20 metre per second and blade length is 60 metre. Assume the
density of air as 1.23 kg per metre cube. So very, very simple, we have to calculate the power
in the wind if the wind speed is provided and blade length is also provided. So what is your
basic expression, the wind power formula that is P = 1 / 2 x ρ x A x V3 where ρ is the density
of air, A is the surface area on which the wind is blowing that is related to the diameter of the
rotor and then V is equal to wind velocity.
See in our case what is our wind velocity wind speed that is equal to 20 per second it is given
and blade length l is equal to 60 metre. So this is our rotor, so this is our blade, so 60 metre.
So when it will be rotating, so this area will be covered, so this is the area A which you are
getting that A, and V is the wind speed already 10 metre per second and rho is the 1.23 kg per
metre cube already given.
So we will put this value here, so we have to calculate the area, so area is equal to so now
equal to π r2, so π this r = l here, so this is our l, so π x l2, so π l2. So πx60 square, that is 60
metre, so 60 square, so that is equal to 11309.7 metre square. Now we have got A value, ρ
value, and V value, we will put this value here together will have P. So P = 1/ 2x 1.23 kg per
meter cube x 11309.7 metre square x 20 metre per second cube that is equal to it is coming
55.64 megawatt, in this unit we will get the kilowatt, so the kilowatt is converted to megawatt
here.
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Problem 5, here the statement says calculate the power that can be extracted from the wind if
wind speed is 15 metre per second. Assume mechanical efficiency, electrical efficiency and
transmission efficiency as 70%, 60%, and 65% respectively. So in wind turbine, the wind
speed is given and it is also given different efficiency of the different processes that is
mechanical, electrical and transmission. As you know the formula P* = 0.37 x mechanical
efficiency x electrical efficiency x transmission efficiency x (v /10)3.
Then mechanical efficiency here is equal to 0.7, electrical efficiency here is equal to 0.6 and
transmission efficiency is equal to 0.65. So we will put this value here and our v is given 15
metre per second, so we will put it here, so then this expression we are getting that is equal to
0.3409, but here the P will be in kilowatt per metre squared unit as per the expression.
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Next we are coming to problem number 6. The statements says calculate the rotational speed
of a wind turbine in rpm having blades of 1 metre length, 1 m blade. Assume wind speed of
to be 11 metre per second and tip to speed ratio be 7. So these are the conditions it is given
we have to calculate the rotational speed of wind turbines. So wind turbine what is the
rotational speed and then the blade length is given that is 1 metre and wind speed is also
given 11 metre per second and tip to speed ratio is equal to TSR that is equal to 7.
So now we have seen that there are some relationship between the tip speed ratio and the
rpm, so here tip speed ratio TSR = 2 π r N / 60v, we have already discussed in our previous
class and where this r is the radius at which SR is calculated. So if we have a turbine blade
here rotor, so if I want to calculate that tip speed ratio at the tip here or the axis any point I
can get the SR, speed ratio I can calculate at any point, so maximum is our length of this.
So then r is the radius at which SR is calculated any value, so the maximum is full length of
the blade. Then N is the rpm of the rotor and then v is the wind speed. So now we have the
expression. Now TSR we have to maintain at 7, so TSR is 7, this v is equal to 11 metre per
second that is the velocity of wind and r length of this is equal to 1 metre it is given. So then
by this expression, we have to calculate the N. So N is equal to we are getting 60vTSR/ 2πr,
so we are getting 60 x 11 x 7 / 2 x 3.14 x 1, so then it is coming to 735.66 rpm. So this is the
rpm of the rotor for the wind turbine we are having.
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Our last problem, statement says the rated output power of a wind turbine model at wind
speed of 15 metre per second is 3 megawatt. The rotor diameter is 90 metre. The rotor rotates
at a constant efficiency of 0.198 hertz. Calculate the tip to speed ratio and power conversion
coefficient of this model. So assume density of air as 1.225 kg per metre cube. So this is the
condition given, we have to calculate the tip to speed ratio and power conversion efficiency
of this model.
So if we think about the relationship between angular velocity and linear velocity so that
linear velocity of the vt will be equal to angular velocity into radius, so of this see if it is a fan
is moving, so then will be the radius value and after some certain time it is making some
angle, so ω x r = vt that we know it very well, so but this ω=2π x f, what is this ω, that is
equal to 2π x f, that means f is the frequency, so per second how many revolutions, 1
revolution 2 π degree.
So 2 π x number of revolution f frequency, so 2π x frequency x D / 2, D / 2 that is equal to 90

metre / 2, so rotor diameter is given with the blades. So here this is 90, so this will be half, D /
2, total is D, so D / 2 we are getting. So then this value is coming 56 metre per second. So 56
metre per second is the linear velocity of the tip.
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Then the tip to speed ratio r = vt /U that is equal to tip speed by the speed of the wind ,wind
speed, so 56 metre per second we are getting for the tip speed and then 15 metre per second is
the wind speed. So r = this by this is equal to 3.7, so that is tip to speed ratio we are getting
3.7. The second part, the wind power at the wind speed of 15 metre per second equal to 1 /2 x
ρ x v3, here is AU, so what is this, we are getting in this case 1/ 2 x 1.225 that is given for ρ
and A is equal to 5 x (90 / 2) 2, so 452, x 15 metre per second to the power cube.
So then we will be getting equal to 13 megawatt. So the wind power has the energy potential
of 13 megawatt, but the plant is giving us 3 megawatt, so the conversion efficiency is 3
megawatt / 13 megawatt, that is equal to around 23%. So now we have solved number of
problems based on our previous classes. Thank you very much.
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Lecture - 31
Hydro Energy 1
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic hydro energy. Hydro means water, so hydro
energy is the energy which is generated from the water. So in case of wind energy, we have
discussed that the flow of air has some kinetic energy and that can be converted to electrical
energy by using turbine and generator. So here also the when the water will be in flow, then
the kinetic energy of that flowing water can be converted to mechanical energy in turbine
which is followed by conversion in electrical energy in the generator.
So in this case, we need the flow of water and this can be ensured by making dam or by using
some river flow or canal flow, etc.
So now in this class we will discuss on hydrologic cycle as a renewable energy source, then
mechanism of hydro energy production, components of hydro power plants and their role,
classification of hydro power, hydropower schemes, advantages and disadvantages of
hydropower, and hydropower in India and world. As we discussed that flow of water is
required for hydro energy production and availability of water is also necessary for it and this
is gifted by nature.
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So in terms of hydrologic cycle, you see here the water which is evaporated from the ocean it
is converted to cloud and again precipitates. We know it very well that the water cycle and
then when it precipitates on the land or in the water, then from the land the water is flooded
and it comes to the river stream, in the mountain, it comes to the dam and dam to river stream
and the water gets velocity in this river and in this dam.
So the velocity of the water will be used to rotate a turbine, in fact the kinetic energy of this
flowing water will be used to rotate a turbine blade, a turbine rotor, and that will be
connected to a generator for electricity production.
So you see this figure shows us that for the production of electricity, hydroelectricity we need
the flow of water that can be done by dams, that can be river flow, water flow, tidal barrage,
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or water wave power. So these different sources which can be used to ensure the velocity of
the water or the flow of the water and that the water flow will come to the water turbine and
then turbine rotor will be there and blades will be attached to this rotor and it will be rotating
and the shaft will get some circular movement here, which is coupled with the generator and
then AC power we will get.
The water which is coming to the turbine that will lose its velocity and it will go to or in
terms of the kinetic energy, the kinetic energy will be lost here of this water stream and that
will go as tailrace.
This is the mechanism of hydroenergy and now what will be the power we can achieve
through this hydro turbine, that will depend upon some factors that what is the flow of head,
what is the difference in the head from dam to turbine or so that we have to determine and the
power determination can be done by using this formula that power in watt that is equal to
ρgQH into efficiency of the system.
The overall efficiency including turbine, gearbox and generator and H is here head water
head in meters, Q is discharge in meter cube per second, and ρ is the density of water in kg
per meter cube. Now if we know as the density of water is equal to one 100 kg per meter
cube and if we use this one 100 kg per meter cube for water then this watt in terms of
kilowatt will be converted to 9.81 which is for g and Q into H into efficiency and this 1000
here so that will be converted in kilowatt.
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So in kilowatt 9.81 x Ƞ x Q x H that is the formula which can be used to determine the power
productions in the hydropower plant, if we know the head and if we know the flow. Then
annual production can be calculated by the formula that power x the time, so what is the
power we have 9.81 x Ƞ x Q x H and then we can multiply it to the time, if it is time it is in
hour, then that will be in kilowatt hour, so that unit of electricity can be produced from the
thermal power plant and we can calculate in any hydropower plant what will be the energy
generated in a year or during any span of time.
Now we will see one problem statement, say a mountain stream flows over a terrain where
micro-hydro power plant is possible where an effective head of 50 meter be built and a flow
rate of 0.6 meter cube per second can be maintained. How much power can the hydro plant
generate, this is the question. So assume plant efficiency is 83%. So in this case, we have the
formula that is equal to P = 9.81 x Ƞ x Q x H, here H is given that is equal to 50 meter, Q is
given that is equal to 0.6 meter cube per second, and efficiency is given 0.83.
So we can calculate the value of P in kilowatt hour that is equal to 9.81 x 0.83 x 0.6 x 50, so
it is coming to 244 kilowatt, so in terms of megawatt that will be 0.244 megawatt. So then,
how much energy will be produced in each year that will be say this power 0.244 megawatt x
24 hours per day x 365 days per year, so that will be that total 2137 megawatt. Then if we
want to know what is the number of population that can be supported by this energy, then that
can also be calculated if we know the consumption of energy per capita.
So assuming per capita electricity consumption India as 780 kilowatt hour annually, then the
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number of population that can be served by this energy is this how much energy we are
producing divided by 780 kilowatt hour, then we are getting this much equal to 2740 people,
so this much of people can be served by this hydropower plant.
Now we will see the components of hydropower plant and their role. So this figure shows us
schematically one thermal power plant, so here we see some civil structures are there, these
are the civil structures. This is our reservoir, water is stored here, and then water is passed
through this penstock to this turbine and then turbine casing etc is there and then generator
electricity is produced.
So basically if we classify this different parts of it, so 1 is civil work, that is civil works
control of water flow the main role of this, then here the kinetic energy of water is converted
to mechanical energy here, the turbine shaft will be rotating, will give some rotatory
movement and that is done by the flow of water. So that hydro mechanical equipment is
important that is the heart of this whole plant and then conversion of kinetic energy of water
stream to mechanical energy that is the main role of this part.
Then third is electrical equipment, so this mechanical energy in the shaft will be converted to
electrical and then for distribution etc, we need some dedicated system. So then conversion of
mechanical to electrical energy it is done by electrical equipment and power, so that is the
different parts of it.
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Now we will see the civil work contents dam or intake or diversion in some cases, we will
discuss and we will see some figure which will explain these things. Then power channel,
then desilting tank for removing the silts and forebay tank to take care of small variations in
flow, so during that time if variation in the flow, so forebay water will be stored and it will
maintain the continuous flow of the water. Then penstock through which the water will come
to the turbine.
Then surge tank or chamber in case of dam it is available, power house building so one
building is also required, and the tail race that is exit from the power house. So these are the
civil work we need. Then hydro mechanical equipment we need turbine, we need gate, we
need valve, and we need speed increaser. Electrical equipment and power evacuations include
generator, transformer, controls and protections, and transmissions and distribution. It is
going to grid or it is off-grid, both options may be available.
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So now we will see how the hydro power plants can be classified. So that can be classified
depending upon the capacity; so pico, micro, mini, small, medium, and large. So pico means
that is install capacity less than 5 kilowatt, micro 5 kilowatt to 100 kilowatt, mini 100 to 2000
kilowatt, and small 2 megawatt to 25 megawatt, medium 25 to 100 megawatt, and large
greater than 100 megawatt. So these are the typical range which is used for the classification.
Then on the based of head also that is your ultra low, low, medium, and high head hydro
power are classified. So ultra below 3 meter, low 3 to 30 meter, medium 30 to 75 meter, and
high 75 and above. Somewhere in some reference, it is given as 75 is given as 300 meter.
So classification of hydro power on other basis is also based on purpose whether it is for
single purpose, only for electricity production, or it is have some other purpose also, like say
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Tehri damn, it is irrigation plus power generation plus drinking water that way you can
classify. Classification based on hydraulic features, so what are the hydraulic features that
means conventional hydro power plants that means only it is the dams or rivers are used to
produce the electricity or pumped storage plants that means recycling of water for supplying
peak load.
So from the bottom tank the water will be sent to the top tank so that way also it is possible,
but normally it is not used in the country, and the tidal power plants is also another type of
power plants. Then we may classify on the basis of operation that is your isolated plant or
grid connected plants, that may be the energy produced in the plant can be connected to the
grid or it may be used off grid for the permitting the local need. There is Khopoli
hydroelectric power for Bombay only.
Then we will see the schemes for hydro power. So we have run-of-river, we have canal
based, we have storage dam, we have pump storage. So run-of-river we will see in this case
normal flow of river is not materially disturbed due to the construction of the plan.
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At first we see the figure. Here the river is there, so this river some diversion is there here, so
desilting tank for the silt separation, then it is coming to forebay, the main objective is to
ensure the constant flow of water here through the penstock to the turbine and then in the
turbine the water is coming and electricity is generated and this is your tailrace and again it is
coming to the main river stream. So this is with small diversion of water without affecting the
main stream of the river, this hydro power plant can be established and this is called run-of-
river power plant.
These are the some features, neither have a large reservoir nor do they have a diversions of
the water away from the main channel. Power house is located along the main course of the
river and do not substantially alter the regime of the river, small pools of reservoirs to provide
the necessary pondage in order to balance day to day fluctuations, generally medium and high
head installations, and then quite popular in Europe and hilly regions of India. So these are
some features of this run-of-river.
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Then canal based plants are also available. So here these are the main stream here, so here we
are getting powerhouse, so this is our powerhouse, water is coming through, this is the
diversion canal, so this is your canal and this is diversion canal, so this water is coming here
electricity is produced and again it is going and meeting there.
This is one example of say canal fall based system that is Ganga canal, 10,500 cusec
capacity, then Pathri powerhouse 3 x 6.8 megawatt capacity, and Mohammadpur 3 x 3.1
megawatt, so 3 units are there for 3.1 megawatt capacity.
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Then storage dam based hydropower scheme, so this is also very important one and widely
used like the Tehri dam. So storage dams, so this is our dam here, so water will come from
this penstock and this is our powerhouse, and then water is going at the tailrace it is meeting
the mainstream of the water here, what do we do, that dam is a dominant feature of this in
case of storage dam based, so dam is necessary and power house is at the toe of the dam and
that no diversion of water away from the main river is involved.
So this is the basic features of this type of hydropower plant like say Bhakra, Hoover, and
Tehri are of this type.
So here it is coming the penstock and it is turbines, just I have mentioned in this case this is
one.
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So this is the photograph of Tehri hydel project at a generation capacity 1000 megawatt. Then
surface of impoundment on 52 kilometer square, water storage 4 meter cube, irrigation
potential 270,000 hectare and drinking water 1.2 x 10 to the power 6 meter cube per day.
Then pump storage power plant. This power plant as you have mentioned that the water will
be sent from lower head to upper head at the high elevation to ensure the flow of water to
meet the peak load, and in this case it is the indirect way of storing electrical energy and 2
reservoirs with the high difference in water levels between the two is very essential. These 2
reservoirs may be both the reservoirs on the same river, may be on 2 different reader rivers.
Higher reservoir and artificially constructed pool and lower reservoir on a natural river that
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can be possible, but the lower reservoir is a natural lake while the higher reservoir is artificial.
So that way different types of options can be produced.
Now we will see the advantage and disadvantage of this hydropower production. So it has
obviously more advantages because it does not create any pollution, emission free with
virtually no carbon dioxide, no SOx, and no NOx. Renewable resource with high conversion
efficiency, the conversion efficiency is very high in this case, it is greater than 80%
efficiency, but whatever other thermal conversion methods we have discussed in case of
combustion or gasification base or IGCC all are having lower efficiency than this.
Then dispatchable with storage capacity, usable for base load peaking and pumped storage
applications, scalable from 10 kilowatt to 20,000 megawatt, low operating and maintenance
cost, and long lifetimes. These are the advantages of the system of this power plant, but it has
some these advantage also like frequently involves impoundment of large amounts of water
with loss of habitat due to land inundation, variable output dependable on rainfall and
snowfall, so rainfall and snowfall affects the availability of water and disturbs the continuous
flow of it.
Impacts on river flows and aquatic ecology including fish migrations and oxygen depletion,
then social impacts of displacing indigenous people that is also one major issue, health
impacts in developing countries, high initial capital cost, and long lead time in constructions
of large projects. So these are the disadvantage of this hydel power plant and there is many
times we see the debate whether such and such state should go for hydel power or not.
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These are some examples of world’s largest dams and hydropower generation. So we see
hydro power is used in different countries like China, Brazil, Venezuela, United States,
Russia, Canada, and Romania/Serbia. Some examples are given here. Out of these, the Three
Gorges that is 2009 it is established, it has 18,200 megawatt the largest capacity in the world.
In India, we have many hydel power like say Bhakra, Dehar, Kalinadi stage I, Sharavathy,
Koyna, Nagarjuna Sagar, Idduki stage I, Srisailam, Salal, Ranjit Sagar and Chamera I, II, III.
So these are different projects and these are the rivers on which these power plants have been
installed and these are our installed capacity. So these are the overall discussion and
informations on the hydel power plant, and we will discuss in the next class on different
mechanical equipment and electrical equipments used for the production of electricity.
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Lecture - 32
Hydro Energy 2
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the second part of hydro energy.

In this part, we will concentrate on hydro mechanical equipment that is turbines and different
types of turbines we will discuss that is impulse turbine, reaction turbine, and components of
these turbines and then specific speed for turbines, then selection of turbines, turbine
generator unit, component of generator, then types of generator and type of gates.
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Hydro mechanical equipment. As you have discussed in this equipment this type of
equipment, kinetic energy of water is converted to mechanical energy and turbine is the
major part of it. In this case, when water falls on the turbine blade, it rotates which is
connected to the shaft and the shaft is coupled with the generator for electricity production,
we have already discussed it.
Then water turbine is a rotary machine that takes energy from moving water and flowing
water is directed on the blades of a turbine runner creating a force on the blades and since the
runner is spinning, the force acts through a distance and this way energy is transferred from
the water flow to the turbine. The turbine turns a metal shaft in an electric generator which
produces electricity. The principal types of turbines are basically impulse and reaction type.
So impulse may be some examples are Pelton, Turgo and Cross Flow whereas reaction it is
Francis and Kaplan, this Kaplan is basically axial flow turbines propeller, semi Kaplan and
Kaplan these are types of turbines.
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Now we will see impulse turbines. What is this type of turbines? Here we see this is your
penstock, so water is coming and entering through this, so this nozzle is there, so through this
nozzle the water is coming and getting entry into the turbine casing. We also see here so the
governor can place the needle in the nozzle, so depending upon the nozzle position, the flow
of water can change. So the main feature of impulse turbine is that an impulse turbine is
driven by a high velocity jet or multiple jets of water caused by nozzles.
So this nozzle is creating jets, to convert entire pressure of water into kinetic energy. This is
the main feature of this impulse turbine. The jet pushes on the turbines curved blades, so
these are the curved blades, this jet pushes on these curved blades which changes the
direction of flow hence causes a force to act on the turbine blades. So here, the flow is going
this direction and we are changing this direction the water is at the same time the blades are
forced to move and get some circulatory movement to the rotor.
The force acts through a distance and the diverted water flow is left with diminishing energy.
So this water which is getting out that is called tailrace then that that loses its energy, which
was available in the upstream of it. If the load on the turbine decreases that means I need
some less electricity, the load on the turbine is decreased, then we have to reduce the water
flow and that is done by the governor by pushing this needle into the nozzle. These impulse
turbines are often used in very high heat applications.
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This Pelton turbine, an example of this impulse type turbine is Pelton turbine, you see here.
Here the blades are mounted in this rotor in the runner, both sides we see the blades are
attached and half of the blades it is shown so it consists of a wheel with a series of split
buckets set around its rim, so this is our rim, so series of buckets are connected to this rim. A
high velocity jet of water is distributed tangentially at the wheel, so the wheel will
tangentially just like densely distributed to this wheel and the jet hits each bucket and is split
in half.
So jet is hitting this bucket and two half it is split so that each half is turned and deflected
back almost through 180 degree, and nearly all the energy of the water goes into propelling
the bucket and the deflected water falls into a discharge channel below, just like this which is
shown here it is falling here in the discharge channel. So this is the figure photograph of
Pelton turbine.
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Another type of impulse turbine is Turgo turbine. So here also very similar but some design
is different, so you see that this diameter is lesser than this which is having here. So it is
similar to the Pelton turbine, but the jet strikes the plane of the runner at an angle that is
typically 20 degree. So this is made some 20 degree angle, the water which is coming here
that is that is tracking the plane of the runner at 20 degree to 25 degree angle, so that the
water enters the runner on one side and exits on the other.
The Turgo turbine can have a smaller diameter runner and rotate faster than a Pelton turbine,
just I have discussed this diameter is less and this design is also different now there is some
angle 20 to 25 degree, so it can rotate with a faster speed.
Then crossflow turbine, so this is showing a crossflow turbine. So what we see here it is a
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drum like rotor with a solid disc at each end, so each end we have some solid disc, here is one
solid disc, here is one solid disc. So these two solid discs are attached to these slats so that is
gutter shaped slats so these are giant and a jet of water which is getting into here, a jet of
water enters the top of the rotor through the curved blades, these are the curved blades
emerging on the far side of the rotor by passing through the blades a second time.
So water is going there and one time again it is going through. The shape of the blades is such
that on each passage through the periphery of the rotor, the water transfer some of its
momentum so when the water is passing through this, it transfer some momentum and before
falling away with the little residual energy, so when it is falling from this rotor, the water
loses its energy. So here we see these are the different parts of this turbine.
Here air-venting valve is shown here, then distributor so this is distributor, 3 turbine casing,
so all these are casing of the turbines and gray color these are the casing, and 4 is our runner,
so this is our runner, this is the case, we are having the runner. Then removable rear casing 5,
this is your removable rear casing; blades, these are the blades which are attached with this
runners; and then water flow, it entering here and it is going to this side, so this is very
important here the water is coming and it is going so here it is going through the blades again
it is going to the blades, so it is going that way and then 8 is our shaft.
So then we are coming to reaction turbine. So what we have seen in case of impulse turbine.
the water flow passes through nozzles and hits the blades of the turbine. In reaction turbine,
the water enters the runner partly with pressure energy and partly with velocity head. So they
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must be encased to contain the water pressure or they must be fully submerged in the water
flow, so there may be the possibilities in this case.
In this turbine, the runner blades rotate with respect to guide vane. There are some guide
vanes which controls the flow and that flow controls the speed of the blade. As the sudden
decrease of load takes place means the turbine needs some less rpm of the turbines blade,
then the guide vane limit decreases the water flow. Most water turbines in use are reaction
turbines and are used in low and medium head applications. Some examples are Kaplan
turbine and Francis turbine.
So propeller type of turbines that is Kaplan turbines, so propeller type turbines that is Kaplan.
They are similar in principle to the propeller of a ship, but operating in reversed mode, how it
operates. We see here we have guide vane, so these are the guide vanes, so water will come
through it. These guide vanes will allow the water to come to the blade and it will give some
movement to the runner.
So as a set of inlet guide vanes admits the flow to the propeller and these are often adjustable
so as to allow the flow passing through the machine to be varied, so the flow is varied by the
guide vane.
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Now Francis turbine. So it is essentially a modified form of popular turbine in which water
flows radially. So here water is coming radially inwards into the runner and is turned to
emerge axially, then it is going this direction it is going there, so this is flow of the Francis
turbine. For medium head schemes, the runner is most commonly mounted in a spiral casing
with internal adjustable guide vanes, so these are the guide vanes, internal adjustable guide
vanes. So these are the different types of turbines which are used in hydropower production.
Now we will see how to get the information about the different types of turbines. So we have
some parameter that can be compared to guess the performance or efficiency of the turbines,
so that is called specific speed. So that specific speed for various types of hydro turbines we
will see here. So what the specific speed is, so specific feed as per the expression it is Ns = N
root of P/H to the power 3/4, so N is the rpm of the turbine, P is the rated power in kilowatt,
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and H is the head in meter.
So this is the mathematical relationship of specific speed. So what the specific speed is, so
that we will see now. So the specific speed value for a turbine is the speed of a geometrically
similar turbine which would produce unit power that is 1 kilowatt under unit load that is 1
meter, unit head, under unit head that is 1 meter. So this is our specific speed, so this specific
speed is given by the manufacturer of the turbines and we can say this is the maximum
capacity of the turbine to perform, the maximum efficiency of the turbine.
Now we will discuss how the turbine can be selected. So turbine selection depends upon
some factors, one is your head requirement and another is your what is the requirement of the
power productions, what is the capacity of the power plant, what is the head available and
what is the flow available. What is the flow available, what is the head available and what is
the capacity we are expecting from the plan, so that will help us to decide what type of
turbine can be chosen. So this graph shows us some information.
So this is your say this yellow line yellow area this indicates Francis turbine, so here we have
head in y axis in meter, flow meter cube per second in x axis, and these black lines indicates
the capacity of the plant. So 0.1 megawatt, 1 megawatt, 10 megawatt, 100 megawatt, 1000
megawatt. This is the zone where we can recommend Francis turbines, this is the zone the
blue color when we can go for Kaplan turbines, this is the zone for which you can go for
Pelton turbines and this is the zone for which you can go for Turgo turbines.
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So these are the different informations which help us to select a turbine type for our particular
application.
Now we will see the components of turbines. What are the components of turbines, now we
have seen that it is attached to the penstock, so penstock that is the large diameter tube
through which water from the dam comes to the turbine inlet and it is made of steel. Then
spiral casing that is it is a closed passage whose diameter gradually decreases along the flow
of direction. Area is maximum at inlet and nearly 0 at outlet, so this is your spiral casing.
To maintain constant flow rate, numerous openings are provided to this and the purpose of
casing is to distribute water over guide vanes and prevent formation of eddies in the turbines.
Made of cast steel or concrete.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:42
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Then guide vanes, those are also very important to control the flow of water into the turbines
plate. So they are aerofoil shaped vanes fixed between two rings, they convert a part of
pressure energy into kinetic energy, and each guide vane can rotate about its pivot and hence
it also serves to direct the flow at design angles to the blade runners. The runner rotates due
to impulse and reaction effects and it is made of cast iron, stainless steel or bronze. Draft
tube, it is gradually expanding tube which discharges water passing to the runner to tail race
and generally its diameter increases in flow directions.
Governing mechanism are that just we have seen that if the needle in the nozzle will be
placed to reduce the velocity in case of impulse turbine. So here the it shows governing
mechanism, it can change the positions of guide vanes to vary the flow on turbine it, either
guide vanes’ position or the positions of the needle in the nozzle, so that way for in impulse
turbine so this helps.
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So these are the different parts of the turbine which helps to perform it in a most effective
way. Now in the turbine, the mechanical energy which is produced that has to be converted to
electrical energy, so turbine generator unit or coupling of turbine in generator is very very
important. So the role of the turbine is to transform the energy of water a steam or wind that
we have discussed in the previous classes also to mechanical energy that will make the
generator spin.
So the generator transforms the mechanical energy into electricity. In hydropower plants, the
combination of generator and turbine is called a generating unit, so this is the generating unit.
We will see some terms here, that is say electric generator, we will say this is a transformers
and pylon. So as the water rushes to the turbine, it spins the turbine shaft which is coupled to
the electric generator. The generator has a rotating electromagnet called a rotor and stationary
part called a stator, so rotor and stator are the main part of the generator.
The rotor creates magnetic field that produces an electric charge in the stator. The charge is
transmitted as electricity, but this electricity voltage may not be that high. So the setup of
transformer increases the voltage of the current coming from the stator. The electricity is
distributed through power lines that is called as pylon. These are the parts of turbine
generator unit.
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The component of generators if you see, then major components are the stator, rotor, upper
bracket, lower bracket, thrust bearing and guide bearings the bearing is required, slip ring and
brush assembly, air coolers, brakes and jacks, and stator heaters. So these are the parts. So
here the turbine and this is stator and this is rotor.
Now how can we calculate the power generation, if it is the data available in FE system, the
power generation can be head x flow x efficiency/11.8. So power electric power in kilowatt,
then the distance the water falls in feet, and then flow is in cubic feet per second, so then this
formula is used. Efficiency, then this term efficiency, efficiency how well the turbine and
generator convert the power of falling water into electric power, so basically it will be having
combined one, so turbines and generator,.
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So this can range from 60% percent for older and poorly maintained hydro power to 90% for
newer and well maintained plants. The 11.8 is index that converts the units of heat and
seconds into kilowatts. So this is the formula which can be used for the power calculation.
One example, as an example let us see how much power can be generated by the power plant.
The dam is 357 feet high, the head is 235 feet, and the typical flow rate is 2200 cfs that is
cubic feet per second.
So let us assume the 80% efficiency of the turbine. So in this case power = head x flow x
Ƞ/11.8. So here head is 235 feet, then flow is 2200 cfs, and efficiency is 80% that means
0.80, so divided by 11.8, so that is equal to 35,051 kilowatts. So that is equal to this much is
the power generation capacity of the plant.
Then as you told that efficiency of the system depends upon the efficiency of the turbine,
depends on the efficiency of the generator, efficiency of gearbox and weighted average
efficiency is the multiplication of this this and this. So for example 88 to 94 for turbine
efficiency, 96 to 98% for generator efficiency, gearbox is 98%, so weighted average
efficiency we get 75%.
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There are different types of gates for hydropower, so that is radial gate and slide gate and
circular gate that help the flow of water through the gates. So this is the radial gate, this is
slide gate, these are the circular gates. So there are different types of gates. Different types of
valves also used in this plant. So, up to this on hydro energy production. Thank you very
much for your patience.
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Lecture - 33
Geothermal Energy
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic geothermal energy.

Contents of this class is geothermal energy as a source of renewable energy, application

routes of geothermal energy, mechanism of conversion of geothermal energy to electricity,
different types of electricity production plant or scheme, then advantages and disadvantages,
world scenario, Indian scenario and one numerical problem. Now we will see geothermal
energy as a renewable energy source. So, the term itself says the geo and thermal, so this is
related to the thermal energy of earth.
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So see this figure we see at the core of the earth, the temperature is very high, it may be say
up to 5000 degree centigrade even, so 4000 to 5000 °C temperature at the core of the earth
and gradually the temperature decreases and at the surface we are at ambient temperature and
we have green belt in some places and some are sea and some mountains etc. This indicates
that there is a temperature gradient, so maximum temperature at the core and then gradually it
decreases and the minimum at the surface where the living animals and living beings exist.
So the huge amount of heat energy which is available at the core which is basically generated
due to different types of radioactive reactions that is transferred to some extent gradually to
the surface, and it is believed that these at the core the material is in liquid form that is called
magma and then some rock is also in molten form that can convecting the heat that can be a
through convection, it can go off the molten salt and then that also heat the adjacent rock
layers at the upper side.
Then that hot or heated rock layer if there is some liquid say water so that that water takes it
from the heated rock and if temperature is very high, so this water can be converted to steam
or depending upon the temperature of the adjacent rock, the water may be in water hot water
or in steam. So if we can extract this water, hot water or steam whatever available at the crust
of the earth or under the earth’s crust so if we can extract it, then we can recover that heat
available in the water?
So in this case either we can send water from the surface to this rock layer for the transfer of
heat and then we can take the heat the water out from it and recover the energy from it. So
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this is the mechanism by which the geothermal energy, the inner thermal energy of the earth
inside the earth, we can use for our application. Now this phenomena is basically a natural
phenomena and this will exist, this will never end, that is why this energy geothermal energy
is a renewable energy, it is considered as renewable energy. Now how we will use this.
We can use the heat directly or indirectly. So direct exploitation of geothermal energy may be
by providing heat for building, then hot springs used as spas and heating water at fish firms,
or it provides heat to industrial processes or raising plants in greenhouses and drying crops,
means particularly in the country where the temperature is below zero degree or at very low
temperature, ambient temperature is very low in this case this energy can be used to raise the
temperature of the greenhouses and drying crops.
These are the very direct use of this geothermal energy, but we can convert this energy the
which is available in terms of steam or hot water that energy can be converted to electricity
and that is indirect mode of application and most usable form of the energy that is electricity
that can also be produced from the geothermal energy.
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Now we will see now if we want to use directly, then there may be 2 modes, one is your
closed loop and another is your open loop. So this is the diagram, this figure shows us the
closed loop application of geothermal energy. So here we have some piping arrangement
under the earth where the heat source is available. So there may be some liquid, say rock
layer. So we are sending this pipeline, so through this pipeline we are sending liquids or
water and then it is going and taking the heat inside the earth in this layer and again it is
coming back from this to our house.
So this in the house, we have one circuit, this is in our house say there is some pipeline say.
So it is going to the underground and then it is coming to this one. So that way it is a closed
loop, there is no opening, that is a closed loop system, but we can have another open loop
system. So open loop system means we are using water something here, then this is from the
home we are using the some solvent for taking the heat from this open system, that means
from the underground we are taking the water in some open form and then from this is we are
using in at the home.
So this is our home, in out, home out home in, and then this is our one reservoir where we are
making it purposefully to extract the heat which is getting out from the inner of the earth. So
this is the fluid which is going there and then it is open and this is coming in contact with this
one and it is going that way, we can have open loop system. So the open loop system is used
in producing installations that are geometric and sourced from water or water from a well or
pond it is pumped directly to the water source heat pump where latent heat is extracted from
the water, then transformed to refrigerant, so that which I have explained is mentioned here.
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Now we will see the mechanism for the electricity production from the geothermal energy.
So here this figure shows us the working of a geothermal power plant. So you see this is our
magma and then the rocks heated by magma, so this rock is heated and here we are having
reservoir rocks holding steam or hot water. So gradually lower temperature here with respect
to this very high temperature, then temperature is less, here temperature is less.
So this rock is molten here, but here the rock is not molten but it is heated, that not that much
temperature is not available here that it will be molten but it is heated, sufficient temperature
is there. So then water is adjacent to this rock, so that will be produced, the water can be
converted to steam by taking the heat from this rock and that steam will come out. Now this
water which is available here that may be in steam form or may be in water form depending
upon the temperature of the rock.
If very high temperature is available there, so we may get steam and directly the steam may
come out here and you can use the steam at turbine and then the turbine will be connected to
this generator, so we will get the electricity from here and the condensed water will be sent
back to the underground part where the heat source is available. Again it will heated up and
will come to the turbine after conversion of steam, water to steam. So this is one simple
configuration when this temperature is very high and water is available in steam form, but it
is not necessary that this water will be available steam in everywhere.
So in some places the temperature is higher, some places that temperature is lower, so far
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around say 370 degree centigrade temperature has been reported and available, and here this
water is under very high pressure also. So when this water will come here not in steam form
but high temperature and high pressure, so water is in water form high temperature and
pressure, but if we use some flash drum in this case, so then also we will get some steam
here.
So different type of possibilities are there, but whatever may be the condition here, for the
electricity production we need steam and that steam directly available or will convert the
water to steam and that steam will be used in the turbine for the electricity generation. So that
is the basic principles for the production of electricity from the geothermal plant. So what are
the steps here?
So our first step is injection of water, we will inject water here water injection, then
production of steam, so then production of steam we are using this here, and use of steam for
heat application or electricity production, this is the step three. So this is the mechanism.
Now we see that we are talking about that temperature of the rock may not be very high, the
water may also be available in water form at high temperature. So in this case this is our high
temperature water, if it comes here then, there will be some heat exchanger, the heat
exchanger after cooling this water will again come back and some after heat exchange, there
may be one flash drum if the water comes, then this water at high pressure.
If pressures reduced then there will be flashing and steam will form. So that steam will be
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used here for turbine and the remaining water will be recycled back to the soil and the steam
will use in the turbine for electricity production with the help of the generator, and then the
steam is coming and again it will be high temperature water, condensed water and that will be
cooled here and after cooling then that will also be used. So that way this is called heat pump.
So that water, which is produced from the condensation of the steam can be further cooled.
So this is the one way of the production of electricity when the water is present here at high
temperature and high pressure and we are using some flash drum. Due to high pressure, water
is transformed into a steam while getting to the surface, already we have discussed this. So
this steam is passed slowly to heat exchangers and then transferred even further into the
steam turbines when it can be used to generate electricity.
At the same time, unused energy is being released to the exhaust pipes, already we have
discussed.
Now we will see different options for electricity generation. So depending upon the
temperature and pressure of the water available in this site, we can choose basically 3 types
of electricity generation schemes. One is dry steam power plant, so dry steam power plant,
then flash steam power plant and another is binary cycle power plant. So what is the dry
steam power plant?
In this case, the temperature is very high here, so very high temperature, so steam is produced
directly here, water is converted to steam at the under the earth and then it is directly sent to
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the turbine and then condensed steam in terms of water condensed water it is sent to the well
again through injection well and then we can get electricity with the use of generator with the
turbine. So this is dry team steam power plant, this temperature requirement is very high.
Then flash steam, here the temperature it is greater than 180 °C, 182 °C as reported, 182 °C is
available here, so water at high pressure at 180 °C is available there. So when it comes at the
surface, then you reduce the pressure, then it gives sufficient amount of steam that is used in
the turbine and condensed is sent back. The water here also it comes back through it and then
it comes into the injection well and goes under the earth and again here exit.
The high temperature and high pressure water is available and which comes again through
this production well and thus this cycle continues and we get the electricity. So here, the
typical condition is that the temperature is greater than 182 °C, but in this case dry steam
power plant, this is much more, this is around say 350 like °C, high temperature is there.
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Then binary cycle power plant, but if this temperature is not that high, here say 107 to 182 °C
and then water will be at high pressure. So this will come here and then we will be using
some solvent here, we will be using some solvent for the recovery of that heat. So this water
at 107 to 180 centigrade, it will come here, will recover the heat available in this water, and
then other organic solvent is used.
So that will be vaporized at lower temperature and that vapor will be used for the running of
the turbine blades, and then turbines have coupled with the generator will give as the
electricity. So this is one mode of electricity production in a geothermal power plant and this
is called binary cycle power plant. Here one working fluid is required apart from the water
which is in the inner circle which is going under the earth and taking heat from the earth and
getting out and helping transferring the heat to the working solvent.
So that is what binary cycle, so this water cycle one is and another is your organic solvent
cycle. So these 2 cycles are required for the production of electricity.
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Now we will see the advantage and disadvantages of this geothermal energy. So if we see,
there are a number of advantages like say renewable and sustainable, it is cost effective, it is
constant supply, it is environmentally friendly, small footprint it requires, low noise, low
maintenance, huge potential, it can create job, reduces fossil fuel dependency and increases
energy securities. All these are its positive point, but still in spite of that, there are no wide
applications of geothermal energy in the world because of some other reasons.
Obviously some disadvantages are also there and some of those are say geographical
limitations, so as everywhere we do not have the availability of hot spring or hot water
sources and large investment is needed, it requires very large investment, initial investment is
very high. Then environmental impacts, it is not well understood. Then it has sustainability
concerns there is some debate on how long it will continue etc, whether there will be changes
in scenario or not, and systemic instability. So these are the disadvantage due to which this
has not used widely in the world.
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This is the status of global geothermal energy. We see this red the potential power generation,
so they have the power generated and so this is your direct use and this is your power
generation. So we have discussed that geothermal energy can be used directly, from the heat
available in the water can be used directly for the extraction of heat from it for different
applications or electricity production, but electricity production takes place here, it is the red
color portions and these portions directly used.
In India, also we have some direct use, but electricity production is not here in the country. It
is according to a recent study, there are 806 geothermal power projects in development
globally with a combined capacity of 23,313 megawatts with the majority located in Asia and
North America and Africa. The industry faces strong challenges everywhere. Projects need to
secure government approvals as well as public consent and sometimes complicated by local
opposition.
Then purchasing power and financing are particularly challenging, so these are some
challenges of this method.
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Now we will see some global energy production, electricity production from geothermal
route. So total 8217 megawatt equivalent energy is produced. So out of these if we think
about the projected means which are the projects under development, so then we see that
Indonesia and US these 2 countries are in the top position. So Indonesia, it has more than
8000 megawatts of projects in development. So when it will be developed, it will be having
the capacity of 8000 megawatts and it is followed by the US that is 6100 megawatt. These are
the existing capacity.
This is very interesting information that in Iceland which is a seismic area containing a lot of
hot water and steam geysers, say they use this geothermal energy for raising the temperature
of the greenhouse for the production of banana and largest banana production in Europe is
Iceland. So this is the one example of the use of geothermal energy.
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Indian geothermal energy potential if we see we have some reserves, basically up to say 100
°C we can have 45 °C to 100 degree °C of water is available and we have around 11,000
megawatts geothermal power potential and we have more than 200 hot springs and the some
locations are say Tatapani, Chhattisgarh; Unai, Maharashtra; Godavari basin Manikaran;
Puga Valley; Tuwa; Jalgaan; and Bakreshwar, West Bengal.
So these are the source we have, but still we are not able to use it, there are some reasons
because of the investment is very high in this case and we also have plenty of coal which is of
low cost. So that is why on economic aspect point of view, this was not explored, but
gradually we are becoming more concerned about environmental pollution, so in future we
may also have to think about the alternative sense for the use of geothermal energy.
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Now we will see one numerical problem. So a geothermal aquifer supplies hot water with a
wellhead temperature of 75 °C at the flow rate of 20 liters per second. The heat energy is
used to supplement a direct heating unit above a datum temperature of 40 °C. If the
geothermal heat is used for 170 days each year, how much oil is saved annually if the overall
combustion efficiency of the oil burner is 75%. Assume the heat of combustion of the oil is
10 to the power 10 calories per tonne.
So this is a problem statement. So what is happening in this case for direct applications, we
are using the geothermal energy. So to raise the temperature above 40 °C to 75 °C, so if we
do not use thermal energy, then we have to use some oil to get this amount of heat and heat of
combustion for the oil is 10 to the power 10 calories per ton, so this statement is given. Now
we have to calculate how much oil is saved annually. So this is a very simple problem which
is based on energy balance.
So what is the energy required to raise the temperature from 40 to 75 °C of the total water
which will be used during the year, so that amount of heat will calculate that is the energy
required by this water to raise its temperature from 40 to 75 °C and then we will see how
much oil is needed to get that amount of heat due to the combustion of it because the heat of
combustion is given. So that two mass balance we have to do.
So now we have the flow rate that is 20 liters per second, so 20 liters per second of water, so
then 20 x 3600 liter per hour, so that is per day if we want to calculate we have to multiply by
24, so 20 x 3600 x 24 litre per day. Now we have in a year 170 days, that is a working year,
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so 20 x 3600 x 24 x 170 litre per working year, so that is 294 x 10 to the power 6 litre per
working year, so this is the amount of water to be used for this application. So the volume of
water transferred per working year is equal to this litre into 10 to the power 3 milliliter.
Then mass of water transferred per working year, so this we have to multiply it into density
that is 1 gram per cc or ml, so this the same this gram and that is equal to 294 x 10 to the
power 6 kg, so that we can get this much of water we need to use it. Then temperature rise is
75-40, so 35 degree centigrade. So heat transferred for working year due to the water that is
equal to msΔT, so specific heat, mass, and temperature difference.
So here we are getting 294 x 10 to the power 6 x 10 to the power 3 gram x 1 calorie per gram
per °C specific heat x 35 °C. So this total calorie you are getting, so that is equal to 10.29 x 10
to the power of 12 calories, so this amount of heat is transferred. Now same amount of heat is
coming due to the combustion of the oil and the heat of combustion is given is equal to 10 to
the power of 10 calories per ton. So what will be the oil requirement?
Here another is given that the efficiency of the oil burner is 75%. So if we assume it is 100%
efficient, then we can calculate the oil requirement is equal to 10.29 x 10 to the power 12/10
to the power 10, so we are getting 1029 tonnes, but the efficiency is 75%, so we will divide it
by 0.75, so we are getting 1372 tonnes. So this one 1372 tonnes of oil would be required
which can be saved due to the use of this geothermal energy. So up to this in this class. Thank
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Lecture - 34
Tidal and Wave Energy
Hi friends, now we will start discussion on the topic tidal energy. Like wind, the tides and
waves can also be used for the production of electricity.
And in this class, we will discuss on tides and waves as source of renewable energy, wave
energy production, tides and tidal energy production, parts of tidal energy plant or type of
tidal energy plant, world tidal energy scenario, Indian tidal energy scenario, and one
numerical. So we will see what waves are and what are tides are and how this can be the
source of renewable energy first.
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As you know, the waves are created by energy passing through water causing it to move in a
circular motion. Waves transmit energy, not water, and across the ocean and if not obstructed
by anything, they have the potential to travel across an entire ocean basin. So if we see the
nature of waves, wave maybe of different types. So one is wind driven waves or surface
waves.
So these waves are basically generated due to the friction between the wind and surface
water, so friction between wind and surface water makes the wave that is called surface wave
or it is wind driven waves. As the wind blows across the surface of the ocean or a lake, the
continual disturbance creates a wave crest. These types of waves are found globally across
the open ocean and along the coast.
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So this is the wave crest. So here the water, there is some up and down at the surface, so this
is our calm sea level and sometimes we get up and sometimes down. So this is our amplitude,
this is wave height and this is our trough, this is water depth from the ocean floor, this is the
depth of the water, this is wavelength and this is the crest which is generated in the wave.
This wave is surface wave, but more potentially hazardous wave, that is hurricane. So this is
hazardous in nature, it can cause severe consequences or severe weather.
Other hazardous waves like say tsunamis that can be caused by underwater disturbances that
displace large amounts of water quickly such as earth quakes, landslides, and volcanic
eruptions. So when earth quakes or landslides or volcanic eruption takes place, then large
amount of water displacement takes place and which creates the tsunami, so that is very
severe or very very dangerous of types of waves. Apart from these due to the movement of
earth and the sun and movement of moon around the earth, there is an attraction and
gravitational pull of the sun and moon on the earth that causes waves.
These waves are tides or in other words tidal waves. So these tidal waves or any other type of
waves surface waves both can be used for the production of electricity and that part we will
discuss now. So this is the wave we have explained that when wave up and down movement
of the water which we are having, so that movement can be converted to circulatory
movement and which can be used for the production of electricity by using some device, so
that is the mechanism for the production of wave energy.
So wave energy production we use some device that helps the conversion of the energy of the
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wave to electricity. So different types of devices are available, one is your shoreline devices
and near shore devices as shown here and these are submerged offshore devices. So shoreline
devices half is in the water and half is above the water, some part of it is submerge and some
part is above it and these are the shorelines. These devices are wave energy devices which are
fixed to or embedded in the shoreline, that is they are both in and out of the water.
Here near shore devices are at 20 metre water depth and offshore devices it is more than 30
metre water depth and in this case no need for significant costal earthworks. So here, we have
ocean floor, another is your floating. So floating device we have another it may be of fixed
type. So if we see, these devices are small vertical devices, either fixed directly to the ocean
floor or tethered via a chain that absorbs the wave synergy from all directions. These devices
generate electricity from the bobbing and pitching action of floating device.
So this floating device which is going up and down bobbing and pitching action, so that
action is converted to circulatory movement of another device, convert the up and down
pitching motion of the waves into rotary movements or oscillatory movements in a variety of
devices to generate electricity. So one of the advantage of floating device with respect to
fixed device is that they can be deployed in deep water where more wave energy is available.
Now we will see the tides. So this figure shows us that the water level in some places
increases where in some other places water level decreases on the surface of the earth
because of the attraction between the moon, sun and earth. So the tides are periodic rise and
fall of sea surface occurring once or twice in a day, driven by gravitational attraction by sun
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and moon and earth’s rotation that we know very well.
Then when a landmass lines up with the earth-moon system, the water around it is at high
tide, so here the high tide we can get, the moon and earth and sun will be in one and opposite
direction, and on the 90 degree angle of that none of the landmass if it is available, then that
will be a low tide, that the surface of the water level will be lower. So when we are getting
two high tide and low tide, then the seawater when it rises then water from the river comes
back and when the sea water reduces, the water goes towards the river and lakes.
So then high spring tides occurs when sun and the moon lines up with earth, this occurs
whether they are either on the same or opposite side, so that is your high tide. Low or neap
tides occur when the sun and moon line up to 90 degree to each other and flood currents
because of these 2 situations, you get some current of water, so there is flood currents, we get
the currents moving in the direction of the coast. Ebb currents the current receding from the
coast. So these are the basic definitions of the tides and water currents.
Then we will see the tidal energy. So when the water we have 2 tides, so when the flood
current it is going, water is going towards coast and in the other case the coastal water is
coming towards the sea in case of ebb current, so in both cases we are getting the kinetic
energy of the water, so that like wind energy, we can convert these kinetic energy of water
into electricity by the use of the turbine. So that is the basic principal of the tidal energy
production.
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So here tidal energy in the form of hydropower that transforms the energy obtained from the
tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity okay. So we need one turbine, we need
one generator, and then we need to store the water which is going to the coast during flood
current and also when the water is going down towards the sea during a current, then also the
turbines can be used to get the electricity, but unlike here, these turbines will be able to
generate electricity in both directions.
Whenever our water is going from the coast to the sea or sea to the coast, so that we have to
make. So tidal generators are designed to produce power when the rotor blades are turning in
either direction, so rotor blades standing in either directions, our generator will be able to
produce electricity in both the cases, so that is the main difference between the wind turbine
and this tidal turbines.
Because the earth’s tides are ultimately due to gravitational interactions with the moon and
sun and the earth’s rotation, the tidal power is practically inexhaustible and classified as the
renewable energy resources.
Here we see so high tide level, sea level is very high, so water will go through this if we have
tidal machine. So we can make one barrage here, so this turbine will be used for the
production of electricity. Other case when there is high water level here at a tidal basin, then
again water will move this direction, here water moving that direction here water is moving
this direction and this turbine is able to work continuously and to give electricity.
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So now what are the parts of these types of these system for the production of electricity? So
one is we need the turbine a very essential part of it, then we need tidal barrage or it may be
tidal lagoons. So this water which is going to the coast we have to store it, we can make a
barrage or that can be stored in lagoons also. So these are the basic parts of the types of the
tidal energy production units and most important is our turbines, so tidal turbines.
So here we see the turbines first. So tidal turbines are just like wind turbines, so in case of
wind, we had used air and the kinetic energy of air for the production of mechanical energy
of the of the turbine shaft and then that mechanical electrical energy, here the kinetic energy
of water will be used to get the mechanical energy in the turbine shaft and that will be
converted to electricity. So the density of water is higher with respect to the wind.
So in this case, the turbine blade requirement is not that big, so we need smaller blades with
respect to wind turbine in case of tidal turbines. So the title turbines use similar technology to
wind turbines, although their blades are much shorter and stronger. The water currents turn
the turbines which in turn activate a generator that produces electricity, just like the concept
of wind energy production.
Systems work best where there are very strong tidal zones obviously and upfront cost of these
tidal stream systems is very high and also installations and maintenance is difficult. There are
basically 2 types of turbines, one is your horizontal axis and vertical axis, just like wind
turbines, the horizontal axis and vertical axis.
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So here we see the horizontal axis and here we see the vertical axis of the turbine blade, rotor
is horizontal, here it is vertical. So the rotors and blades are similar type of the wind we have
discussed in our wind turbine section, so we are not making detailed discussion here, the
similar types of rotor design and configurations are available.
Then tidal fences, tidal fences is also used, one type of design which is used for the
harnessing of tidal energy. So this is other forms of tidal energy include tidal fence which use
individual vertical axis turbines that are mounted within a fence structure, here vertical axis
turbine, so these are the fence and we have used the turbines. The water will be forced to go
through this gate and then the turbine will on. So that is the mechanism of tidal fence.
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Then tidal barrage, we see here the tidal barrage the figure shows. So dam like structure used
to capture the energy from masses of water moving in and out of a bay or river due to tidal
forces. So this is the photograph here, it is shown. The tidal barrage first allows water to flow
into a bay or river during high tide and releasing the water back during low tide. So done by
measuring the tidal flow and controlling the flood gates at key times of the tidal cycle, so in
the tidal cycle, we have to control the flood gates.
Turbines are placed at the sluices to capture the energy as the water flows in and out. Tidal
barrages are among the oldest methods of tidal power generation with projects being
developed as early as 1960s, I think that was in Russia, the 1.7 megawatt energy were
produced.
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Then another is tidal lagoons if you see, so here we have land, this is our shore and this is our
sea. So from sea, there are some part is separated, so these are the sea gate, through gate
water will go in this lagoon and there are some turbine house. So turbine house from here
both sides, so high lagoon, low lagoon, so water will go here and then the turbines will be
working.
So here a power station, this is a power station that generates electricity from the natural rise
and fall of the tides, that works in a similar way to tidal barrages by capturing a large volume
of water behind a man made structure as shown here which is then released to drive turbines
and generate electricity. Unlike a barrage where the structure spans an entire river bay in a
straight line, a tidal lagoon encloses an area of coastline with a high tidal range behind a
breakwater, so this is not a very lengthy structure, it is a confined structure here.
Much lower cost and impact on the environment. Self-contained structures, cut off from the
rest of the sea. So these are the advantage of the tidal lagoons with respect to the title barrage.
Now we will see the global tidal energy scenario. So different countries and their ocean
energy production tidal energy production capacity is given in gigawatt. So you see the US
on the top. Wave and this is our tide, this color is for tide and this is for wave. So then UK
and we are here in India, we have wave energy we do not have any tidal energy yet. So these
are the other countries where the tidal energy or sea energy is being used, the energy from the
sea is converted to electricity.
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Now this one example, the Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station that is 254 megawatt in South
Korea is the world’s largest tidal power station, the largest tidal power installation is Sihwa
Lake and the figure is shown here. So this tidal power is not yet widely used around the
world though it has potential for future electricity generation. Among sources of renewable
energy, tidal power has relatively high cost and limited availability of sites with sufficiently
high tidal ranges or current velocity.
So hydro electricity power plant operation height of the water is very very important, but in
many cases we do not get that sufficient height, so if we do not get the water height, so then
the turbine efficiency will also not be that high, the electricity production will not also not be
high. So those are some major drawbacks for which this energy production is not taking place
widely around the world.
But many technological developments and improvements both in design that is dynamic tidal
power, tidal lagoons and say turbine technology, new axial turbines and cross flow turbines,
etc that indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be much higher than previously
assumed. So what are the tidal energy available today that can be increased, availability can
in increased by the improvement in the design of the turbine or if we increase the design of
the water reservoir such though we can get sufficient height so that way also can be done.
So this Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Plant, the largest one in the world, and mean operating tidal
range here is 5.6 metre with a spring tidal of 7.8 metre.
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Indian tidal energy scenario if we see, then we have good potential that is Gulf of Cambay
and Gulf of Kachh and Sundarban. So these are the 3 major areas where the availability of
tidal energy is very high. So here you see the height is maximum 11 metre, here 8, here 5 and
average 6.77, 5.23 and 2.97. So here the Gulf of Kachh and Gulf of Cambay this have height
is very high with respect to the Sihwa lake which is 5.6 to 7.8 metre, we are also having 6.77
and 5.23, very comparable height and our potential is also very high 7000, 1200, and in case
of Sundarban as the height is less we see here the potential is also less.
So India has a long coastline with the estuaries and gulfs where tides are strong enough to
move turbines for electrical power generation. India has been looking at generating electricity
via tidal power since 1980s. Projects which are planned earlier were abandoned due to high
capital cost, the cost factor is one major issue for not getting success for this option for
energy production, but India needs to consider factors like the environmental impact of these
projects and the ecosystem and a strong tidal energy policy to attract investors to project.
So if some cost effectiveness can be improved by research or some development, then this
technology can be of interesting future.
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A numerical is given here. So determine the quantity of heat generated due to breaking to
stop a goods train consisting of 50 wagons and travelling at a speed of 36 kilometer per hour.
The average weight of each wagon is 20 ton force. Calculate the time required to produce the
equivalent amount of electric energy by a small tidal power plant or 15 kilowatt capacity. So
the statement is very simple just to energy balance, so what is said here that a goods train is
running with 50 wagons and each wagon is having a say 20 ton force.
So if you want to stop the goods train, then huge amount of heat will be generated, and if that
amount of energy if we want to produce from a tidal power plant which is having the 15,000
watt capacity, then we have to calculate the time required for the production of this amount of
energy by this plant. So we will be doing the energy balance. So the weight of the goods train
so we have 50 wagons, so 50 x 20 tons, so 20 x 1000 kgf, so this kilo force this is the weight
of the wagon, and the mass of goods train is equal to this weight into divided by G.
So that is equal to kilo force into second square per metre, so this is equal to this one kilo
force into second square per metre. So speed of goods train is given equal to or velocity is
given equal to 36 kilometer per hour that is equal to 10 metre per second. So kinetic energy
of the goods train is equal to 1/2 mv square now, so 1/2 x this one equal to 5.1 x 10 to the
power 6 kilo kg force metre, that is (5.1 x 10 to the power 6)/367098 because we know 1
kilowatt hour is equal to 367098 kg force metre, so then it is giving 13.9 kilowatt hour.
We have 15 kilowatt capacity, so what will be the time requirement. We will be getting
13.9/15 that will be in hour unit, so that is 0.926 hour that is equal to 56 minute. So 56 minute
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is required for this plant to produce that amount of energy which is generated due to the
breaking of a goods train having 50 wagons and mass of 20 ton and moving with the speed of
36 kilometers per hour. So, up to this in this class. Thank you very much for your patience.
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Lecture - 35
Tutorial
Hi friends, now we will have a tutorial session, and we will solve some numerical problems
on the basis of our discussion held in the last 4 classes.
The statement of the first problem is calculate the theoretically power available from a flow
of 1 metre per second water with the fall of 100 metre. Due to energy loss, the practically
available power will be less than the theoretically available power. If the efficiency is 80%,
then calculate the actual power that can be obtained. So this is a problem statement, so you
know this is the problem of a hydro power plant based on the hydro power plant.
We know the energy equation of hydro power plants, so we will use that energy equation so
that we can get the theoretically available energy in the water, and then if we multiply it by
the efficiency, we will get actually available energy. So we know that the theoretically power
available from falling water that can be calculated by this formula that Pth theoretically
available power in watt that is equal to ρ x q that is the water flow volumetric flow rate that is
meter cube per second and the g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the falling height.
So that is mgh like so, the m is replaced by q x to ρ, so this is the expression we have
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discussed in our previous class. Now we have the data of to ρ, we have the data of q, we have
the data of g, and we have the data for h. So in this case, ρ is equal to say we can assume that
is equal to 1000 kg per metre cube for water and q is given 1 metre cube per second and then
g is 9.81 meter per Second Square and he is nothing but 100 metre which is given here.
So we will put this in this expression and will calculate the value of Pth and it is coming as
1000 x 1 x 9.81 x 100 that is equal to 981,000 watt or 981 kilowatt. So this is the theoretically
available energy. Now, practically available energy we have to multiply it by efficiency of
the system with the Pth, so µρqgh, so we will put it here and as the efficiency given is equal
to 80%, so 0.80 x this much, 981 kilowatt, so we are getting 784.8 kilowatt, so this is the
practically available energy. So problem number 1 we have solved.
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Now we are moving to problem number 2. The statement is a turbine develops 9000 kilowatt
when running at a speed of 140 rpm and under a head of 30 metre. Determine the specific
speed. So this is again a problem related to hydro turbines and here we have to define the
specific speed. So, specific speed is nothing but the speed which is equivalent to a turbine
having the same sides and that turbine which can produce unit power by using unit head.
As we have discussed in the previous class that Ns is the specific speed which can be related
with the speed of the turbine the power rating of the turbine and head available, so N x root
P/H to the power 5/4. Now P and H both are 1, then Ns is equal to N when P and H are both
1. So this is the definition of Ns and if we put in this case we will put the P and H value
provided in the statement N value also given in the statement and we will calculate the Ns
value.
Now what is the value of N that is a turbine speed or the rotation of the rotor or the turbine
shaft that is equal to 140 rpm as given here and then P power rating is given also 9000
kilowatt, so shaft power is 9000 kilowatt and then head is 30 metre, it is 30 meter. So we will
be putting this value here so 140 x 9000 to the power 1/2, that is power rating to the power
1/2 and divided by 30 to the power 5/4. So this and we are getting that 189.16 rpm. So 189.16
rpm is the specific speed of that turbine.
Now let us move to problem number 3. So it says for a typical small hydro system water
flows through a head of 2.5 meters and a turbine that could take a maximum flow rate of 3
meter cube per second. If the turbine efficiency would be 85%, drive efficiency 95% and
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generator efficiency 93%, then calculate the actual power generated in hydro plant. Again a
problem based on hydro power plant.
In this case, different types of efficiency has been that is the turbine efficiency 85%,
efficiency of drive is equal to 95%, and efficiency generator 93%, so these are the
efficiencies. So we will be getting the overall efficiency multiplying by these point 0.85 x
0.95 x 0.93, so that is overall efficiency for the energy conversion and then we will use the
energy expression and we will get how much energy is available.
So now the turbine inefficiency is given 85%, drive 95%, generator efficiency 93%, so by
multiplying of these we are getting point 0.751 or 75.1% overall efficiency.
So then we will use the energy expression. So here head = 2.5 meters, flow = 3 meter cube
per second and then the maximum power output of the system that can be theoretically
maximum power which can be available that is equal to Pth that is equal to ρ x q x g x h. So
we will be putting the ρ value 1000 and q is 3 metre cube per second, so 3 and 9.81 g and h is
2.5, so we are getting 73575 watt that is equal to 73.575 kilowatt.
So then what will be the practically available power, so we have to multiply it by efficiency,
overall efficiency you have got that is equal to 0.751, so this 0.751 x 73.575 that is equal to
55.254 kilowatt. Now the problem is solved.
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We are coming to the next problem, problem number 4 and which says the tidal range of a
bay could approach 17 metre in extremity about 110 billion tonnes of water flow into an out
of the bay in one cycle. Calculate the total potential tidal energy of the bay in this extreme
case in one year by using bidirectional turbines. Gravity of acceleration 9.8 meter per Second
Square. So this is a problem based on the hydro turbines but water level is generated through
the tides, so tidal energy in fact.
So here we have sea level if we have then it will be during high tide water will go towards the
river directions and we will be having some water head, we will be having some water head
here, so this water head maximum is equal to 17 metre and it is also given that 110 billion
tonnes of water flow into and out of the bay in one cycle, if this is our bay, so it is one cycle it
is going out and again low tide this is going in high tide and low tide is going out.
So both the cases if you install one turbine, so if you install one turbine here, it will be able to
generate electricity as the turbine is bidirectional it is given. So we will be using here also the
energy expression for the calculation of the available energy and which can be converted. So
now again it is told that we have to calculate on a yearly basis. So in a year, how many times
of tides we will get that we have to calculate because one tide is the source of the availability
of the head.
So that is why we will be calculating number of tides cycles, number of cycles per year, so
that is equal to, so we have 365 days x 24 hour total hour and divided by 12.4 hour, at 12.4
hour is required for one tide, so one cycle we are getting total 706.5 cycles in a year. So the
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number of times of the tide to drive turbines for once we are getting two movement of the
turbines in opposite direction, so number of times for the tide to drive the turbines is 2 x n
cycles per year, that is in cvc, that is equal to 2 x 706.5, so 1413, so 1413 times our turbine
will run.
Then what would be tidal energy here mgh x n/2, why so this is the potential energy which is
stored here, this region this bay that will provide the electricity through the conversion in the
turbine. So potential energy is converted to kinetic energy of the water, then it is mechanical
energy of the shaft, and then through the generator it will give electricity. So in case of hydro
turbines which we had used energy expression is equal to mgh, but here mgh/2 because this
height will not be constant, this height which is the maximum height h which will not be
constant.
It will be maximum initially, then again it will be reducing and come to 0. On the other case,
it will be 0 and gradually it will increase, so that way, so this will be divided by 2, average is
taken. So mgh x number of times the turbines is operated, so that n x mgh/2 that will be the
energy potential for this turbine. So total tidal energy per year is equal to n x mgh/2, so here n
= 2nc that is equal to 1413, so we will be putting here 1413, and m, m is equal to what, m is
equal to it is told that 110 billion tonnes of water, so means 110 x 10 to the power 12 kg of
water.
So you can write it here 1.10 x 10 to the power 14 kg of water. So this 1.1 x 10 to the power
of 14 kg of water we are getting and g is equal to 9.8 metre per second squared already given
and then height is equal to 17 meter maximum height, so that will be divided by 2, so we are
getting here this much of energy which is available throughout the year, so that will be equal
to 1.3 x 10 to the power 19 joule or if we want to convert it into kilowatt hour then we can
use this expression that 1 joule is equal to 2.77 x 10 to the power -7 kilowatt hour.
So if we use this conversion in terms of kilowatt hour that this joule will be converted to 3.6 x
10 to the power 12 kilowatt hour. So this is the energy which is generated throughout the
year. So our problem was we are asked to calculate the total potential tidal energy of the bay
in this extreme case in one year by using bi directional turbines, so this much of energy we
can produce in a year by using bidirectional turbines in this extreme case. Now the problem is
solved.
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We are coming to next problem. So problem number 5. So, this says if the tidal range of the
tide at a particular place is 10 metre. Calculate the potential energy content of the water in the
basin at high tide if the tidal power plant has surface area of 9 kilometer square. Assume
surface density of seawater to be 1025.18 kg per metre cube. So this is again a tidal energy
problem and it is asked to calculate the potential energy content of the water in the basin at
high tide, if the tidal power plant has surface area 9 kilometer square.
So, in this case, what will be the energy content that you see the energy content, potential
energy contained in a volume of water that is equal to 1/2 x A x ρ x g x h square. So, here we
have one surface area say. So, say water is going this direction and we have this surface area
that is equal to 9 kilometer square surface area. So, 9 kilometers square surface this way. So,
then what will be the height of it that will be the volume. So A x h that is a volume x ρ this is
the mass, so that is equal to mass, A x h x ρ.
Then if I want to use the formula mgh, so mgh is equal to A x h x ρ that is n, A x h x ρ x g x

h/2, this height is the water height is not fixed here, so h/2 it is mentioned, so h/2 we are
taking the average. So that is 1/2 x A x ρ x g x h square that is the energy potential of the tidal
barrage.
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So in this case, h is the vertical tidal range, A is the horizontal area of the barrage basin just
we have discussed this already horizontal area and then ρ is the density of the seawater. So,
density of the seawater normally varies from 1021 to 1030 kg per cubic metre. So, you can
assume any value in between these 2. So, the average one is taken 1025 kg per cubic metre
and g is the acceleration due to the gravity of earth we know that 9.81 meters per second
square.
Then I just discussed the factor half is due to the fact that as the basin flows empty through
the turbines, the hydraulic over the dam reduces. The maximum head is only available at the
moment of low water assuming the high water level is still present in the basin. That is why
the half is considered. So in this case total range of tide is 10 metre and then the surface of
the tidal energy harnessing plant = 9 kilometer square and specific density of seawater is
1025.18 kg per metre cube. So, we will be putting these values in our energy expression.
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So, mass of the water = volume of water x specific gravity that we know. So, volume of
water mean area x tidal range of water x density of the seawater. So 9 x 10 to the power 6
metre square, so 9 kilometer square, so that is converted to metre square. So, 9 x 10 to the
power 6 metre squared and then tidal range 10 metre and is 1025.18 kg per meter cube is the
density of the seawater. So, by the multiplication of these 3 terms, we are getting here 92 x 10
to the power 9 kg. This is the mass of the water.
Then potential energy content of the water in the basin at high tide will be 1/2 x area x
density x gravitational acceleration x tidal range square. So, 1/2 into this area x this is equal
to mass basically and g and h square. So, we are getting 4.5 x 10 to the power 12 joule. So,
now we have solved the problems. Total 5 problems are solved on the basis of our discussion
held in the last 4 classes. So, thank you very much for your patience.
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Lecture - 36
Energy from Biomass and Wastes 1 (Biological Route)
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic energy production from biomass and waste.
Already we have seen that biomass is one of the most important resource for renewable
energy production and this biomass can be used as a fresh biomass or the waste biomass like
say agricultural residues, forest residues, etc and this biomass and waste can be processed in
different routes like say thermal route, chemical route, and biological route.
Physical routes can also be used for the preparation or pretreatment or to make the biomass
suitable for use in a particular type of reactor. Now all of us we know that the coal is
produced from biomass, plant biomass basically. Should the technologies or the processes
which we have discussed for the conversion of coal to energy those can also be applicable in
case of biomass, but in this case as you know the volatile matter is higher in case of biomass,
so the requirement of reaction conditions will be milder than that of the coal conversion.
Now if we see that biomass is having more volatiles, so apart from thermal combustion route,
thermal processes like combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, etc, we can use biological routes
also for the conversion of energy from it, particularly when we will consider the waste
biomass and organic part of the municipal solid waste, so municipal solid waste contains
good amount of organic part that contains high amount of carbon as well as moisture content
is also high so that part can be converted to bio-gasification routes.
Some of the waste contains lipid containing materials, high amount of lipid is available in it,
for example say oils seeds to oil, so vegetable oil and edible oils and non-edible oils both can
be converted to biodiesel through the chemical route or say waste cooking oil that can also be
converted to biodiesel through chemical route. As you know, the biomass is highly reactive
than coal and its density is less, so to use this biomass in a particular reactor to give the
sufficient strength and to maintain the particle size, the densification of the biomass and
waste is required.
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So we will discuss all those things, but we will not cover the thermal conversion routes
because we have already discussed these things in these processes in case of coal conversion,
so similar concept will be applicable for biomass also for its conversion to electricity or other
fuels.
For this class, the contents are biomass and waste as a source of energy, then biomass and
wastes energy conversion routes, and then anaerobic digestion of biomass and wastes.
We see here this slide shows us some biomass residues, grass, corn stover, baggasse and
wood chips. So these are the agricultural wastes and you see in the agricultural waste, this
contents cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and others. So good amount of cellulose and
hemicellulose is available, lignin also we have significant amount. So this is the structure of a
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lignocellulosic biomass, so you have lignin outer part, then we had cellulose mostly in
structure and then hemicellulose not that structure one. So these 3 components are available
in biomass and biomass residues or waste biomass, so this can be a source of energy.
If we see the municipal solid waste, so different part of the municipal solid waste or
components of the MSW are provided here, so paper, cardboard, bags, wood crates, boxes,
scrapes, bush, branches, leaves, grass, garbage, green stuff, greens, rags, etc. So you see here
out of these components, somewhere we have moisture 5, somewhere we have moisture 75%.
So as we had discussed that low moisture content will be processed through thermal route
and high moisture content will process through biological route.
These biological routes we will be discussing now and we see here all the cases we get some
heating value. So it is very clear from this that we can recover this heat which is available in
the waste and biomass for energy production. Now we will see the different routes which can
be used for the production of energy from the biomass and waste.
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So if we have biomass and waste, we can use it through thermochemical conversion and like
say combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, and liquefaction, the similar to coal, so we are not
covering this part. Then biological conversion we can use for the use of this biomass and
waste and its conversion to energy. So the important biological routes are anaerobic digestion
which gives us methane that is biogas, then fermentation can give us ethanol or higher
alcohol, and some enzymatic routes again the ethanol and amino acid they can give.
We will be concentrating in this class on anaerobic digestion, so this is a commercial process

and the fermentation is under development particularly for the waste materials. Then
chemical conversion another method we have that is hydrolysis, solvent extraction, and
transesterification, we will be giving more focus on transesterification in the next class. Then
physical conversion is also required as I have mentioned that to make the feedstock suitable
for its use in a reactor system, so then these are these are say densification or briquetting.
Then other physical methods, mechanical extractions and distillation we will discuss these 3
routes consecutively. Now we will see the anaerobic digestion of biomass and waste. So all
types of waste and biomass may not be suitably converted through anaerobic processes, but
certain waste and biomass can be processed easily and most economically also you can say
can be converted.
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So some examples of those food feedstocks here are energy crops, animal waste, industrial
waste, MSW, some part of it, then restaurant and food industry waste, and sludge from
wastewater treatment plant. So all those things are the feedstocks for the anaerobic digestion
process. This anaerobic digestion process is a complex process a series of biological
processes in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of
oxygen.
So anaerobic condition is required for this process and then it gives us biogas, it can give us
hydrogen, it can give us bio-fertilizer, compost, and we can also get some water from the
slurry after proper treatment. Now we will see the mechanism or different types of
phenomena which takes place during the production of biogas or methane in the anaerobic
digester.
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So we have complex organic compounds, carbohydrates, fats and proteins available in our
feedstocks. Then the first step is the hydrolysis, so after hydrolysis, we will get simple
organic compounds that is sugar, amino acids, and peptides. So those are our preliminary
feedstocks for biological reactions. So far we have hydrolysis and then it will be having some
fermentation also.
Then these sugars can be converted to short chain fatty acids through the acidogenesis route
and some microbes are available to convert it to hydrogen, some microbes also convert it to
acetic acid. These acidogenic microorganism, so this simple sugar will be converted to short
chain fatty acids. Then short chain fatty acids will be converted to acetic acid through
acetogenesis. So this is acidogenesis, that is simple organic compounds to short chain fatty
acids, and this is acetogenesis that is short chain fatty acids to acetic acid or acetate.
So this can be either this way or some microbes also produce hydrogen, then that hydrogen
and CO2 that also be converted to this, so both type of a complex biological reactions are
going on in AD or anaerobic digester. Then the acetic acid which is formed that is further
converted to methane through methanogenesis, some microbes are responsible for this
conversation, and this H2 and CO2 which is available in the media those can also be
converted to CH4 and CO2 can also be produced and this is called methane producing bacteria
So this is the overall reactions, reaction scheme which takes place in an anaerobic digester.
Now we will see the relative contribution of different type of processes.
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So if we have organic compounds here, then short chain fatty acids we can get around 76% of
that and then short chain fatty acids directly acetic acid we can get 20%, directly hydrogen
we can get 4%. The major process is through the short chain fatty acid production, the first
step, major step is a conversion of organic compounds to short chain fatty acids through
hydrolysis and then acidogenesis.
Then, these fatty acids will be converted to acetate mostly and some part is hydrogen around
52% and 24% and this is the relative abundance of different type of processes. Then acetic
acid to methane and then hydrogen to this, so out of total methane, so 72% is coming through
this route and around 28% is coming through this route. So this is the major reactions
hydrolysis and acidogenesis, then acetogenesis and dehydrogenation, and then
methanogenesis. So these are the basic reactions which take place in anaerobic digester.
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Now how we can represent this formula. This is a complex process, unlike say coal
combustion or gasification, we cannot represent very simple formula here. So this a complex
one, and then people try to represent in terms of chemical expressions and empirical
relationship have been proposed. One example as available in this and proposed by this
researcher you see CnHaObNc reacts with this amount of oxygen, this many moles of H2O
and gives this one.
Actually, there are some microbes, so microbes are there, they take in water and then react on
these and then gives the product CH4, CO2, HCO3, NH4 and this is and these organic
compounds since taken up by the microorganisms and their biomass growths, so this is the
biomass C5H7O2N, the cell biomass growth. So this is the empirical relationship. Now we can
get the value of n, a, b and c on the basis of elemental composition of the feedstock and then
we have to know s and e, then all the coefficients we can know.
So what is s and e, we see here, s is the fraction of waste converted into cells. So how much
waste we are taking here that will be if we take the mass balance, then it will be partially
converted to the cell biomass and remaining part will be converted to the energy. So that is
why s is equal to fraction of waste converted into cells, then e is equal to fraction of waste
converted into methane energy, so s+e = 1.
So now by mass balance, we can get the value of s and e and we can put this expression, we
can we can predict what can be the biogas formation in this particular feedstock and in this
process. This C5H7O2N is the empirical formula for bacterial biomass and CnN is the
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empirical formula of the waste being digested.
Now we will see different type of bacteria which are responsible for this anaerobic digestion
processes. So hydrolysis or hydrolyzing and fermenting bacteria, so hydrolysis takes place
and then fermentation also takes place. So here what we get, hydrolysis product sugar, then
alcohols, then amino acids, and glycerol, so they will be further converted to different
compounds in the acidogenesis stage. So acidogenesis stage sugar is converted to fatty acids,
then alcohols to fatty acids and CO2, ammonia is also fatty acids, and glycerol acetate.
So these are the different products which are produced through this acidogenesis step. Some
example of this bacteria are also given here that is Bacteroides, Bidifobacterium,
Butyrovibrio, Eubacterium and Lactobacillus those act as acidogenic bacteria. E. coli is also
helps in this process.
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Now we will see the acetogenic bacteria. So acetogenic bacteria that is Clostridia and
Acetivibrio are some example of acetogenic bacteria. So these bacteria convert the fatty acids
to acetic acid conversion, so acetogenic bacteria. Then these are the presentation of
propionate to acetate, propanol to acetate, butyrate to acetate. Then homoacetogens are also
available, those convert H2 + CO2 to acetic acid just we have if you see this one, this
conversions from acetogens and hydrogen producing acetogens are also these reactions.
Now methanogenic bacteria, so some bacteria are there which helps the methane formation
reactions and these are basically 2 types, one is acetoclastic methanogens. So acetoclastic
methanogens means acetic acid will be converted to methane by these microorganisms and
another is your hydrogenotrophic methanogens. Hydrogenotrophic methanogens means
hydrogen plus carbon dioxide will be converted to methane plus 2H2O.
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So if we see out of these 2 routes, that means here this say two, this route and this route, the
contribution here is around 70% and here it is around 30%. So now, the formic acid and
methanol present in the in the media, then those can also be converted to methane as per the
formula HCOOH to CH4 + 3CO2 + 2H2O and this is methanol to methane conversion.
These methanogenic bacteria have been classified into different groups depending upon their
16S ribosomal RNA fingerprinting and group I, group II, and group III are some examples
are given here. These bacteria are unicellular, these are gram-variable, strict anaerobes and do
not form endospores. So these are some basics of the microorganisms which have been used
for the anaerobic digestion process.
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Now, we will see how we can perform the anaerobic digestion reactions or how we can
process the feedstocks, that is the waste and biomass, to produce biogas. So obviously, the
reactor or microorganisms which react on certain types of molecules, so initially what
feedstocks we are having in terms of waste that has to be converted to the initial compound
which will be degraded by the microorganism, so some pretreatment is required and also we
have to get the size reduction, etc, from the original feedstock.
So if we have organic feed, then water and chemicals then there were some shredding,
blending, and pH adjustment which is the pre-requirement for the growth of bacteria and the
conversions of the molecules from the higher molecular rate to the lower molecular rate and
finally to methane. Then we need the pretreatment of feed, this is basically very useful when
we will consider for lignocellulosic biomass because lignin is not biodegradable, so you have
to separate the lignin part from the biomass and then the non-lignin part will be used for
further processing.
So this pretreatment is required, then after pretreatment by removing the undesirable

materials in this and making the feedstock more suitable for biological conversion, it is going
for anaerobic digestion. So this in anaerobic digestion, we maintain mesophilic or
thermophilic condition. So this temperature around say 35-40 degree centigrade temperature,
the biogas is formed and then this biogas goes up from the digester and this biogas can have
some impurities, so you need to remove the impurities and we need mixed gas separation.
Then water, acid, gases and organosilicon mostly available, so we need to purify this gas and
we can get the methane or that is called synthetic natural gas or biogas. Then the slurry part
which we are getting here so that will go for dewatering step, and dewatering step will give
us some sludge and some liquid, so liquid will be treated further for the production of water
and sludge we are getting that sludge will be used for other purposes, may be say composting
or as a fertilizer, etc.
This part of this sludge recycling is required to maintain the microbial biomass in the
anaerobic digester. So this is the overall flow sheet of the anaerobic digestion process.
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Now we will see the type of anaerobic digestion process. So initially, anaerobic digestion
process was the used with a substrate concentration of around 8 to 10% and that is the wet
state of anaerobic digestion, now gradually people developed some improved version of these
and that is called dry anaerobic digestion, and we see the difference between these two wet
and dry anaerobic digestion processes in this table.
So we have some processing mode and then we will compare those, that is total solids
content and then we see dry as you have mentioned that is 20-25 to 45% solid may be
available whereas this is 8-10% and here it is mentioned that 2-15% for wet process. So once
the moisture is more, water is more, so obviously the reactor volume will be higher in case of
wet process and dry pusses the volume will be less. Solid liquid separation, again dry will be
simple and this will be expensive because more liquid is available here.
Energy balance, this is more improved for dry and less improved for the wet process.
Economic performance, more improved for dry than the wet process. Retention time, also
here shorter than the wet process. Type of feedstock accepted that is greater flexibility we
have for dry process, but wet process we have lesser flexibility. So this is the development of
the wet process in last few years.
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We will see now the kinetics of the methane productions. So we have seen that there are
number of steps, so as the overall kinetics of the biogas production, obviously any one step
which one will be the lowest step that will control the overall kinetics. So basically normal
cases, the methane production step is very slowest step and then that controls the overall
kinetics of the AD process, but depending upon the feedstocks, the other steps may also be
responsible to govern the overall kinetics of this.
Like say if lignin is very high, then obviously the biological conversions will be less and the
hydrolysis will also be slow and that will be the rate limiting step. If cellulose content is high
in feedstock, then hydrolysis may be rate limiting step. Somewhere gas transfer can also be
limiting the process.
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Now overall rate kinetics if we want to represent, so R = So x µmax theta-1-Ks/theta x µmax
theta-1. So here So is the substrate concentration in the feed, µmax is the maximum specific
growth rate and theta is the retention time. So Ks is the saturation constant or substrate
concentration at which the specific growth rate is 1/2 of µmax. So that way, we can get the
value of R that is the substrate converted per liquid volume at hydraulic retention time of
theta.
So this theta value, hydraulic retention time, that will be dependent upon the nature of
materials we are using. So you see here at 30 to 37 °C, optimum conversion of glucose can be
achieved at theta of 4 hour for acidogenic phase and 4 days in methane phase reactors.
But if we use others say cellulose, then this theta value will be increased, so that was 4 hour
in this for glucose, but now here we are 1 to 2 days for acidogenic phase and which was 4
days and then it is 5 to 8 days for methanogenic phase. This table shows us some µmax and
Ks value for different types of compounds, the glucose, cellulose for acidogenic phase and
also for methanogenesis phase.
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Now there are some important facts regarding the anaerobic digestion of biomass and waste.
In the digester if we maintain high temperature, we will get more production of biogas, lower
the temperature, lesser the biogas production. So in a country where the temperature is very
less at the time some heating arrangement is made making some jacketed vessels like this or
some heat or steam or some other fluid is sent through it, hot fluid is sent through it to
maintain the temperature and pressure has not much significant affect on it.
Reduced pressure also provides little or no benefit. Then low pH and short retention time
precludes growth of methanogenic bacteria, if pH is very low, then methanogenic bacteria
will not grow and retention time is also less, so complete conversion will not be possible.
Here we do not need a very vigorous stirring, we need rapid continuous agitation of anaerobic
digester is not necessary, and in some cases it is even harmful.
Specific methane yield, so how much methane will be produced per unit mass of substrate
that will depend upon the volatile metal content in it, that is how much biodegradable COD
or VS loading in this. So these are the some important facts related to anaerobic digestion
reactions.
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Now we will see types of anaerobic digesters. There are 2 types of digesters, one is low rate
and another is high rate. So low rate means retention time will be higher and high rate means
retention time will be lower. So here for low rate, retention time is 30-60 days whereas for
high rate retention time is less than 15 days. So feed rate will also be lower in case of low rate
and higher in case of high rate, here you see 0.5 to 1.5 kg volatile solid per meter cube per
day and then we are getting 1.6 to 6.8 kg volatile solid per meter cube per day.
So this is the difference between these 2 types of anaerobic digesters. Most digesters are
heated and operated in the mesophilic range and usually made of concrete and steel as a
material of construction.
Then what would be the digester operation, obviously it handles the microorganism, so
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certain pH should be maintained. So pH, microbial growth is very specific to pH, so optimum
pH is 7.2-7.0. Most digester operates in the temperature of 30-38 degree centigrade. What
you see pH, how can we maintain the pH, we can add some alkali if needed or by maintained
by properly seeding fresh added sludge and not excessively withdrawing sludge.
If we do not withdraw excess sludge and we do not add very high amount of fresh sludge, if
you can maintain certain ratio, then the pH can be adjusted because pH changes can take
place during the reaction. Then heavy metals may inhibit digestion process and must be
eliminated at the source. The pretreatment and heavy metal removal will be done at the
earlier stage.
The supernatant liquid which is generated here that also contains some amount of organic that
can be biodegradable organics so those can be treated and clean water can be produced.
Now we will see the development in the anaerobic digestion processes and the anaerobic
digester we will see. So we have come to know that anaerobic digestion process takes
through 2 important routes, one is acidogenic and another is your methanogenic routes. So
acidogenesis takes place at lower pH and methanogenesis takes place at higher pH. The pH
range is given here say 5.5-5.9 for acidogenesis and then for methanogenesis 7.4-7.9.
We are maintaining our pH around 7, so both microorganisms are not able to give us their
maximum performance. So if we can use 2 reactors in place of one, one is at this acidic range
and another is at basic pH as mentioned here, so the microorganisms can give us their best
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performance and our overall efficiency can be improved. So that is the concept for use of
two-stage digester and which has sludge in we are using here for the feedstock here, then we
have mixing zone and actively digested sludge, then gas out, then it is sludge out the first
step.
Then it is a mixed liquor is coming out from the acidic zone, acidic pH is this one, then this is
coming here and is coming to after pH adjustment say we are going through methanogenesis
steps, then we are getting gas, and we are and getting supernatant the liquid part and then the
sludge. So that way we can use two step AD process in place of one, so we will get better
performance of the process. So up to this in this class. Thank you very much for your
patience.
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Lecture - 37
Energy from Biomass and Wastes 2 (Chemical Route)
Hi friends, now we will start discussing on the topic energy production from biomass and
waste part 2 and that is chemical route based processes. So in the part 1, we have discussed
how the biomass and waste can be converted to energy component through biological routes,
basically anaerobic digestion, and some specific type of waste we have seen that are most
suitable for that route. Similarly for the chemical route, we will also see that some specific
type of waste and biomass components will be more suitable for the energy production.
Some example say some used oil or waste grease or say some oil seeds can also be used for
this process. So what we will see some of the biomass can be directly used for chemical
conversion in which the glycerol or say lipid content is higher or some feedstock can be used
to produce the oil or lipid first then to it can be converted to biodiesel. So basically the
chemical route converts the feedstock, particularly the bio-oil or the lipids to biodiesel
through transesterification.
Now we will discuss on this contents that is the chemical route transesterification what is this,
then organic waste for transesterification that is what type of waste can be used for
transesterification process and oil seeds to oil production, then need of bio-oil upgradation via
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biodiesel production, why we can’t use bio-oil directly that part we will discuss, then
biodiesel production from bio-oil through transesterification sort of the routes and the flow
sheets and different prospects and concerns we will discuss,
And flow sheet for biodiesel production from various feedstock, and then comparison of
biodiesel and different bio-oil to justify the need of the biodiesel production.
So now we will see what the transesterification process is. We see the term indicates
transesterification, so there will be some esters and the alkyl groups of the esters will be
changed in this reaction and one example is the glycerol if we have that is the major
component of oil, in the plant oil maybe, say edible and non-edible oil if we have, so it is our
oil if we have, this oil we have here CH2OH and CH2H that is the glycerol back bone and this
OH is replaced by some organic acids.
So 3 different organic acids so that is giving us triglyceride. So this triglyceride is available in

the oil and then that has to be converted to this fatty acid methyl ester that is called biodiesel
and we will get the glycerol here. So we are getting the glycerol. So triglyceride will be
converted to fatty acid methyl esters and glycerol. So this process is called transesterification.
So these R1COOCH2 this group, we are getting this separated R1COO and CH3.
So we are getting here R1COOCH3, similarly R2COOCH3, similarly R3COOCH3. So, these
are the different compounds which we are getting, those are the composition of biodiesel, that
is called fatty acid methyl ester and this process is called transesterification process. So, this
process will not take place at any condition. So some specific requirement is there for this
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reaction. So that is we need some catalyst and we need to add methyl alcohol, so methyl
alcohol will give us the methyl group and that will be added with R1COOCH3 like this type
of esters.
So, one esters we had here, we are getting another ester, so that is transesterification and in
this case, during the processes of transesterification, an alcohol such as methanol reacts with
the triglyceride oils contained in plant oil, animal fats or recycled greases to form fatty acid
alkyl esters that is biodiesel and glycerin. The reaction requires heat and a strong base
catalyst such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide and the simplified chemical
reaction is as follows as i have explained.
Now, what type of feedstocks will be more suitable for this type of conversion processes that
part we will see. So, we have some organic waste which can go through this
transesterification process, may be of waste oil seed, it may have waster oil or cooking oil or
we may have recycled grease. So these 3 major components of the waste which can be
processed through this route, and if it is waste oil seed, then we have to get the oil first from
the oil seeds, then we will get bio oil by oil extraction.
Then bio oil or this waste oil or cooking oil and recycled grease, all those intermediate
products or all the inputs will be converted to biodiesel through the transesterification and
this process is called upgradation of the oil. So, these are the different feedstocks which can
be used or can be upgraded to biodiesel.
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Now, we will see how this bio oil can be produced from the waste oil seeds. So waste oil
seeds can be converted to bio oil through different routes. One is your conventional methods
that is expeller. Expeller that is based on the pressing on the oil seed and extract the oil from
it and then solvent extractions, so you can use some solvent also, the solvent will take the oil
part and then the residual part will be as a solid and then also will get the bio oil or some
advanced method are there, they are ultrasonic assisted extractions and then supercritical
fluid extractions.
So in this solvent extraction, we can use some solvent and then there will be some extraction
process with maintaining certain condition, and in this case, if we use ultrasonicator, then that
will help the release of oil from the oil seeds. So, if we have oil seed say, inside the oil is
there. So these oil molecules has to come out. So that can come out if the surface is dissolved
with the solvent or through the pores it made. So then these molecules will come out.
Now if we use ultrasonification, then helps the extractions of this oil and it will come easily,
so the extractions becomes easier, that is its called advanced method. Supercritical extraction
is also possible by using some carbon dioxide in supercritical phase that can be used to
extract the liquid from the outer part of the oil seed to the solvent, that is the supercritical
solvent. So, these are different methods, which have been reported to use for the extraction of
the oil from the oil seeds.
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Now, these are the oil press how it looks like various lab scale and this is your lab scale
solvent extraction unit, where the oil is extracted from the oil seeds.
What are the factors that influence the extraction of the oil from oil seeds are mentioned here,
that is type of solvent, what type of solvent we are using, that solvent has to be good
interaction with the or the mixing capacity with the lipid part or that is the oil part or the oil
seed. Then we have to biomass to solvent ratio, obviously, we have to use more solvent, more
will be gradient for the transfer of mass, so more extraction we will get. Then temperature
also influence, the temperature should not be very high.
If it is very high, then the solvent can be vaporized, or if it is very less, then also the
extraction may not be that efficient. Then extraction method, what type of extraction method
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we are using, whether it is mechanical method like expeller or chemical or we are going for a
extraction method using some solvent. So all those things will influence the efficiency. The
extraction time, how much time we are allowing that also influence what amount of oil is
coming, more we get the time, it expected that more oil will come out, and then moisture
content and there may be some optimum value for the extraction time also.
The moisture content that also influences the oil extraction method. The particular size and
shape, obviously that will also provide the surface area for the oil molecules to come out
from it. So, smaller the particles, obviously more will be the extraction. So, these are the
factors which influences the overall extraction processes.
So now we will compare the different extraction process, which have been used for the
production of bio oil from the oil seeds. So we have oil press, then solvent extraction, then
supercritical fluid extraction, and then ultrasonic assisted extraction. So, all these have some
advantage and disadvantage as given here. Then it is very simple to use and no solvent is
required, that is the great advantage, but what is the disadvantage large biomass requirements,
slow, that means its complete recovery may not be possible, some amount of oil can still be
available and it is a slow process.
Then solvent extraction process, solvent is required which may be expensive, let us say
hexanes, as we have mentioned here the hexanes, n-heptane, etc., so those are expensive
solvent can be required. Solvent is recoverable and reproducible, although we are using the
expensive solvent we can recover it, but disadvantage is that large volume of solvent is
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required and expensive solvent recovery. If we want to recover the solvent, then that recovery
also require some amount of money.
So, that is also flammable and toxics, we have to be careful for handling of the solvent. Then
is supercritical, then solvent is nontoxic and non flammable, and operation in simple. So that
way we are getting advantage replacing the solvent like hexane, n-heptane by the
supercritical carbon dioxide. This also has a limitation that is the extraction of polar
compounds from biomass is difficult and the limited interaction between supercritical carbon
dioxide and biomass. So, these are the disadvantage of this process.
The next is ultrasonic assisted. So then less extraction time as it helps to rupture the wall of
the seeds and helps to release the oil molecules from the inner side to the outer side and to the
solvent. So less solvent requirement for that reason and good penetration of solvent into cell
and more release of cell contents. So, these are the advantage when we use the ultrasonic
assisted extraction method. This has some difficulty, that they scale up is not very easy and
power requirement is also very high. So these are the advantage and disadvantage of different
types of oil extraction methods from the oil seed.
After this extraction of oil, what oil we are getting that contains different types of lipids as
mentioned here, the different types of say lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic
acid, folic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and arachidonic acid. So, these are the seeds
which are normally available in the bio oil, which is produced from the oil seeds and these
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are the elementary formula and from these formula if we see, most structure of this
compound, so that it C12H24O2, so CH3(CH2)10COOH, so there is no unsaturation.
For the second myristic also there is no unsaturation, here also no unsaturation, here also no
unsaturation. So if we go for these fatty acids, then we are getting unsaturation here. Here so
maybe one unsaturation in this case, somewhere it maybe 2 unsaturation also. So that way
saturated and unsaturated both type of acids are available in the bio oil. So these type of fatty
acids will also influence the quality of bio diesel.
So then what is the need of this bio oil? Bio oil we are getting just simply extracting the oil
part or lipid part from the oil seed, but what is the need of its upgradation, because of its
inferior quality. If we see the viscosity of this bio oil is higher, and we need to reduce it for its
applications in the engine and the plant oil is much more viscous than its conventional diesel
fuel that is 11 to 17 times thicker than the conventional diesel oil. So, we have to break the
viscosity, we have to reduce the viscosity of this.
Then plant oil has also very different chemical properties and combustion characteristics to
those of the conventional diesel fuel, so we have to change those properties by the
conversion. Then if the fuel is too thick, it will not automize properly. So it will be difficult to
use in the engine or the injectors may get coked up and leading to poor performance, higher
exhaust emissions and reduced engine life.
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In the waste oil or cooking oil or recycle grease, those waste materials lose their fuel
properties basically and we require the recycling and reuse and then conversation is required.
Transesterification process basically improves all those qualities and gives an improved
quality to the upgraded product that is called biodiesel. So that is the need of the upgradation
of the bio oil and that is done through the transesterification process.
Now depending upon the feedstocks also, the process maybe to some extent different, so that
part we are going to discuss and here are the generalized flow sheet for biodiesel production
from various feedstocks. So generalized process if we see, we have some plant oil or so that
is vegetable oil we have say or we have say recycle grease. So what is the basic difference
between these 2. So if we think about the vegetable oils, then free fatty acids in these case is
less, but we think about the recycle grease, we are having higher free fatty acid.
So when free fatty acid is available in the feedstock, then if we go for transesterification
process, then free fatty acid, they will help to the production of soap, so we have to remove
the free fatty acid first. So how will do, we will have to use some alcohol and then that will
be the H2SO4 will be consumed by that process and then we will go for the transesterification
reaction. So if we take the vegetable oils first, then vegetable oil that is containing
triglycerides, we need one catalyst and we need some alcohol.
So alcohol and catalyst, methanol plus KOH or NaOH that is mixed with this vegetable oils.
So then maybe vegetable oil or maybe say recycled oil, if recycled oil, then we have to
separate this acid free fatty acids we have to get it free from the free fatty acids in the free
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state and then that is called dilute acid esterification step, then the product from this dilute
acid esterification step will come to the transesterification reaction and then this is after that it
is very common to both type of feedstock, but up to this, these two processes are different.
When free fatty acids is less, we do not need any dilute acid esterification, but when the free
fatty acid is high, then we need this process. Then when starting from this transesterification
reaction, then we will be getting the product of it, then those products will be having
obviously glycerol, unconverted alcohol, and water also, separation has to be done. So, we
will get biodiesel part and another we will get glycerin part, so biodiesel and glycerin part
will separate and biodiesel will also contain alcohol, so will be biodiesel refining.
So what alcohol we are getting, it is going back to this and then refined biodiesel will get.
Similarly what glycerin we are getting here that crude glycerin. So crude glycerin will also
contain some soap, some alcohol, water, etc., so that refining of the crude glycerin is also
required. So after refining we will get refined glycerin and alcohol part which is being
recovered that will go to this alcohol recovery sections and will be recycled back, can be used
in the transesterification reaction.
So, this is the overall flow sheet for the transesterification of vegetable oils or recycled
grease.
Now, from this flow sheet, it is very clear to us that it had basic 5 steps. One is acid
esterification, then transesterification, methanol recovery, biodiesel refining, and glycerin
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refining. This acid esterification is also called as pretreatment and this is required basically
when the free acid content in the feedstock is higher.
Then what is the acid esterification and how we will do it. So, free fatty acids in biodiesel
feedstock react with alkali catalyst like a NaOH and KOH and from soaps, so which reduce
the oil properties of the biodiesel. So, that is the major disadvantage. If free fatty acid is
available, then free fatty acid will react with NaOH and it will form soap, which is not
desirable in the biodiesel product. So, triglyceride + free fatty acids + alcohol if we take base
catalyst, we will get sodium plus potassium salt or free fatty acids + triglycerides.
So, this will be the initial step because the free fatty acids reacts earlier quickly then the
triglyceride. So free fatty acids reacts quickly than the triglycerides, that is also formations
will take place very easily. Then low levels of free fatty acids if available, then this can be
managed, say around 4% can be managed. How it can be managed, initially we will add some
additional NaOH, additional NaOH if it is added, then these reactions will take fast and the
soap formation will not be that very high as the free fatty acids is less.
So that can be manageable to some extent. What will be the alkali content in case of three
fatty acids, there are some formula. So, these catalyst concentration we have to add in excess
amount and that excess amount is presented here. If we use NaOH, then that will be
percentage of free fatty acids x 0.144 + 1%. If it is KOH, then it will be percentage of free
fatty acids x 0.197/0.86 + 1%. If it is sodium methoxide, then percent of free fatty acid x
0.190 + 0.25%.
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So, these are the some formula which are available and that can be used for the removal of
those free fatty acids by these catalyst itself. But when it will be higher than 4%, then we
have to remove the free fatty acids first as the pretreatment state and basically in case of
animal fats and recycle grease, we get more than 4% free fatty acids and it requires
pretreatment. So the sulfuric acid is dissolved in methanol and then mixed with the pretreated
oil.
The mixer is heated and stirred and the free fatty acids are converted to biodiesel. That
means, fatty acid is converted to biodiesel first through the acid catalysis reactions. So, fatty
acid is not available as free fatty acids, it is now into glyceride form. So, once the reaction is
complete, it is dewatered and fed to the transesterification process, then it is going for the
transesterification process as shown in this step.
So, what are the alternative methods to remove the free fatty acids or manage the free fatty
acids. One we have discussed that we can use some more amount of alkali if it is less than
4%, free fatty acid is les s than 4%. Otherwise you can use some enzymatic method okay,
enzymatic method can convert the free fatty acids into glyceride and then but this is very
costly and not popular choice.
So glycerolysis, in this process, glycerol is added, some amount of glycerol is added and then
free fatty acid and glycerol reacts in presence of ZnCl2 catalyst and it is converted, FFA is
converted to monoglyceride and diglycerides plus water. So, this is one method which can be
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followed to convert the free fatty acids to monoglyceride or diglycerides and then water is
vented off and it requires high temperature and it is also slow process. Then acid catalysis
followed by base catalysis.
So, if we can use some acid catalyst, then if we use base catalytic reactions for
transesterification, then also it can be very good solution. If we use sulfuric acid, then it
catalyzes both esterification and transesterification reactions and esterification of free fatty
acid that is within 1 hour this reaction takes place, but for transesterification it takes 2 days at
60 degrees centigrade. So, this property we can exploit it. So, within 1 hour the FFA is
converted to esters whereas the triglyceride is converted to esters with 2 days of reactions.
So, if we have free fatty acids, at the initial stage you can add acid sulfuric acid, so the free
fatty acid should be converted to esters. So when we will be going for transesterification
process and use alkali catalyst, then the production of soap will be reduced, the chance of the
soap production will be reduced. So, that is the concept.
Then how we know that free fatty acid is available or not or what would be conversion of free
fatty acids, how we will determine. So, conversion of free fatty acid is your obviously the
initial minus final, so initial - final acid value/initial acid value, so that we can measure. If we
can measure avid value, then you can get the conversion of free fatty acids. So acid value we
have to measure. So, how we can measure acid value, that can be measured by this
expression.
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So, what we have to do, known amount of sample is added to some amount of neutralized
ethanol and is fully dissolved by heating. Then phenolphthalein is used as indicator and the
sample is titrated with standard alkali solution, then how much alkali solution is taking and
what is the strength of the alkali solution that will be used to calculate the acid value as per
this expressions.
So S = 56.1 x V x c/m where V is the volume of KOH employed for the titration in mL and
then c is concentration of any solution which we have used in mole/L unit and then S which
we are getting here that is the mg KOH per gram waste cooking oil. So that way we can
determine the free fatty acids.
Then we are coming to transesterification. So after free fatty acids removal or with
conversion into esters, we are going for the transesterification reaction, and transesterification
reactions we have explained what reaction is and we see we need some catalyst and base
catalyst is used. So if homogeneous catalyst is used like NaOH or KOH, then it will convert
the triglyceride to methyl esters and then the glycerol, and at the same time if we have some
additional catalyst and even in the stoichiometric ratio also some amount of soap formation
will also take place.
So, soap, what is soap, sodium and potassium salt of fatty acids, so, fatty acids which will be
generated during the process can also react with sodium hydroxide and can be converted to
sodium salt or potassium salt that is called soap. So, efforts are on to replace this
homogeneous catalyst by a heterogeneous one. For example, say if we have sodium
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hydroxide, so then sodium hydroxide what it will do, in the immediate it will give sodium
plus and OH minus ion.
So, this sodium plus is available to be attached with the acid group and then converted to
soap, but if we use calcium oxide as a heterogeneous catalyst, so then it will provide site for
the reaction, but it will not give any calcium two plus ion, it will provide site for the reactions
for the conversion of the glyceride to methyl esters, but it will not give Ca two plus, this is
not available. So, the salt of fatty acid productions is not possible. So heterogeneous catalyst
will be having some advantage that it will not produce soap in the product which is not
desirable, soap is not desirable, it will decrease the quality of the biodiesel.
Now there are many factors which influence the biodiesel production or the performance of
the transesterification process likes the reaction temperature, the reaction time, alcohol to oil
mole ratio, how much alcohol we are using that influence it, catalyst concentration, type of
catalyst, free fatty acids content, mixing, types of alcohol, water content and catalyst types.
So these are the factors which influence the performance of the transesterification process.
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Here we will see some example of heterogeneous catalyst. Here we see sunflower, this is
your feedstock, then solvent methanol used, then we got some catalyst that is strontium
oxide, then these are the operating conditions and these are the percentage yield. For soybean
oil, methanol, K2CO3/TiO2 that was the catalyst, and then under these operating conditions,
we got this percent of 25.15% of yield, biodiesel yield.
Babassu coconut oil, again this is the solvent methanol, for all the cases were having
methanol solvent, and this is another heterogeneous catalyst, again it is having 80% of yield.
Waste cooking oil, here also having 92% of yield. So here we see the temperature is different,
alcohol to oil ratio is different, catalyst loading is different, and reaction time is different. So
all those parameter influence the performance of the process for the yield of biodiesel
production. But in this case, when we use the heterogeneous catalyst, the quality of the
biodiesel improves, it does not have any soap in it.
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Then methanol recovery, so after the transesterification, we are having say one biodiesel
stream and another glycerol stream. So from both the stream, we will be getting methanol,
just application of heat we will get the methanol early, it will be vaporized fast and by
condensation we will get the methanol recovered. Then biodiesel refining. So once this
separated from the glycerin, the biodiesel goes through a series of cleaning up or purification
step to remove excess alcohol, residual catalyst and soaps.
These consist of multistage washing with clean water and the product biodiesel is then dried
and sent for the storage. It can be further purified through an additional distillation step to
produce a more purified product.
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Glycerin refining. The glycerin will also have some soap, some catalyst, some water and
some alcohol. So, there will be a series of preparation steps or the cleaning steps. So the
water and alcohol are also removed to produce 50 to 80% crude glycerin. The remaining
constituents include untreated fat and oils. In the large biodiesel plants, glycerin can be
further purified through a series of unit operations to produce product of 99% purity and the
purified product is suitable for use in pharmaceuticals and cosmetic use and many other
applications also.
Now, we will see the comparison of these biodiesel which is produced from the bio oil
through this transesterification route with some bio oil, so here the properties kinematic
viscosity, cetane number, heating value, cloud point, pour point, flash point, density all are
fuel properties. We see here this is the standard diesel, this is the biodiesel from Babassu soil
and this is Babassu oil, this is your soybean oil and biodiesel from soybean oil.
So, if we have 32.6 millimeter square per second kinematic viscosity, it is reduced to 4.5 for
this case, here 30.3 to 3.6, at the diesel is having 3.06. So by this conversion, we are able to
make the oil to biodiesel with almost similar viscosity or slightly higher viscosity while the
other case in the original bio oil the viscosity was very very high. Similarly, the cetane
number is also increased for these biodiesel productions, here 37 to 40 and 30 to 63 and these
values are very comparable to 50.
Heating value also, this is a high but heating values all these biodiesel is not high, because
you know we have high content of oxygen in these biodiesel with respect to petrol diesel. So
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the heating value is less. Other properties are also very comparable. So, here also the density
also you see, the density of biodiesel this much, so soybean oil is having high density, after
this conversions, the density reduced, here also density reduced and this density and this
density are very near to the biodiesel.
So that way, the bio oil quality is improved and can be used as a biodiesel. So this is the
chemical route through which waste and biomass can be converted to 2 different fuel
components. So thank you very much for patience.
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Lecture - 38
Energy from Biomass and Wastes 3 (Physical Route)
Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic renewable energy, biomass and waste part 3. So,
previously we have discussed on biomass and waste in part 1 and part 2 and chemical routes
and biological routes we have discussed, and here will discuss on physical routes which is
used for making the biomass and waste suitable for its application in reactors or in say
thermal applications like if I want to use the biomass and waste incinerator or in gasifiers,
then we need to make it in a usable form. That means, normally the biomass and waste are
having less density and it is difficult to handle in reactive system. So, this physical process
helps to make it harder to give some particular strength and save also and it becomes easy to
use in the conversion process like incineration, gasification, etc.
So, the content of this class is the physical conversion of biomass and waste for energy use
and that will be giving some focus on the densification of biomass and waste. So, our
objective will be to densify the biomass and waste to give certain strength, certain properties,
which are more desirable for applications in energy production by this feedstock.
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So the definition of densification will be like this. The densification is the process of
increasing the density of something, it makes a fuel denser and gives more uniform properties
with respect to the raw form. So, this is the main objective of the densification and
densification can be done by some mechanism that is your compaction or compression, and
concentrations and concretion. So, these are the steps which help to perform the densification
process.
So, here we will put some material here and we press it, then it will be densified. Advantage
of this process is that this is very simplified mechanical handling and feeding, and uniform
combustion in boilers, the feed will be having almost uniform properties, then reduced dust
production, reduced possibility of spontaneous combustion in storage, then simplified storage
and handling infrastructure, lowering capital requirements at the combustion plant, and
reduced cost of transportation due to increased energy density.
So, these are the advantage. Disadvantage is that the major disadvantage to biomass
densification technologies is the high cost associated with some of the densification
processes. So, we will see that densification processes are costlier in some cases. In some
cases, it is not that costlier and people use that also.
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Then we will see the mechanism. So, you see the figure here. The molecular forces, van der
waal’s forces can be responsible for the binding, electrostatic forces can be responsible for
the binding or interlocking, there will be some particles and those can be under pressure that
can be interlocked or there will be some, if we add some additives, then hardening binders
highly viscous binders, then also makes some adsorption layer and binders connect the
particles of the biomass and waste and makes them strong. So, these are different processes,
which are responsible for the densification of the biomass and waste.
So, for this process, for densification process, we need some pressure, high pressure is
required or we may add some binder. When we use binder, then the pressure requirement is
less, and when we do not use binder, then pressure requirement is high. So, when the material
is compacted with low to moderate pressure, then the space between the particles is reduced.
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If pressure is increased at certain stage particular to each material, the cell walls of the
cellulose constituent are collapsed.
Then the pressures required to achieve such high densities are typically 100 megapascal. So if
we apply very high pressure, then the cellulosic materials maybe coming out and they can
help for binding the particles. A binding agent is necessary to prevent the compressed
material from springing back and eventually returning to its original form. If we do not use
binders for at low pressure if it is initially, the particulars may be compressed and again it
will be springing back. So, that is why binder is required.
Additives of high viscous bonding media such as tar, molasses, and other molecular weight
organic liquid can from bonds very similar to solid bridges, so these the mechanism and
adhesive forces at solid liquid interface and cohesion forces with the solid are used for
binding. So, there are if it is a solid and liquid interface, there are adhesive forces and solid-
solid interface, there will be some cohesive forces. So, these forces are responsible for the
binding.
The binding agent can be either be added to the process or when compressing ligneous
material, be part of the material itself in the form of lignin, that we are talking about that if
we apply very high pressure, then lignin material can help to bind the biomass and waste
particles.
So, after the application of pressure, we will be getting the dense biomass and waste and that
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will be either in pellet forms or maybe in briquettes forms. The pellets are relatively smaller
diameter, smaller size, and briquettes are bigger size. So, that is typical definition or we can
say there is a typical limit of the diameter on the basis of which this can be said as briquettes
or pellets that is equal to 30 millimeter. If diameter is greater than 30 millimeter, we can say
it is briquettes, and if it is less than 30 millimeter, it is pellets, but this is the rough distinction
and it is arbitrary also.
So, the factors which influence the densification we will discuss now. Under the physical
properties, there is moisture content, bulk density, void volume as well as thermal properties
of the biomass are the most important factors in the binding process or the biomass
densification. So, what are the moisture content, bulk density, void volume and the thermal
properties also are responsible for this.
The ultimate density of a briquette will depend on to some extent on a range of factors
including most importantly the nature of the original material and the machine used for this
operation and the conditions we have used.
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On that basis, we can have 3 types of briquetting process. One is your low pressure
compaction with a binder, then medium pressure compaction with a heating, and high
pressure compaction. So, there are 3 options the people have used for this binding process. In
case of low pressure up to 5 megapascal, then up to intimidate it is 5-100 megapascal and
high pressure means 100 megapascal pressure or more. So, when we use a high pressure, then
sufficient lignin is released which helps to agglomerate the particles to and from the
briquette.
An intermediate pressure machines may or may not require binders depending on the nature
of the material, and low pressure machines positively require binders. So, these are 3 types of
briquetting machines and briquetting processes.
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So, high and medium pressure operation if you consider, then high and medium pressure
compaction normally does not use any additional binder as we have discussed. Then the
briquetting process is based either on piston press or screw press. So mostly, piston press or
screw press. Apart from these, there are some other also, roller press and pellet mill. So roller
press and pellet mill can also be used, but these are having initial high investment cost, these
require high initial investment costs and that is why this is not implemented in developing
countries.
So these are also having high capacity, but biomass and waste are scattered source, so these
are collection of these and then to convert it into this, that is not practices in a small sector,
these collected and produce. So bigger scale machines is not used in developing countries. In
this case, we get the piston press or screw press based machines.
Now we will see the piston press. So here the figure shows the piston press. So this is the
piston, so here if we put the feedstock, so feedstock under gravity it will go down and when it
will come entering here, so this piston will have back and forth movement and this will be
pressed here. So this, we are getting the briquette. So here, the piston can give us very high
pressure. So the density of this material will be very high with respect to other method.
Something piston press punch the feed material into a die with very high pressure, either
mechanically by reciprocating ram powered by the massive flywheel or by hydraulic driven
piston. So, hydraulic driven pistons any mechanical arrangement is made and in this pressure
developed here, and we get the briquette.
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Now we will see the screw press. So, this is a figure which shows the operation of screw
press. So we will feed the feedstock here and then the screw is moving. So, when the screw
moves, then it gives some forward movement to the materials and materials moves towards
this where the die is there. So, here the material is coming and pressure is developed. So, high
pressure developed, then here, there is some briquette arrangement. So, briquette is going out
due to the pressure.
Here, the diameter is high, here diameter is less, so there is some pressure. So, this pressure
will also help to get the material out, we will get the briquette here. So, this is the mechanism
of the operation of the screw press or the screw extruder. In a screw press/screw extruder, the
rotating screw takes the material from feed port through the barrel and compacts it against a
die which assists the buildup of a pressure gradient along the screw.
So, that we have discussed just now. It consist 3 distinct zones, here we are getting the
feeding zone, then it is your transport zone and this zone is our extrusion zone here, this
extrusion zone.
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Now, the performance of the process will depend upon some factors that is your the ability
and cohesion of the feed material, then the particle size and its distribution, surface forces and
adhesiveness. So, these are the factors which influence the performance of the process. The
screw presses produce high quality briquettes, this also produce high quality briquettes with a
homogeneous structure and good combustibility and require only little maintenance.
So, the main disadvantage is that the wear of the screw leads to elevate the cost of the spare
parts okay. So, the operating costs may be higher because of that wear of the screw.
Then we are coming to low pressure operation. So under low pressure operation as we have
mentioned that, we need to add some binder. So, here biomass and waste will be mixed with
some binder and then initially some step will be given and then there will be some curing
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time. So that way, we have to use some binder and organic binders may be used or inorganic
binders may be used.
So, different types of organic binders are provided here that is bitumen, molasses, starch, coal
tar, and resin and inorganic cement, lime, clay, and sulphite liquor. So, these have been
reported and used for the briquette formation. During the compaction process, the briquettes
are brought into shape without giving them substantial strength, and after that, a subsequent
curing step, drying, burning, chemical reaction, etc., the green briquettes are formed. So,
these green briquettes developed and with the required strength and stability.
Now, we will see the comparison of different machines. So, we have screw press, we have
piston press, we have roller press, we have pellet mills. So, these two mills are high initial
cost, but these can be used for the production of very large amount of products also. The
throughput is high in these two cases. When we compare, then we see the piston press, we see
the density, bulk density her, piston press we are having less than 0.1 and here it is having
0.5-0.6, and there is 0.7-0.8.
If we see the specific energy consumption, then this is 37-150, 37-77 here, here 30-83 and 16
to 75. So, this is also different for all the machines. So, these machines energy requirement
you see also comparable, here it is higher, but these are comparable with this also, screw
press also. These are advantage, but this will be producing more product and initial cost is
high. Now if you see about the output of the machine, so this screw press is continuous, this
is also continuous, pellet mill also continuous, but piston is our in strokes, that works in
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strokes.
So particle size, you see 2-6 millimetre, here 6-12 millimetre, less than 4, less than 3
millimetre, so are giving bigger particles in this case. The maintenance is low, here it is high,
low, low. So, these are the different process for the densification which have been used and
this is a comparison.
Now, when the briquettes are formed, the briquettes will be densified, it is fine, but still it
will be having more volatile matter. So, when we will be using it, then it will be producing
more smokes and we need to remove that, so carbonization of the briquettes is done. So,
carbonization process is required. As we have mention that it increases the smoke generation,
it also reduced ignition and burning properties, then low heat value and not suitable under wet
condition.
These are the demerits of the briquettes and carbonization if we do, then these demerits will
be reduced. The carbonization is the partial pyrolysis process, is heated up to 600 °C and
burnable gases like CO, CH4, CH2, formaldehyde, methanol, formic and acetic acid as well as
non-burnable gases like CO2, H2O and liquid tar are released. So if we heat it in absence of
oxygen, then it will be converted to char along with these products.
So, why we do this? By this carbonization, carbon content increases in the briquettes and
volatile metal reduces. So when we will use in combustion process, some smoke formation
and tar formations will be reduced.
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The off-gas of the process is of high energetic value and can be used to balance the energy
and heat demand of the carbonization and this carbonization process can be done either after
briquette formation or before briquette formation also the biomass and waste can be
converted to char and then it will be made into briquette. So here either carbonization
followed by grinding and briquetting or grinding followed by briquetting and carbonization
both are possible.
Now we will see how the property changes due to the briquette formations and char
formation. So here the pine needle, so then pine needle char, then char to pine needle
briquette. So, you see the basically volatile matter content, in the pine needle we are having
70.03%, when it is converted to char it is 17.96%, and then briquette it is 29.04%. So,
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briquetting process is helping us to reduce the volatile matter content.
Now, we see the fixed carbon. So, here 15.83 for pine needle, for char it is 69.150, and here it
is 52.85. So, briquetting process again helping us to get more fixed carbon in it. So when it
will burned further in the combustion unit, it will be less amount of material will be required
to release same amount of energy also and you see the how the material changes as this is
your pine needle and this is your char and then these are the briquettes. The ash content also
changes here 4.37, 5.390, and 11.21 because it is converted into briquette form.
Now briquette characteristics. There are some properties the briquette should have because
briquettes have to be transported from one place to other place. So, one will be there is
handling characteristics and another will be fuel characteristics. Our main objective for the
production of briquettes is to get energy from it, so use it as a fuel in combinations. So
heating value, size and shape.
Heating value is the fuel property, size and shape is also the fuel properties, and it also helps
to achieve the performance of the reactor system. Then the handling characteristics are bulk
density, friability, resistance to humidity, these are very important properties. Now, both are
important, but if I want to get one type of property in higher extent, then the other property
may be compensative. So the distinction is not always clear, that is these handling properties
and fuel characteristic, this distinction is not always clear and sometimes they interfere with
each other.
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For example, improving the handling characteristics by making a more dense briquette, if I
produce more dense briquette so that it will be easy to transport but or easy to handle, but at
the same time, it will be detrimental on its combination, because combustion requires porous
material, so more combustion we will get, so in that case, we have to compromise.
Then we will see the manual briquette machines which are used in small scale, they are small
machines and anybody can use it easily. So, here different parts are there. We have one base
plate. So, these are base plates and base plates will having some ejection piston. So, if we see
here, we have one hydraulic jack here. So, then the pistons are there, and ejection pistons and
transmission rod.
So, ejection piston and transmission rod will help the transition of the force from this
hydraulic machine to the plate and ejection piston will help to press the materials in the die
and when the lid will be opened, it will help to get the material out from it. So, then briquette
die is also there. So, these are the briquette die here and then hydraulic jack as I have
discussed. So, hydraulic jack, then transmission rod, then your ejection piston, and then we
have base plate on it and the lid or just say the cover of it.
So, then it will be covered and then from the bottom, hydraulic jack will work and then that
will be pressed, after that, that will be taken out by the ejection piston. So, in this case, if we
have say 20 briquettes at a time it can produce, so 20 transmission rod and 20 ejection piston
if we have, then the area requirement will be 20 x pie r square, so pi/4 x d square where d is
the diameter of the die diameter. So, if the die diameter of each is 28 millimetre for example,
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then it will be 0.28 metre, the number of mould is equal to 20, so total area = 20 x pie r
square or pi d square/4, that is equal to 0.0123 metre square. So, this is the area requirement.
Then in this case, so how much weight the hydraulic jack has to be lifted. Let us see. So mass
of one pressure transmission rod equal to say 450 gram, we are assuming this, and the
number of pressure transmission rod = 20. So total mass of 20 transmission rod = this x this,
9000 gram = 9 kg. Then mass of ejection piston 20 numbers we have. So 100 gram of it we
are assuming, so that 20 x 100, so 2000, that is equal to 2 kg we are getting here. Mass of the
base plate is 4.5 kg, we are assuming.
So, maximum mass of one wet briquette sample is equal to 50 gram we are assuming it. So,
the total mass of briquette samples that will be number of briquette sample x mass of one
sample, that is equal to 20 x 50 = 1000 gram = 1 kg.
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So, total mass to be lifted by the hydraulic jack is the total mass of the transmission rod, mass
of base plate, total mass ejection piston, and total mass of briquette samples. So, we have got
9 kg + 2 kg + 4.5 kg + 1 kg, so 16.5 kg. So, if g = 9.81 kg per second square. So, then, we are
getting weight to be lifted equal to 16.5 x 9.81, that is equal to 161.87 Newton. So, this is the
weight we need to lift by the hydraulic jack.
Then what is the force that we have to calculate. How can you calculate the force that we will
discuss now. Say a 10 tonnes hydraulic jack, we are using a 10 tonnes hydraulic jack that is
equal to 10,0000 Newton hydraulic jack was used to lift the missing components and
compress the briquettes. So if this is the situation, then compaction force can be calculated
using the pressure. So, what would be compaction force that can also be calculated?
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So, read from the pressure gauge connected to the hydraulic jack is equal to say 17.5 kilo
Newton per metre square, that is one example that this is the pressure press the pressure
gauge is showing this reading and the machine has 20 moles, then we can calculate what is
the compaction force. We are getting the pressure here. So what is the compaction force that I
am interested to calculate? So, in that case, what we will do, we will use the formula pressure
equal to force area. So, pressure is given here.
So, you have to calculate the area and we get the force. So, in this case area Ac = 20, now 20
number of moles we have. So 20 x pi/4 x d square. So that is equal to 0.0123 metre square.
So if Fc is equal to this, Ac x P, which is given here, so that we are getting 0.2153 kilo
Newton that is equal to 215.3 Newton. So that way we can calculate what is the preset
requirement. So up to this in this class. Thank you very much for your patience.
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Lecture - 39
Energy Conservations
Hi friends, now we will start discuss on the topic energy conservations. So far, we have
discussed on the production of energy from fossil fuels and from different renewal energy
resources and we have discussed how the energy can be produced in more cleaner way from
the fossil fuels also. After taking sufficient efforts to develop newer cleaner technology we
are able to reduce the emissions and to achieve sustainability goal, but there are still some
scope, that is not fully technical, but that is based on the practice.
So, that is called energy conservations. So here, our target is to know about the practices or
the ways which we can implement to reduce the need of electricity to perform the specific
work, that is to prevent the loss of electricity on other way also.
So in this class, we will discuss on energy conservation for optimization of energy usage and
practice for energy conservation. Now we will see the energy conservation for efficient use of
energy. There are some energy efficiency and GDP. If a country has more GDP, this does not
mean that it is also energy efficient country then as you see energy efficiency may be less
also, that we have discussed in our previous classes.
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So here how we can increase that efficiency that is the point of discussion, and if we can
develop some practice, we can improve that energy efficiency and government of India has
also taken some measures to achieve this target the energy efficiency to increase the energy
efficiency. The energy conservation bill in 2001 the government has passed for better
utilization of energy and conservation of the same, that is energy. Bureau of energy efficiency
had been established and this body keeps watch on energy consumption patterns and
develops norm and appliances.
They have developed the star ratings, that is BEE has also initiated star rating system for
electrical appliances and CFLs, geysers, refrigerators, etc. and energy conservation can be
achieved through increased efficient energy use in consumption with decreased energy
consumption and or reduce consumption from conventional energy sources. So any
individual or any organization can develop the practices and they can choose to conserve
energy to reduce energy cost and promote economic security. So this energy consumption
refers to efforts made to reduce energy consumption basically.
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We will see some energy conservation areas where there is a good scope for energy
conservation. So energy conservation at households, at each household level we can develop
some practice so that the energy wastage will be reduced and utilization will be improved.
Energy conservation in industry and other places also, there are lot of scopes. Energy
conservation at community level, then also we have scope here, energy conservation in
transportation sector, energy conservation in agricultural pump.
So these are some area where there is a good scope for the conservation of energy and will
discuss that part. So energy conservation at household level, so at household level energy
conservation in major appliances for domestic use are say refrigerator, so we can conserve
energy here refrigerator. We can conserve energy at oven/micro oven, we can conserve
energy in ironing, conserve in cooking, energy conserving in washing machine, etc.
For example if we in case of cooking, if we use less gas flow rate, then it takes some more
time for cooking, but the loss of heat is reduced significantly. Similarly for iron, we do not to
keep the iron on for a longer period, we if we use auto control mode then it is better, it will be
you conserving electricity and similar for refrigerator, we may maintain the temperature
which is required for us, we may not go for sharp temperature. So, there are some specific
applications, when we need we will go to that extent, otherwise we will be using in normal
range, so that way also we can do.
Energy conservation during lighting, so during lighting, we can also follow some procedure
so that our eye will not be affected, will be getting sufficient illuminations from this and at
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the same time will be able to reduce the wastage or unnecessary use of electricity. Energy
conservation during cooling, the cooling system also there are some natural cooling systems
are also that can be used, say water spray, that also can gives good cooling, one example of
that energy conservation of that.
Energy efficient building construction, building can be constructed in such a way so that
passive building constructions that we have discussed in the previous class also that helps to
take heat from the outside into the room in winter days and in summer days the reverse, it
prevents the passage of heat from outside to inside. Energy conservation in industry, that is so
to conserve energy in the industry, the one practice is very very important than it is revealed
that is energy auditing and process modifications.
If you have some process which is using more energy, then we can replace that one. There
are number of techniques that is pinch analysis that is optimization of the energy use in the or
heat loss, to reduce the heat loss in the unit or process industries, those are also used, so
process modification. Improved measuring instruments, energy loss reductions by pinch
technology that we are talking about and that can also help the process modifications and
light load reduction. So these are some process through which the industry can achieve more
energy conservation.
Energy conservation at community levels and housing complexes also. So if there is housing
complex, if we can develop some technique that all lights will be stopped when it is not
necessary. So some timers may be used. When the people will go on that way, the light will
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be on and when there will be no one, the light will be off automatically, that way also the
energy conservation can be achieved. Training program about energy efficient repairs should
be organized.
Only single elevator lift should be operated during non-peak hours and non-peak hours then
we do not use multiple lifts. Water pump should be switched off during non-peak utility
hours. Installation of photoelectric controls or timers should be used that we are discussing.
Then energy conversions in transportation sector, so in transportation sector also if you can
develop some practices, then also we will able to control the loss of the energy and conserve
energy like the car speed should be maintained as far as possible 50 to 60 km per hour.
So engine are designed in such a way this time the oil requirement becomes less, fuel
requirement becomes less or optimum. We should avoid free frequent starts and stops to
reduce fuel consumption. We should apply brakes gradually as far as possible. Fuel economy
that have maximizing behavior, moderate driving and driving at lower speeds and turning off
vehicles’ engine at stops rather than idling and using cruise control. So these are some
practices which can adopt to conserve energy in this sector.
Energy efficiency in building construction, that is very good insulation of walls, roofs, and
basement. Then windows with high quality double or triple glazing, so that also helps the
energy conservation. Air tight construction. Avoid cooling demand that is sun shading in
summer and natural cooling resources, so that way we can do it.
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During lighting when we will use the lighting systems in the residences, we can think about
the requirement of energy and then how much energy we are actually putting. So interior
lighting power allowance that is called interior lighting power allowance by the building area
method is determined by some procedures. So there are 2 methods to determine how much
light is required in a building that is building area method and space by space method.
So we will be discussing the building area method. So what is the meaning of this method
that we have to determine allowed lighting power density LPD, lighting power density?
Lighting power density in table here. So if we have different parts of the residence, that is
automotive facility, then we have convention centre, we have dining, we have bar lounge or
say cafeteria, family dining, dormitory, gymnasium, healthcare and clinic and hospital, hotel,
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library, manufacturing facility, motel, motion picture theatre and multifamily residential,
museum, office, parking garage, performing arts theatre, police/fire station, post office,
religious building, retail or mall, school, university, sports arena, transportations, warehouse
and workshop.
In these different areas, this is the LPD so that is the lighting power density. So these are the
lighting power density we need. We do not need the lighting power density of 11.8 watt per
metre square in case of automotive facility which is required for museum. So more energy is
required, more light is required in case of museum, more is required in case of arts and
theater. So less is required in case of warehouse, less is required in case of automotive
facilities, but many time we cannot identify these areas and the requirement and we use more
energy.
So if we have some idea on this, the requirement of energy for different areas, accordingly we
can use different power of the bulbs, then we can consume some amount of energy. So this is
the concept of this energy conservations in lighting area. How can you calculate the total
energy required, that can be done by this formula, ILPA that is interior lighting power
allowance, so that is equal to sum of GLFA x LPD.
What is LPD, that is your allowed lighting power density and so GLFA that is what is the
total area we are having, different types of area we are having, so that will be multiplied by
LPD of this that is gross lighted floor area GLFA. So different types of area we have, say
somewhere we may have 2 kitchens, we may have 2 garage, so all those cases we have to
multiply this with the number. So area so we are having gross lighted floor area x LPD, that
is the lighting power density.
So type of building or area, type of area and the area of the type x LPD of that type, then we
will sum up all those things, all areas, then that will give us ILPA, that is the interior lighting
power allowance. So that way it is calculated.
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Now energy conservation in industry through motors. When we use the motors in industry,
then we have to be careful for the operation of this because you know there are in some cases
what happens the power which is coming to the motor, that is not completely converted to the
work. So there are some power factor. So the power factor is there that is equal to true
power/apparent power. So true power W/VA that is mentioned here, that is equal to true
power/apparent power. So power factor is an expression of energy efficiency and is the ratio
of the true power in a circuit to the apparent power delivered to the circuit. So this is the
definition of the power factor.
So motor has that power factor also. So in case of more the power factor, we will be get more
true power, so how much power the motor is getting and how much it is converting to the
usable form that is our power factor. So here, we have some correlation. True power and this
is apparent power, so watt and this is VA. So this is a relationship and this is reactive power.
So how much true power, reactive power, apparent power, so these 3 types of powers we
have and these are related like this.
So say we need to get certain amount of work done by the motor, that is what amount of work
is being done that is your true one, that is actually have done it, that energy used for that
application and what amount is coming as input of the motor that is our apparent power, so
this ratio is power factor. Now, poor power factor can result in heat damage to insulation and
other circuit components, reductions in the amount of available useful power, and require an
increase in conductor and equipment sizes.
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Demand which is also known as the apparent power kVA is the measure of the amount of
power used to run machinery and equipment during a certain period of time. So if I have
increased my demand, but the supplier is not able to meet that requirement, so the supplier
may impose some restriction on need and can impose some tax on it, means that some
demands of charges to the bills of large customers to offset differences between supply and
demand, so that way that is practiced, so many utilities at a demand charge okay, when the
demand is greater than the power is available.
So now will see one examples, so up to this which we understand that the power factor if you
can increase, then our energy loss will be less and energy conservation will be more, we will
be able to save more energy or get the work done with using lesser amount of energy, so that
is the case, that is why the motor which is used that is called energy efficient motor which is
having high power factor.
We will see some numerical problems. Say a 60 horse power standard AC motor is operated
for 85% time in a year at 75% load with efficiency and power factor as 82% and 0.8
respectively. Standard AC motor is replaced by an energy efficient motor of same capacity
that is at 75% load. The efficiency and power factor of energy efficient motor are 87% and
0.83 respectively. Cost of standard AC motor and energy efficient motor are 1,10,000 and
1,20,000 respectively.
Taking energy consumption charge as Rs. 3.10 per unit and kVA demand charge as Rs. 175
per kVA per month, calculate the following if the motor operates 20 hours a day and 300
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days in a year. So we have to calculate annual saving and pay back period. So this is the
problem statement. If you want to do it, then what we have to calculate. We have to calculate
the energy requirement in case of standard motor and energy requirement in case of energy
efficient motor.
So in this case energy efficient motor will be using less energy and that amount of less energy
is our saving and to get, we will multiply this by the unit price of the electricity, then that is
the total monetary saving and then annual saving we can calculate and payback period we can
get that this is the time at which the total investment will be done in terms of expenditure or
money, and then there may be 2 cases, one is total amount which are investing or another is
the gap between two standard and efficient motor.
So now, the problem statement 60 HP it is given. So 1 horsepower is equal to 750 watt we

know if we can assume, then 60 horsepower is 60 x 0.75 kilowatt. So this is the rating of
standard DC motor, and then input power to the motor that will be 45, it is with 75% load, so
0.75 again, 45 x 0.75 and with 82% efficiency, so 0.82, that is 41.16 kilowatt the input power
to the motor.
Then what will be the output power of the motor, it has 80% efficiency. What is the power
the motor is taking, this motor is taking how many power, so it will be giving out input, this
output that is equal to 0.8, so this will be 0.8 of input, so that is so. So what is the kVA
demand, so kVA demand is equal to power factor is equal to given here, 0.8, so that power
factor is 41.16/0.8 that is equal to 51.48, so if it get 51.45, then it will give us 41.16.
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Then what is the kVA charges, this kVA demand x charge is given here 175 rupees per KV
per month and per year, we have 12 months, so it will be for 51.45 x 175 x 12 that is equal to
1,08,045 rupees. Energy charges, so how much energy it is using, 41.16, we are using this
energy, so this x 3.14 per unit and we have 20 hours a day and we have 300 days per annum.
So this is the total amount for electricity charge. So demand + energy charge or cost per year
that is equal to this amount + this amount, so 7,65,576 + 1,08,045 if we add 8,73,621 we are
getting this much of total expenditure for standard motor.
If we use the energy efficient motor, then the rating of energy efficient AC motor, again it is
also 60 HP and so 60 HP equivalent to 60 x 0.75 that is 45 KW and its efficiency is higher,
that is 87%, so input power to the motor will be this 45 x 0.75 that is actually it is using, but
as it is 87% efficient, so that has to be divided by 0.87, so this is 38.79 kilowatt, this is the
input power to the motor.
Then what would be kVA demand, then we have to know the power factor. Power factor in
this case is equal to 0.83, so will divide it by 0.83, so 38.79/0.83, so it is 46.73 kVA. So this
is our demand. So now kVA charges how much, again this x 175 x 12, so that is equal to
98,133 rupees and what would be the energy charge in this case. We need energy is equal to
38.79 KW, so 38.79 KW x 3.10 x 20 hour per day x 300 days per year, so it is coming
7,21,494 rupees per year.
So total charge will be this plus this, so you are getting energy + demand charge, so it is
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coming the demand chare is coming 8,19,627 rupees. So here we are getting this much in the
standard, if you use the standard motor power charge is 8,73,621 and here 8,19,627. So the
difference is 53,994 rupees. So this is our saving actually.
So payback period if I want to get the whole money back together that is 1,20,000 for the
energy efficient motor then you have to divide, this divided by 53,994 so 2.3 years, but if I
want to get the difference that is 1,20,000 – 100000, so 20,000/53.994, so 0.37 year, that is
equal to 4.5 months. So that way, we can calculate the requirement of the demand, that you
can calculate the demand in kVA, that is apparent energy and we can calculate energy charge
and overall expenditure for this motor application.
Now here we see the energy efficiency how can be improved in the pumping set. So this is
the standard pumping set and here energy efficient pumping set. So here we have added one
new device. So what was STD here standard input power we have 100 units, the same
amount of work we can get here by using 43 unit, output is same, and this is made by the
changes in the units which are used for the operation of this motor. So important is variable
speed drive if it is used, so it is 99% efficient.
So here we have conventional pumping system, efficiency is 31%, so here it is 99% if it is

used. Then this also energy efficient motor that is also giving us very high efficiency. So that
way, this each part which are having less efficiencies here by the use of modified parts you
are able to get more efficiency. As a whole, we can get the same amount of work by using
less amount of energy with respect to standard motor.
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So to be considered energy efficient a motor’s performance must equal or exceed the nominal
full-load efficiency values provided by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
They have given a list that has specific full-load nominal efficiency values are provided for
each horsepower, enclosure type, and speed combination. So by comparing that, we can get
whether it is energy efficient or not. Improved design, materials, and manufacturing
techniques enable energy efficient motors to accomplish more work for unit of electricity
consumed that we have discussed.
Now some energy consumption devices we will see. One is your CFL. So as you know that
CFL uses less energy to give same luminescence to the conventional bulb and pressurized
steam cooker and Solar Cooker another example. Natural water cooler is a safe drinking
water device which works on the principle of cooling by evaporation. No external source of
energy such as electricity or ice is required. This is cooler, this is our solar cooker, and this is
our CFL.
So it has been shown that a tube light of 40 watt with a choke of 20 watt, that is total 60 watt,
what luminescence they can give, the same amount of luminosity can be given by the CFLs
of 18 watt. So there is a 60-18, 42 watt, a 70% saving in the electricity.
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Now here are some calculations. The annual energy saving when 340 tube lights originally
deployed are replaced with 18 watt CFL lamps. So 40 watt tube lights with 20 watt choke and
18 watt compact fluorescent lamp, CFL, that we have just discussed. So what would be the
saving? Just is with tube light 60, 40+20, 60 x 12 x 365, that is 263 kilowatt hour and CFL is
18 x 12 x 365, when 12 is the average hour use per day, so that is equal to 79 kilowatt hour.
So the savings is 263-79 = 184 kilowatt hour. So the cost is 3.40 rupees per unit, so multiply
this into this, rupees 625.60 per unit, so total unit we are using here 625.60 x 340, that is
equal to this one. This is our annual saving. This 340 tube we have, so that is why this
multiplied by 340, so we are getting this much of annual saving by this implementation of
this project.
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Now there are some tips for energy conservations in agricultural pump. So selection of proper
capacity of pumps according to the irrigation requirement, then matching of pump set with
source of water canal or well and matching of motor with appropriate size pump. Proper
installation of the pump system-shaft alignment, coupling between motor and pump and use
of efficient transmission system. Maintain of right tension and alignment of transmission
belts. Use of low friction rigid PVC pipes and foot valves.
Avoiding unnecessary bends and throttle valves. Use of bends in place of elbows. The suction
depth of 6 metre is recommended as optimum for centrifugal pumps. The delivery line should
be kept at minimum required height according to requirement. Periodically check pump
system and carrying out corrective measures likes say lubrication, alignment, and
replacement of worn-out spares can help to improve the conservation of energy in
agricultural pump because all of these are basically dedicated to reduce the loss of energy.
So these are some tips or some discussion on the energy conservation. Up to this in this class.
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Lecture - 40
Tutorial
Hi friends, I welcome you all to the last class of this course, technologies for clean and
renewable energy production. Now, we will have a tutorial session which is based on the last
Four classes, and in this class, we will solve some numerical problems.
Our first problem the statement is the bio oil extracted from an oil seed sample has 90%
triglycerides containing 3 long chains which can produce methyl esters of lauric acid,
myristic acid, and palmitic acid in equal molar ratio during transesterification using methanol
and NaOH catalyst. Calculate the amount of biodiesel produced by the transesterification of
10 kg of bio oil. Assume efficiency of the conversion is 70% and 10% of palmitic acid is
converted to soap.
How much glycerol will be produced and how much soap will be produced. How can we
improve the efficiency of the transesterification? So this is the problem statement. We are
asked to calculate how much glycerol will be produced and how much soap will be produced
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and how the efficiency can be improved. It is given that after the transesterification, the
methyl esters of lauric acid, myristic acid, and palmitic acid are produced.
It is also given that 90% triglycerides are converted to biodiesel or the methyl esters of these
3 acids in equal mole, so this is given.
So at first, we have to get what is the molecular formula of the triglyceride, and as it is given
that methyl esters of these 3 acids lauric, myristic, and palmitic acid has formed, so the
produced methyl esters are given here. So CH3(CH2)10COOH, this OH will be replaced by
CH3O. So CH3(CH2)10COOCH3, then for this acid C2, this is equal to we are getting
C11H23COOCH3.
For the second myristic acid, our methyl esters is CH(CH2)12COOCH3 that is equal to
C13H27COOCH3. Similarly for palmitic acid, the methyl esters usually produced there is equal
to CH3(CH2)14COOCH3 that is C15H31COOCH3. Now what is the formula of the triglyceride
or the oil that is one is you glycerol CH2OHCH2OHCH2OH, then H is replaced by this, so
C11H23COO and CH3OH will be there and CH2 will be there.
That means you have CH2OH, CHOH and CH2OH, this will form and this will react with
CH3O and it is giving us C11H23COOCH3, OCH3 is coming from the methanol, which is used
in case of the reaction which you have discussed in previous chapter. So this is the formula of
the oil or triglyceride we can get, and these are 3 methyl esters which are produced during the
process.
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So this is the scheme a triglyceride reacts with methanol in presence of NaOH and then it
gives glycerol + 3 methyl esters of 3 different acids. So now the molecular weight of the
triglyceride which is given here that is equal to 12 x 45 + 45C, then 86 a hydrogen, so 1 x 86
+ 6 oxygen, so 16 x 6, we are getting 722 gram. This is the molecular weight of triglyceride.
Then molecular weight of glycerol this is, so that is equal to 92, so 3 carbon x 12, 8 hydrogen
x 1 + 3 oxygen x 16, so it is becoming 92 gram.
Similarly, we can get the molecular weight of this methyl esters of lauric acid and this is
myristic acid and methyl ester of palmitic acid. Then the molecular rate we are getting 12 x
13, here are 15, 13, 11. So here 12 x 13, so 13 carbon x 12 + 23 +3, 26 hydrogen x 1 + 2 x 16,
2 oxygen x 16, so 214 gram and here we are getting 12 x 15, so 15 carbon x 12 + 30
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hydrogen x 1 + 2 oxygen x 16, so 242 gram.
Similarly for these methyl esters that is palmitic acid methyl esters, so 12 x 17 + 1 x 34 + 16
x 2, so 270 gram. So these are the molecular weight of these methyl esters of different fatty
acids. So now our basis is 10 kg of bio oil and then triglyceride is 90%, So 0.99 kg. So moles
of triglycerides in the oil is 9/we have molecular weight is equal to 722 gram, so 0.722, we
have to divide that mole, so that is 12.465 moles is available in 9 kg because 1 kilo mole is
equal to this 0.722 kg.
So moles of triglyceride converted into glycerin that 70% is converted. So it is given 70% is
converted. So we have to multiply it by 0.7, so 8.7258 moles we are getting. So glycerin
produced will be this much moles multiplied by the molecular weight of glycerin, that is
equal to 92 gram, so 0.92 kg, so 0.803 kg. This much of glycerin is produced. The first part is
determined.
Now mass of produced C11H23COOCH3 is equal to how much then, we have the reaction, 1
mol glycerol produces 1 mol of each of these methyl esters of the fatty acids, so how many
moles we are getting here 8.7258, so that will also be same number of moles will be produced
for this, moles of these methyl esters of these acids will also form. So this x the molecular
weight of this 214 grams, so 0.214, that is equal to 1.867 kg.
Similarly for this case, this x this equal to 2.112 kg, and for this case this x this is equal to
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methyl esters of palmitic acid not 100% converted into this ester, some salt is also formed
that is 10%, so 90% of this one, so 0.9 will be there, so this 2.120 kg is for methyl ester
formation, remaining 10% will be for soap formation. So mass of biodiesel will be how much
then, this + this + this, so this + this + this, 6.099 kg.
Then reaction for soap formation we have, this is the ester that will react with NaOH, excess
NaOH and it gives a sodium salt of this fatty acids and CH3OH. So this sodium salt of this
fatty acids molecular weight 278 whereas this we have 270 gram. So molecular weight of
soap we can determine 278, so what will be the soap produced. Soap produced will be
278/270 x how much of this ester is formed, so that is 0.2356, so that is equal to 0.2426 kg.
So now we are able to determine how much soap will form, how much biodiesel will form,
and how much glycerol will form after the transesterification of this oil. So how we can
improve the efficiency, we can use the heterogeneous catalyst. Here we have used the
homogeneous catalyst, so soap formation is there, but if we use heterogeneous catalyst, soap
formation will not be there and we will get the improved performance of the process.
Then next problem number 2. In a high rate biogas plant food waste is anaerobically digested
to produce biogas. The slurry contents 8% of solid food grains. The elemental composition of
the food grains on dry basis its carbon 58%, hydrogen 8%, oxygen 26%, percent, nitrogen 8%
on mass basis. Around 80% of the food grains are converted to biogas and all the converted
hydrogen forms methane.
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If the flow rate of the slurry is 4500 liter per day, calculate the rate of biogas CO2 + CH4
production. This is the problem statement. We have to calculate the biogas productions that is
CO2 and CH4 and the slurry were using is given for 4500 liter per day and how much organic
solid is available that is also 8% food grains and composition is also given carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen. So by simple mass balance, we can solve the problem.
So what is our basis flow rate of the slurry is 4500 litre it is given. If we assume the density
as 1, so then 4500 kg will be the mass of this slurry, so 8% is solid, so 0.08 x 4500 that is 360
kg is our organic load in it, organic solids on it. Then the carbon percent, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen is given. So how many carbon gram or kg of carbon is present that we can get, that
is carbon present in 360 kg dry food grains = 360 x 0.58, so that is equal to 208.8 kg.
So hydrogen is 360 x 0.08 that is equal to 28.8 kg, and oxygen is 360 x 0.26, that is 26%, so
93.6 kg, similarly for nitrogen 360 x 0.08, so 28.8 kg. So these are the different elements
present in these organic food. Now it is given that 80% of food grains are converted to
biogas, so 80% of these components will also be converted to different oxide forms.
So carbon will be converted to biogas that is 0.8 x 208.8 = 167.04 kg. Hydrogen will be
converted 80% of total that is 23.04. Since all the hydrogen is converted to CH4, it is given
the hydrogen is completely converted to CH4, so methane produced will be how much. So
CH4, C + H, CH4 it is giving, so 2H2, 1 mol it is giving one carbon reacts with 2H2 and gives
CH4.
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So this is your 12 + 2 x 2 and this is equal to 16, so the this 16 from 4 gram, we are getting 16
gram methane, 4 gram of hydrogen, we are getting 16 gram. So now we are using this
hydrogen 23.04 kg, so this x 16/4 that will be the methane production, so that is equal to
92.16 kg or 5.76 kilo mole. Now carbon used for methane production, so carbon converted is
your this much and then this much kg carbon used for methane production for this reaction.
So carbon + O2, CO2 this reaction will also take place, so rest of the carbon may be used for
this. So total is your 167.04 and minus this that is equal to 97.92 kg is used for this reaction,
C+O2 = CO2. What would be the CO2 produced, CO2 produced will be this much carbon you
know 44 and this is 12, so 44/12 x 97.92, so it is giving 359.04 kg that is equal to 8.16 kilo
mole.
So CH4 + CO2 = how much now, now we are getting 92.16 kg this is methane produced +
CO2 produced. So CO2 produced is 359.04 kg, so total 451.2 kg for biogas is produced.
Now problem number 3. In the above plant, the effluent from the digester is used for the
production of manure through composting. If 75% of the organic compounds present in the
effluent are converted to manure, what is the rate of manure production. So what is the sludge
we are getting that is converted to manure 75% organic compounds present in the effluent.
So organic compounds present in the effluent is equal to how much, 80% is converted to
biogas, so rest 20% will be available. So 360 x 0.2 that is 72 kg. Out of this, 75% is converted
to manure, so what will be this 72 x 0.75, so 54 kg per day manure will be produced.
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Then problem 4. A 60 HP energy efficient motor is operating at 70% load. At this load,
efficiency of the motor is 87% and the power factor is 0.83. A standard motor with same load
shows an efficiency of 80% and power factor of 0.8. If the price of one unit of electricity is
rupees 3.10, calculate the annual saving in expenditure for energy. Assume 20 hour
consumption per day for 300 days in a year.
Assume VA demand charge as rupees 175 per kVA per month. So similar type of problems
we have discussed in energy conservation chapters where we have calculated the time
required to recover the amount and payback period, but now we have to calculate only the
annual saving in expenditure.
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So rating of the energy efficient AC motor is 60 x 0.75, this 75 because the conversion of HP
to watt, so that is in kilowatt 750 watt equal to 1 horsepower we are assuming. So 60 x 0.75 =
45 kilowatt. So input power to motor 45 x 0.75/0.87, this is energy efficient motor, so we are
getting 38.79 kilowatt. The kVA demand 38.79/0.83 because the power factor is 0.83 and it is
given here.
So this value is coming 46.73 kilo kVA, kilovolt ampere. So kVA charges per year is equal to
this much x 175 x 12 that is 98,133. Energy charge = 38.79 x 3.10 x 20 x 300, so that is equal
to rupees 7, 21,494. So energy demand + energy cost, we are getting this + this one = 8,
19,627 rupees.
Rating of standard AC motor is 60 x 0.75, again that is equal to 45 kilowatt. Then power
input divided by 0.8, so 42.19 kilowatt. So kVA demand is 42.19/0.8, 52.73 kVA. So kVA
charge, this x 175 x 12, rupees 1, 10,742. Energy charge per year is equal to this one, 42.19 x
3.10 x 20 x 300, so 7, 84,734 rupees. So total 8, 95,476. So here we are getting the annual
saving is 8, 95,476 - 8, 19,627, so rupees 75,849.
So up to this in this class, and I hope you will enjoy the course and best of luck to those who
will take part in the examination. Thank you very much for selecting this course and for your
patience.
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INDEX

S.No. Topic Page No.

6 Cleaner Route for Energy Production from Coal 81

11 Petroleum as a Source of Energy 168

Gaseous Fuels: Properties and Routes for Energy

26 Solar Energy 1 423

31 Hydro Energy 1 499

Energy from Biomass and Wastes 1 (Biological

(Refer Slide Time: 13:42)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:38)

Or it can be converted to methanol, so once methanol is derived as a chemical basic chemicals

Different downstream applications require different ratio of H2 is to CO. So in this case, we

So these things methane to carbon formations and hydrogen production, it is a thermal

So these reactions either the CO is converted completely or not hydrogen is completely or

Apart from these, we have stationary concentrating collector. So stationary concentrating

Now we are coming to solar photovoltaic. So solar photovoltaic, it is another type of

Compound semiconductor that is gallium arsenide, it is 18 to 30% conversion efficiency.

So another 3 types of efficiency we have to multiply, efficiency mechanical, efficiency

So overall power will be getting 0.37 x efficiency of mechanical conversion, kinetic to

So 60 x 860.421 kilocalorie is equal to mass of water in kg into 35 kilocalorie, so same unit

So 2 π x number of revolution f frequency, so 2π x frequency x D / 2, D / 2 that is equal to 90

Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Hi friends, now we will discuss on the second part of hydro energy.

Hi friends, now we will discuss on the topic geothermal energy.

Contents of this class is geothermal energy as a source of renewable energy, application

Then if I want to use the formula mgh, so mgh is equal to A x h x ρ that is n, A x h x ρ x g x

We will be concentrating in this class on anaerobic digestion, so this is a commercial process

So this pretreatment is required, then after pretreatment by removing the undesirable

So 3 different organic acids so that is giving us triglyceride. So this triglyceride is available in

So now, the problem statement 60 HP it is given. So 1 horsepower is equal to 750 watt we

So here we have conventional pumping system, efficiency is 31%, so here it is 99% if it is

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