tac tree Electrical Machines Be tC] Aer coi] ac <> al [=] Technical Publications Pune’ neeTable of Contents (Detail) Chapter - Single Phase Transformer (1-4) to (1-114), 1.4 Introduction .. 1.2 Principle of Working .. 4.2.4 Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformers? ....... 1.3 Construction... 4.3.4 Types of Windings ..... 1.4 Construction of Single Phase Transformers... 1.4.1 Core Type Transformer 1.4.2 Shell Type Transformer... .. 1.4.3 Berry Type Transformer wee 1.5 Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transformers 1.6 E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer....... 1.7 Ratios of a Transformer. 1.7.1 Voltage Ratio . . 1.7.2 Concept of Ideal Transformer. 1.7.3 Current Ratio... 1.7.4 Volt-Ampere Rating 1.8 Ideal Transformer on No Load..... 1.9 Practical Transformer on No Load... 1.10 Transformer on Load (M.M.F. Balancing on Load).. 1.11 Effect of Winding Resistances ..... 1.11.1 Equivalent Resistance . 1.12 Effect of Leakage Reactances 1.12.1 Equivalent Leakage Reactance . 1.13 Equivalent Impedance ......... 1.14 Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Load 4.14.4 Unity Power Factor Load, 60S 4) =1....eseeereeere Ne LR1.14.2 Lagging Power Factor Load, cos 1.14.3 Leading Power Factor Load, cos ¢, 1.15 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer 1.15.1 Approximate Equivalent Circui 1.16 Approximate Voltage Drop in a Transformer .. 1.17 Voltage Regulation of Transformer 1.17.1 Expression for Voltage Regulation .. . 1.17.2 Zero Voltage Regulation . 1.17.3 Constants of a Transformer 1.18 Losses in a Transformer 1.18.1 Core or Iron Losses. . 1.18.2 Copper Losses ..... 1.19 Efficiency of a Transformer... 1.20 Condition for Maximum Efficiency. 1.20.1 Load Current I,,, at Maximum Efficiency 1.20.2 KVA Supplied at Maximum Efficiency . 1.21 Effect of Power Factor on Efficienc: 4.22 Effect of Frequency and Supply Voltage on Iron Losses... 1.23 0.C. and S.C. Tests on Single Phase Transformer 1.23.1 Open Circuit Test (0.C. Tesi).............5 4.23.2 Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test) 1.23.3 Calculation of Efficiency from 0.C. and S.C. Tests . 1.23.4 Calculation of Regulation . 1.24 Polarity Test... 1.25 Sumpner's Test (Back to Back Test) 1.26 Separation of Core Losses Test .. 1.27 Parallel Operation of Transformers... 1.28 Conditions for Satisfactory Parallel Operation 1.28.1 Explanation of Conditions. . 1.29 Parallel Operation of Two. Ideal Transformers a 1.30 Parallel Operation of Transformers with Equal Voltage Ratios...... 1.31 Parallel Operation of Transformers with Unequal Voltage Ratios... 1- 70 Examples with Solutions... Review Questions... RE EeChapter - 3.7 2.4 Copper Saving in Autotransformer... 2.6 VA Rating of Autotransformer... 2.7 Conversion of Two Winding Transformer to an Autotransformer.. 2.7.1 Additive Polarity. . 2.7.2 Subtractive Polarity . 2.8 Advantages of Autotransformer 2.9 Limitations of Autotransformer...... 2.10 Applications of Autotransformer..... Examples with Solutions... Review Questions... 3.1 Introduction .... 3.1.1 Advantages of 3 Phase Transformers 3.2 Construction of Three Phase Transformers 3.2.1 Core Type Construction . 3.2.2 Shell Type Construction . . 3.3 Principle of Operation .. 3.4 Bank of Single Phase Transformers 3.5 Three Phase Transformer Connections. 3.6 Star-Star Connection 3.6.1 Advantages neers we 3.6.2 Disadvantages .. 0.0.1... see veces tees eee es sees ee ee es eee teste eeeeeee eee 3.7 Delta-Delta Connection 3-8 3.74 Advantages. ....... see. esse esse sees eee eee esse 3.7.2 Disadvantage ...... 2... 3.8 Star-Delta COMMECtiOn.....eecccccsssscsssssccesesssaeessnssssesesssacsssnsesssne S10 3.8.1 Advantages........... ee 3.8.2 Disadvantage . cae LLL LLL3.9 Delta-Star Connectior 3.9.1 Advantages. . 3.9.2 Disadvantage _— 3.10 Voltage and Current Relationships for Different Types of Connections .... 3.10.1 Choice of Transformer Connection: 3.14 Open Delta or V-V Connection 3.11.1 Limitations 3.12 The T-T Connection 3.13 Conversion from Three Phase to Two Phase (Scott Connection)... 3-21 3.14 Three Phase to Six Phase Conversion. 3.15 Three Phase Transformer Phasor Group: 3.15.1 Nomenclature of Transformer Phasor Groups .. 3.16 Construction of Vector Diagram...... 3.17 Parallel Operation of Three Phase Transformers 3.18 Introduction to Instrument Transformer: 3.19 Current Transformers (C.T.) 3.19.4 Working Principle. . 3.20 Construction of Current Transformers . 3.20.1 Wound Type Current Transformer.......- 3.20.2 Bar Type Current Transformer ......... 3.21 Why Secondary of C.T. Should not be ,e Open 2. 3.22 Potential Transformers (P.T. 3.23 Comparison of C.T. and P.T. 3.24 Advantages and Disadvantages of Instrument Transformer: Examples with Solutions .... Review Questions .. SRR aa SESingle Phase Transformers 1.1 Introduction The main advantage of alternating currents over direct currents is that, the alternating currents can be easily transferable from low voltage to high or high voltage to low. Alternating voltages can be raised or lowered as per requirements in the different stages of electrical network as generation, transmission, distribution and utilization. This is possible with a static device called transformer. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. It tansfers an electric energy from one circuit to other when there is no electrical connection between the two circuits. Thus we can define transformer as below : Key Point: The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which an electrical power is transformed from one alternating current circuit to another with the desired change in voltage and current, without any change in the frequency. The use of transformers in transmission system is shown in the Fig. 1.1. trey Transformer Transformer | 440 kv | KV For "Transmission over dsstriouton Generating long distance station Level Level increases decreases for transmission for distribution Fig. 1.1 Use of transformors in transmission system 1.2 Principle of Working The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils are inductively coupled and if current in one coil is changed uniformly then an em. gets induced in the other coil. This e.m.f. can drive a current, when a closed path is provided to it. The transformer works on the same principle. In its elementary form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but linked through a common magnetic circuit. The two coils have high mutual inductance. The basic transformer is shown in the Fig. 1.2. ‘One of the two coils is connected to a source of alternating voltage. This coil in which electrical energy is fed with the help of source is called primary winding (P). The other winding is connected to load. The electrical energy transformed to this winding is drawn out to the load. (1-4)Electrical Machine 1-2 Single Phase Transformers Secondary Primary winding Primary voltage AC A) supply Laminated magnetic iron core Secondary Fung) voltage Voltage level changes but frequency be time ered T i remains same I Fig. 1.2 Basic transformer Core This winding is called secondary winding | ° (8). The primary winding has N, number of turns while the secondary winding has N; Ny le» [oad] number of turns. Symbolically the transformer is indicated as shown in the Fig. 1.3. I When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates an alternating current. This current produces an alternating flux (9) which completes its path through common magnetic core as shown dotted in the Fig. 1.2. Thus an alternating, flux links with the secondary winding. As the flux is alternating, according to Faraday’s law of an electromagnetic induction, mutually induced em.f. gets developed in the secondary winding, If now load is connected to the secondary winding, this e.m.f. drives a current through it. ‘Thus though there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an electrical energy gets transferred from primary to the secondary. Key Point: The frequency of the mutually induced e.m.f. is same as that of the altemating source which is supplying energy to the primary winding. Fig. 1.3 Symbolic representation 4.2.1 Can D.C, Supply be used for Transformers 7 The de. supply can not be used for the transformers. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, for which current in one coil must change uniformly. If dc. supply is given, the current will not change due to constant supply and transformer will not work.Electrical Machi Single Phase Transformers Practically winding resistance is very small. For d.c., the inductive reactance X,, is zero as dic. has no frequency. So total impedance of winding is very low for d.c. Thus winding will draw very high current if d.c. supply is given to it. This may cause the burning of windings due to extra heat generated and may cause permanent damage to the transformer. There can be saturation of the core due to which transformer draws very large current from the supply when connected to d.c. Thus d.c. supply should not be connected to the transformers. 1.3 Construction There are two basic parts of a transformer i) Magnetic Core ii) Winding or Coils. The core of the transformer is either square or rectangular in size. It is further divided into two parts. The vertical portion on which coils are wound is called limb while the top and bottom horizontal portion is called yoke of the core. These parts are shown in the Fig. 14 (a) a a @ © Fig. 1.4 Construction of transformer Core is made up of laminations. Because of laminated type of construction, eddy current losses get minimised. Generally high grade silicon steel laminations [0.3 to 0.5 mm thick] are used. These laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation like varnish. All laminations are varnished. Laminations are overlapped so that to avoid the air gap at the joints. For this generally ‘L’ shaped or 'l’ shaped laminations are used which are shown in the Fig. 1.4 (b). ‘The cross-section of the limb depends on the type of coil to be used cither circular or rectangular. The different cross-sections of limbs, practically used are shown in the Fig. 1.5. Forlarge y Y Y trenaormers A h For 2 small —= tronsformers = Rectangular Square Cruciform 3 stepped cruciform Fig. 1.5 Different cross-sectionsElectrical Machine 1-4 Single Phase Transformers 1.3.1 Types of Windings The coils used are wound on the limbs and are insulated from each other. In the basic fransformer shown in the Fig. 1.2, the two windings wound are shown on two different limbs i.e. primary on one limb while secondary on other limb. But due to this leakage flux increases which affects the transformer performance badly. Similarly it is necessary that the windings should be very closes to each other to have high mutual inductance. To achieve this, the two windings are split into number of coils and are wound adjacent to each other on the same limb. A very common arrangement is cylindrical concentric coils as shown ‘n the Fig. 1.6. LV HW. H.V. = High Voltage | Both windings on same limb LV.= Low Voltage (to avoid leakage flux Fig. 1.6 Cylindrical concentric coils Such cylindrical coils are used in the core type transformer. These coils are mechanically strong. These are wound in the helical layers. The different layers are insulated from each other by paper, cloth or mica. The low voltage winding is placed near the core from ease of insulating it from the core. The high voltage is placed after it. The other type of coils which is very commonly used for the shell type of transformer is sandwich coils. Each high voltage portion lies between the two low voltage portion sandwiching the high voltage portion. Such subdivision of windings into small portions reduces the leakage flux. Higher the degree of subdivision, smaller is the reactance. The sandwich coil is shown in the Fig. 1.7. The top and bottom coils are low voltage coils. All the portions are insulated from each other by paper.Electrical Machine 1-5 Single Phase Transformers vl Z Ly. w aN Lv. DB |v. ~ AM) | AMM)» Fig. 1.7 Sandwich coils 1.4 Construction of Single Phase Transformers The various constructions used for the single phase transformers are, 1.Core type 2. Shell type and 3. Berry type 1.4.1 Core Type Transformer It has a single magnetic circuit. The core is rectangular having two limbs. The winding encircles the core. The coils used are of cylindrical type. As mentioned earlier, the coils are wound in helical layers with different layers insulated from each other by paper or mica. Both the coils are placed on both the limbs. The low voltage coil is placed inside near the core while high voltage coil surrounds the low voltage coil. Core is made up of large number of thin laminations. As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs, the natural cooling is more effective. The coils can be easily removed by removing the laminations of the top yoke, for maintenance The Fig. 1.8 (a) shows the schematic representation of the core type transformer while the Fig. 1.8 (b) shows the view of actual construction of the core type transformer. co cue }—core + LV. insulation S LV. winding H.V. insulation + H.V. winding Flux (a) Representation (b) Construction Fig. 1.8 Core type transformerElectrical Machine 1-6 Single Phase Transformers 1.4.2 Shell Type Transformer It has a double magnetic circuit, The core has three limbs. Both the windings are placed on the central limb. The core encircles most part of the windings. The coils used are generally multilayer disc type or sandwich coils. As mentioned earlier, each high voltage coil is in between two low voltage coils and low voltage coils are nearest to top and bottom of the yokes. The core is laminated. While arranging the laminations of the core, the care is taken that all the joints at alternate layers are staggered. This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joint, right through the cross-section of the core. Such joints are called over lapped or imbricated joints. Generally for very high voltage transformers, the shell type construction is preferred. As the windings are surrounded by the core, the natural cooling does not exist. For removing any winding for maintenance, large number of laminations are required to be removed. The Fig. 1.9 (a) shows the schematic representation while the Fig. 19 (6) shows the outaway view of the construction of the shell type transformer. cove H.Vawinding L.V. windir F 7 " i | 4 | side it | i i Core Cee) I T Center limb Flux (a) Representation (b) Construction Fig. 1.9 Shell type transformer 1.4.3 Berry Type Transformer ‘This has distributed magnetic circuit. The number of independent magnetic circuits are more than 2. Its core construction is like spokes of a wheel. Otherwise it is symmetrical to that of shell type. Diagramatically it can be shown as in the Fig. 1.10. The transformers are generally kept in tightly fitted sheet metal tanks. The tanks are constructed of specified high quality steel plate cut, formed and welded into the rigid structures. All the joints are painted with a solution of light blue chalk which turns dark in the presence of oil, disclosing even the minutest leaks. The tanks are filled with the special insulating oil. The entire transformer assembly is immersed in the oil. The oil serves twoElectrical Machine 1-7 Single Phase Transformers functions : i) Keeps the coils cool by circulation and ii) Provides the transformers an additional insulation. The oil should be absolutely free from alkalies, sulphur and specially from moisture. Presence of very small moisture lowers the dielectric strength of oil, affecting its performance badly. Hence the tanks are sealed air tight to avoid the contact of oil with atmospheric air and moisture, In large transformers, the chambers called breathers are provided. The breathers prevent the atmospheric moisture to pass on Core H.V. winding Fig. 1.10 Berry type transformer to the oil. The breathers contain the silica gel crystals which immediately absorb the atmospheric moisture. Due to long and continuous use, the sludge is formed in the oil which can contaminate the oil. Hence to keep such sludge separate from the oil in main tank, an air fight metal drum is provided, which is placed on the top of tank. This is called conservator. 1.5 Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transformers The comparison of core type and shell type transformers is given in the Table 1.1 sr. Core Type Shell Type No. 1._| The winding encircles the core. The core encircles most part of the windings 2. | The cylincrical type of cols are used Generally, multilayer disc type or sandwich coils are used. 3. | As windings are distributed, the natural cooling | As windings are surrounded by the core, the is more effective, natural cooling does not exist 4. | The coils can be easily removed from For removing any winding for the maintenance, maintenance point of view. large number of laminations are required to be removed. This is difficult. 5. | The construction is preferred for low voltage | The construction is used for very high voltage transformers, transformers 6. | thas a single magnetic circuit, I has a double magnetic circuit 7. | Ina single phase type, the core hes two limbs.| In a single phase type, the core has three limbs, Table 1.1Electrical Machine 1-8 Single Phase Transformers 1.6 E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V,, it circulates alternating current, producing an alternating flux ¢. The primary winding has N, number of turns. The alternating flux 9 linking with the primary winding itself induces an emf. in it denoted as E}. The flux links with secondary winding through the common magnetic core. It produces induced emf. E, in the secondary winding, This is mutually induced emf. Let us derive the equations for E, and E,, The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal ~ alternating voltage. Hence the flux produced is | also sinusoidal in nature having Fig. 1.14 Sinusoidal flux maximum value of $, as shown in the Fig. 1.11. The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced em.f. are : Fluxd 4 " 1s f Flux Maximum value of flux = Number of primary winding turns = Number of secondary winding turns f = Frequency of the supply voltage E, = RMS. velue of the primary induced e.m.f. E, = RMS. value of the secondary induced e.m.f From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction the average em{. induced in each tum is proportional to the average rate of change of flux. average emf. per turn = average rate of change of flux ag average emf. per turn = 7p a N Oo] Change in flux ow ‘dt ~ Time required for change in flux Consider the 1/4" cycle of the flux as shown in the Fig. 1.11. Complete cycle gets completed in 1/f seconds. In 1/4" time period, the change in flux is from 0 to dm.Electrical Machine 1-9 Single Phase Transformers st fect as dt for 1/4" time period is 1/4f seconds le) = 4£6,, Wb/sec +. average emf. per turn = 4 f 6,, volts As @ is sinusoidal, the induced emf. in each turn of both the windings is also sinusoidal in nature. For sinusoidal quantity, Form Factor = -R-M.S. value _ 4 4) ‘Average value RMS. value = 1.11 x Average value «RMS, value of induced em.f. per tum. = 1x4 fo, =444f On There are N, number of primary turns hence the RMS value of induced em. of primary denoted as E; is, E, = N,x444f6,, volts While as there are N, number of secondary tums the RMS value of induced e.m.£. of secondary denoted E, is, E, = N,x444f0,, volts ‘The expressions of E, and E, are called e.m.f, equations of a transformer. ‘Thus e.m-. equations are, E, = 444f0,N, volts ~~ @) E,= 4446, Nz volts a) 1.7 Ratios of a Transformer Consider a transformer shown in Fig. 1.12 indicating various voltages and currents. Fluxe Fig. 1.12 Ratios of transformerElectrical Machine 1-10 Single Phase Transformers. 1.7.1 Voltage Ratio We know from the e.m.f. equations of a transformer that E, = 444f9,,N, and F,=444f,,N, Taking ratio of the two equations we get, E, Nz ER ON This ratio of secondary induced emf. to primary induced emf. is known as voltage transformation ratio denoted as K. Thus, E,= KE, where K=<2 1. EN, > Ny ie. K > 1, we get E, > E, then the transformer is called step-up transformer. 2, IN, < N, ie. K < 1, we get E, < E, thon the transformer is called step-down transformer. 3. If N, = N, ie. K = 1, we get E, = E; then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1 transformer. 1.1.2 Concept of Ideal Transformer A transformer is said to be ideal if it satisfies following properties : i) It has no losses. i) Its windings have zero resistance. iii) Leakage flux is zero ie. 100 % flux produced by primary links with the secondary. iv) Permeability of core is so high that negligible current is required to establish the flux in it Key Point: For an ideal transformer, the primary applied voltage V, is same as the primary induced emf. E, as there are no voltage drops. Similarly the secondary induced emf. Ey is also same as the terminal voltage V, across the load, Hence for an ideal transformer we can write, Ep 5 No transformer is ideal in practice but the value of E; is almost equal to V, for properly designed transformer.Electrical Machine 1-11 Single Phase Transformers 1.7.3 Current Ratio For an ideal transformer there are no losses. Hence the product of primary voltage V, and primary current [,, is same as the product of secondary voltage V, and the secondary current 1. So V,1, = input VA and Vy jy = output VA For an ideal transformer, Vi = Vb V2 = yy = y 7 n7* Key Point: Hence the currents are in the inverse ratio of the voltage transformation ratio. 1.7.4 Volt-Ampere Rating When electrical power is transferred from primary winding to secondary there are few power losses in between. These power losses appear in the form of heat which increase the temperature of the device. Now this temperature must be maintained below certain limiting value as it is always harmful from insulation point of view. As current is the main cause in producing heat, the output maximum rating is generally specified as the product of output voltage and output current i.e. V, ,. This always indicates that when transformer is operated under this specified rating, its temperature rise will not be excessive. The copper loss (?R) in the transformer depends on the current 'T' through the winding while the iron or core loss depends on the voltage 'V' as frequency of operation is constant. ° None of these losses depend on the power factor (cos 9) of the load. Hence losses decide the temperature rise and hence the rating of the transformer. As losses depend on V and I only, the rating of the transformer is specified as a product of these two parameters VxI. Koy point: Thus the transformer rating is specified as the product of voltage and current and called VA rating. On both sides, primary and secondary VA rating remains same, This rating is generally expressed in KVA (kilo volt amperes rating). Moh Now yor eek Vil = Wh KVA ratingofa_ Vil, _ Var transformer 1000 ~ T1000 If V, and V, are the terminal voltages of primary and secondary then from specified kVA rating we can decide full load currents of primary and secondary, I; and I,. This is the safe maximum current limit which may carry, keeping temperature rise below its limiting valueElectrical Machine 1-12 Single Phase Transformers I, full load = AVA rating 1000 .. (1000 to convert KVA to VA) ; tft tua = KYA mating 00 2 Key Point: The full load primary and secondary currents indicate tie safe maximum values of currents which transformer windings can carry. These values indicate, how much maximum load can be connected to a given transformer of a specified kVA rating. ium> Example 4.1: A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 80 turns on the primary winding and 400 turns on the secondary winding. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 200 cm? If the primary winding is connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply, determine : i) The emf. induced in the secondary winding. ii) The maximum value of the flux density in the core. Solution: N, = 80, f = 50 Hz, N, = 400, a = 200 cm? = 200 x 10°‘ m? E, = 240V x = Ne E, = 5x 240 = 1200 V Now E, = 4446 ¢_N, 240 = 444x 50x 6,80 - 240 7 Om = FFaxsoxag ~ 001851 We m _ 0.01351 Bm = 72 = = 0.6756 Wb/m? a ~ 200x104 im} Example 1.2: For a single phase transformer having primary and secondary turns of 440 and 880 respectively, determine the transformer KVA rating if half load secondary current is 7.5 Aand maximum value of core flux is 225 mWb. Solution : N, = 440, Ny = 880, (I)a1, = 75 A, fy = 2.25 mWb, E, = 4.44 6,, £ No Assuming, f = 50 Hz, E, = 444 x 2.25 x 10° x 50 x 880 = 499.56 V Qe. = KVA ratingElectrical Machine 1-13 Single Phase Transformers 1 And Grn, = 5 Ora. 1. kVA satiny Qn. = 5% = _ 1, KVA nating 75 = 9%" p9, KVA rating = 2x 7.5 x 439.56 x 10° = 65934 kVA --. (103 for kVA) um Example 1.3: A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050 secondary turns. The primary is connected to 400 V, 50 Hz ac. supply. If the net cross sectional area of the core is 50 cm, calculate i) The maximum value of the flux density in the core ii) The induced e.m,f. in the secondary winding. Solution : The given values are, N, = 350 tums, Np = 1050 turns Vv, = 400V, A= 50cm = 50x 107! m? The e.m.f. of the transformer is, E, = 444f0, Ny E, = 4448, AFN, a8 bq = By A ; E Flux density Ba = agp RFR = 40 assume E, = Vy 444 x 50 x 10-* x 50 x 350 = 1.0296 Wh/m? No _ 1050 Now K = Nz, 100 _3 N; > 350 and K= 3 E, = 3x, =3x400 = 1200V 1.8 Ideal Transformer on No Load Consider an ideal transformer on no load as shown in the Fig. 1.13. The supply voltage is V, and as it is an no load the secondary current I; = 0. The primary draws a current I, which is just necessary to produce flux in the core. As it is magnetising the core, it is called magnetising current denoted as I, As the transformer is ideal, the winding resistance is zero and it is purely inductive in nature. The magnetising current I,, is very small and lags V, by 30° as the winding is purely inductive. This J, produces an alternating flux @ which is in phase with I,, «Electrical Machine 1-14 ‘Single Phase Transformers No load Fig. 1.13 Ideal transformer on no load he flux links with both the winding producing the induced em.fs E, and Ey in the prusary and secondary windings respectively. According to Lenz's law, the induced em. ‘opposes the cause producing it which is supply voltage V,. Hence E; is in antiphase with V, but equal in magnitude. The induced E, also opposes V, hence in antiphase with V; but its magnitude depends on N;. Thus E, and E, are in phase. The phasor diagram for the ideal transformer on no load is shown in the Fig. 1.14. Vy Vy leads 0 by 90° Ey lags lp by 20°. © by 90° Fig. 1.14 Phasor diagram for ideal transformer on no load It can be seen that flux @ is reference. I,, produces » hence in phase with 9. V, leads I,, by 90° as winding is purely inductive so current has to lag voltage by 90°. E, and E, are in phase and both opposing supply voltage V;. ‘The power input to the transformer is V, I, cos (V; “I,) ie. Vy Iq cos (90%) ie. zero. This is because on no load output power is zero and for ideal transformer there are no losses hence input power is also zero. Ideal no load p.f. of transformer is zero lagging. 1.9 Practical Transformer on No Load Actually in practical transformer iron core causes hysteresis and eddy current losses as it is subjected to alternating flux. While designing the transformer the efforts are made to keep these losses minimum by, 1. Using high grade material as silicon steel to reduce hysteresis loss, 2. Manufacturing core in the form of laminations or stacks of thin laminations to reduce eddy current loss.Electrical Machine 41-15 Single Phase Transformers Apart from this there are iron losses in the practical transformer. Practically primary winding has certain resistance hence there are small primary copper loss present. Thus the primary current under no load condition has to supply the iron losses ie. hysteresis loss and eddy current loss and a small amount of primary copper loss. This current is denoted as I, Now the no load input current I, has two components : 1. A purely reactive component I,, called magnetising component of no load current required to produce the flux. This is also called wattless component. 2. An active component I, which supplies total losses under no load condition called power component of no load current. This is also called wattful component or core loss component of I,. The total no load current I, is the vector addition of I, and I. atntk we (1) Ys In practical transformer, due to ‘winding resistance, no load current I, is no longer at 90° with respect to V;. But it lags V, by angle 4 which is less than 90°. Thus cos 4, is called no load power factor of practical transformer. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.15. It can be seen that the two components of I, are, 2 Fig. 1.15 Practical transformer on no load Jn = J, sin + Q@ ‘This is magnetising component lagging V, exactly by 90°. I= I, cos 0, + G) This is core loss component which is in phase with V,. ‘The magnitude of the no load current is given by, = fi2 +12 (4) while @, = no load primary power factor angle ‘The total power input on no load is denoted as W, and is given by, W, = V; I, cos % = Vy Ie w ) It may be noted that the current I, is very small, about 3 to 5% of the full load rated current. Hence the primary copper loss is negligibly small hence J, is called core loss or iron loss component. Hence power input W, on no load always represents the iron losses,Electrical Machine 1-16 Single Phase Transformers: as copper loss is negligibly small. The iron losses are denoted as P, and are constant for all load conditions. W, = Vy I, cos 4, = P, = iron loss 6) Example 1.4: The no load current of a transformer is 10 A at a power factor of 0.25 lagging, when connected to 400 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate, a) Magnetising component of no load current b) Iron loss and c) Maximum value of flux in the core. Assume primary winding turns as 500. Solution : The given values are, I, = 10 A, cos 4, = 0.25, V; = 400 V and f = 50 Hz a) 1, = I, sin 6, = magnetising component 9 = cos”(0.25) = 75.522" 10xsin (75.522°) = 9.6824 A In = b) iron loss = power input on no load = W, = Vj I cos $= 400%10%0.25 = 1000 W ¢) On no load, E,= V, =400V and N, = 500 Now E, = 444f0,.N, 400 = 4.44x50x,, x50 Om = 36036 mWb 1.40 Transformer on Load (M.MLF. Balancing on Load) When the transformer is loaded, the current I, flows through the secondary winding. The magnitude and phase of I, is determined by the load. If load is inductive, I, lags V,. If load is capacitive, I, leads V, while for resistive load, I, is in phase with V,. There exists a secondary m.m.f. N, I, due to which secondary current sets up its own flux 4,. This flux opposes the main flux @ which is produced in the core due to magnetising component of no load current. Hence the m.m.f. Nl, is called demagnetising ampere-turns. This is shown in the Fig. 1.16 (a). The flux @) momentarily reduces the main flux 9, due to which the primary induced e.m.f. E, also reduces. Hence the vector difference V, — E, increases du: to which primary draws more current from the supply. ‘This additional current drawn by primary is due to the load hence called load component of primary current denoted as [3 as shown in the Fig. 1.16 (b).Electrical Machine 1-17 Single Phase Transformers Additional I’, | | | | ~ Main Secondary More fa fuxe Mux e flux (0+) (a) 6, opposes 6 (b) Primary draws more current Fig. 1.16 Transformer on load This current Ij is in antiphase with I. The current Ij sets up its own flux $5 which opposes the flux 6, and helps the main flux ¢ This flux $5 neutralises the flux 4, produced by Ip, The m.m.f, i.e. ampere turns N, If balances the ampere turns N,J;. Hence the net flux in the core is again maintained at constant level. Key Point: Thus for any load condition, no load to full load the flux in the core is practically constant. ‘The load component current I; always neutralises the changes in the load. As practically flux in core is constant, the core loss is also constant for all the loads. Hence the transformer is called constant flux machine. As the ampere tums are balanced we can write, Noh = Mh N. Neh =Ki w () I Thus when transformer is loaded, the primary current I, has two components : 1. The no load current I, which lags V, by angle 9,. It has two components I, and lL. 2. The load component 15, which is in antiphase with L. And phase of I, is decided by the load. Hence primary current I, is vector sum of Jy and 14. ” = 1+k wn (2) Assume inductive load, I, lags E, by z, the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.17 (a). Assume purely resistive load, Ip in phase with E,, the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.17 ().Electrical Machine 1-18 Single Phase Transformers Assume capacitive load, I, leads F, by 6, the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.17 (0). Note that I; is always in antiphase with I. (a) Inductive load (b) Resistive load (c) Capacitive load Fig. 1.17 Actually the phase of I, is with respect to V; ie. angle 2 is angle between I, and V;. For the ideal case, E, is assumed equal to V; neglecting various drops. ‘The current ratio can be verified from this discussion. As the no load current I, is very small, neglecting 1, we can write, heh Balancing the ampere-tums, Ny = NpL=Nob IF S22 as N, 7 7% Under full load conditions when I, is very small compared to full load currents, the ratio of primary and secondary current is constant. wm Example 1.5: A 400/200 V transformer takes 1 A at a power factor of 0.4 on no load. If the secondary supplies a load current of 50 A at 0.8 lagging power factor, calculate the primary current. Solution : The given values are, I, = 1A, cos 4 = 0.4, I; = 50 A and cos $, = 08 EB, _ 200 _ K = B= iy 708 Ty = KI, =0.5x50=25AElectrical Machine 1-19 Single Phase Transformers The angle of I; is to be decided from cos ¢, = 0.8. Now cos, = 08 2 = 36.86° 1; is in antiphase with I, which lags E, by 36.86° Consider the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 1.18. The flux @ is the reference. To SIN Oy Fig. 1.18 Fig. 4.18 (a) Now cos @, = 04 = 66.42 l= G+l v. Vector sum Resolve 1, and Ii into two components, along reference and in quadrature with @ in phase with V,. x component of I, = 1, sing, = 09165 A y component of I, = 1,cos@,= 04A I, = 0.9165+j04A x component of Is = Ij sin, = 25 sin (36.86°) = 15 A y component of I; = 1; cos, = 25x08 =20A I, = 15+j20A I, = 09165 +j 04+ 15 +j20 = 159165 +j 204AElectrical Machine 1-20 ‘Single Phase Transformers Thus the two components of I, are as shown in the Fig. 1.18 (c). 20.4 - e 15.9165 Fig. 1.18 (b) Fig. 1.18 (c) 1, = (15.9165)? +(204)? = 25.874 A This is the primary current magnitude. F 159165 while tan, = 204 o, = 3796 Hence the primary power factor is, cos $; = cos (37.96) = 0.788 lagging Key Point: Remember that 9, is angle between V, and I, and as V, is vertical, 9, is measured with respect V;. So do not convert rectangular to polar as it gives angle with respect to x-axis and we want it with respect to y-axis. 1.11 Effect of Winding Resistances A practical transformer windings possess some resistances which not only cause the power losses but also the voltage drops. Let us see what is the effect of winding resistances on the performance of the transformer. Let R, = primary winding resistance in ohms. R, = secondary winding resistance in ohms Now when current I, flows through primary, there is voltage drop I, R, across the winding. The supply voltage V, has to supply this drop. Hence primary induced e.m.f. Ey is the vector difference between V, and I, Ry. Ez = Vi-iR, 1 Similarly the induced e.m.f. in secondary is E,. When load is connected, current I, flows and there is voltage drop 1, R,. The em/f. E, has to supply this drop. The vector difference between E and 1, Rj is available to the load as a terminal voltage V>. -- Q)Electrical Mac! ie 1-21 Single Phase Transformers The drops I, R, and I, R, are purely resistive drops hence are always in phase with the respective currents I, and I,. 1.11.1 Equivalent Resistance The resistance of the two windings can be transferred to any one side either primary or secondary without affecting the performance of the transformer. The transfer of the resistances on any one side is advantageous as it makes the calculations very easy. Let us see how to transfer the resistances on any one side. The total copper loss due to both the resistances can be obtained as, total copper loss = 1? R, +13 R, 2 G BR +E Re if 1 = [Reg ] @ boi . where ~-z neglecting no load current. 1 Now the expression (3) indicates that the total copper loss can be expressed as 12 R, +12 = This means z is the resistance value of R, shifted to primary side which causes same copper loss with I, as R, causes with I,. This value of resistance R/K? which is the value of R, referred to primary is called equivalent resistance of secondary referred to primary. It is denoted as Ri, ,_R, R= ge a 4) Hence the total resistance referred to primary is the addition of R, and Rj called equivalent resistance of transformer referred to primary and denoted as Ry. a R Ry = Ry + Re = Ry + = This resistance R,, causes same copper loss with I, as the total copper loss due to the individual windings. = total copper loss = 1? Rj. =17 R, +13 Ry (6) So equivalent resistance R,, simplifies the calculations as we have to calculate parameters on one side only. Similarly it is possible to refer the equivalent resistance to secondary winding. total copper loss = 17 Ry +1} Ry 2 = alr +e,| 3Electrical Machine 1-22 Single Phase Transformers = HI R +R] ” Thus the resistance K* R, is primary resistance referred to secondary denoted as Rj. R= KR - (8) Hence the total resistance referred to secondary is the addition of R, and Rj called equivalent resistance of transformer referred to secondary and denoted as Ry. Rye = Ry + Ri = Rt ER, @) total copper loss = 13 Rye (19) The concept of equivalent resistance is shown in the Fig. 1.19 (a), (b) and (c). (a) Individual (b) Referred to resistances primary ({c) Referred to secondary Fig. 1.19 Equivalent resistance Key Point: When resistances are transferred to primary, the secondary winding becomes zero resistance winding for calculation purpose. The entire copper loss occurs due 10 Rye Similarly when resistances are referred to secondary, the primary becomes resistanceless for calculation purpose. The entire copper loss occurs due to Rye Important Note: When a resistance is to be transferred from the primary to secondary, it must be multiplied by K*. When a resistance is to be transferred from the secondary to primary, it must be divided by K*. Remember that K is N;/N,. The result can be cross-checked by another approach. The high voltage winding is always low current winding and hence the resistance of high voltage side is high. The low voltage side is high current side and hence resistance of low voltage side is low. So while transferring resistance from low voltage side to high voltage side, its value must increase while transferring resistance from high voltage side to low voltage side, its value must decrease.Electrical Mi 1-23 Single Phase Transformers Key Point : High voltage side > Low current side —» High resistance side Low voltage side —» High current side —» Low resistance side mm> Example 4.6 : A 6600/400 V single phase transformer has primary resistance of 2.5 2 and secondary resistance of 0.01 2 Calculate total equivalent resistance referred to primary and secondary. Solution : The given values are, R= 259 R= 0012 400 K = Zaoy = 0.0606 While finding equivalent resistance referred to primary, transfer R, to primary as R3, R= 22 Lapse K? (0.0608)? Rye = Ry + Ry = 25 + 2.7225 = 5.2225 2 It can be observed that primary is high voltage hence high resistance side hence while transferring R, from low voltage to Ri on high voltage, its value increases. To find tctal equivalent resistance referred to secondary, first calculate Rj, RY = KR, = (0.0606)? x25 = 0.00918 2 Rye = Ry + Rj = 0.01 + 0.00918 = 0.01918 2 1.12 Effect of Leakage Reactances Uptill now it is assumed that the entire flux produced by the primary links with the secondary winding. But in practice it is not possible. Part of the primary flux ba as well as the secondary flux completes the path through air and links with the respecting winding only. Such a flux is called ou leakage flux. Thus there are two Primary leakage Secondary leakage leakage fluxes present as shown in the Fig. 1.20. Fluxe Fig. 1.20 Leakage fluxesElectrical Machine 1-24 Single Phase Transformers The flux $1; is the primary leakage flux which is produced due to primary current Iy. It is in phase with I; and links with primary only. The flux 612 is the secondary leakage flux which is produced due to current 1. It is in phase with I, and links with the secondary winding only. Due to leakage flux 1; there is self induced emf, ¢,) in primary. While due to leakage flux $1 there is self induced emf. e,3 in secondary. The primary voltage V, has to overcome this voltage ¢,, to produce E, while induced e.m.f. E, has to overcome e,, to produce terminal voltage V,. Thus the self induced ems are treated as the voltage drops across the fictitious reactances placed in series with the windings. These reactances are called leakage reactances of the winding. So X; = Leakage reactance of primary winding. and Xz = Leakage reactance of secondary winding. The value of X, is such that the drop 1,X; is nothing but the self induced emf. e,; due to flux 6,3. The value of X, is such that the drop IX, is equal to the self induced e.m.f. e2 due to flux $,>- Leakage fluxes link with the respective windings only and not to both the windings. To reduce the leakage, as mentioned, in the construction both the winding's are placed on same limb rather than on separate limbs. 1.12.4 Equivalent Leakage Reactance Similar to the resistances, the leakage reactances also can be transferred from primary to secondary or viceversa. The relation through K* remains same for the transfer of reactances as it is studied earlier for the resistances. Let X; is leakage reactance of primary and X, is leakage reactance of secondary. Then the total leakage reactance referred to primary is X;, given by, , . x: Xe = X + XS where Xt = While the total leakage reactance referred to secondary is X, given by, Xye = Xp+X{ where Xj =K?X, = transformation ratioElectrical Machine 1-25 Single Phase Transformers 1.13 Equivalent Impedance The transformer primary has resistance R, and reactance X,. While the transformer secondary has resistance R, and reactance X,, Thus we can say that the total impedance of primary winding is Z, which is, Z= R+jXQ =) And the total impedance of the secondary winding is Z, which is , Zy = B+jX%Q + Q) This is shown in the Fig. 1.21. Fig. 1.21 Individual impedances ‘The individual magnitudes of Z, and Z, are, Zy = \REAXE @) and Zy = \RE+X} we @) Similar to resistance and reactance, the impedance also can be referred to any one side. Let Zy__=_ total equivalent impedance referred to primary then Zre = Rie + i Xe Lae = y+ tates = @) Similarly Zye_=_ total equivalent impedance referred to secondary then Zag = Rag i Xe ” Lye = Z+2,=Z,4+Z, on © The magnitudes of Z,, and Z,, are, Zig = (RAN ~® and Zag = {RE AX. + ®) It can be noted that,Electrical Machine 1-26 Single Phase Transformers -- 9) Zre= Rieti Xe (a) Referred to primary (b) Referred to secondary Fig. 1.22 Equivalent impedancesElectrical Machine 1-27 Single Phase Transformers wm Example 1.7; A 15 kVA, 200/110 V transformer has Ry = 1.75 Q Ry = 0.0045 2 The leakage reactances are X, = 2.6 Q and X, = 0.0075 & Calculate, 4) equivalent resistance referred to primary D) equivalent resistance referred to secondary ©) equivalent reactance referred to primary 4) equivalent reactance referred to secondary @) equivalent impedance referred to primary ‘fi equivalent impedance referred to secondary 8) total copper loss Solution : The given values are, R, = 1.75 @, R, = 0.0045 Q, X, = 2.6.Q, X; = 0.0075 2 110 1 K = Sy 7 9p 7 008 , R 0.0045 a) Rem ReRe Re elt = b) Ry = Rpt Ri =R,+K?R, = 0.0045 + (0.05)? x175 = 0.00887 Q , x, 0.0075 9 Xe = MANES MHEG = 264 GOD = 56.0 a) Xm = Xp t Xf =X + KX, = 0.0075 + (0.05)? x2.6 = 0.014 Q ° Rie +j Xe = 3.55 + j 5.6.2 (355? +567 = 6.6304. Q Rye + j Xo = 0.00887 + j 0.014 2 ¥(0.00887)? + (0.014)? = 0.01657 2 1Zze1 g) To find full load copper loss, calculate full load current. KVAx 1000 _ 251000 _ ee a () FL = 11.3636 A total copper loss = [(I,) FL] Ry, = (11.3636)? x 355 = 456.4194 WElectrical Machine 1-28 Single Phase Transformers This can be cross checked as, (FL. = total copper loss KVAx 1000 _ 25%1000 Vy Tig 7 (2272728 7 R, #13 Ry (11.3636)? 1.75 + (227.272)? 0.0045 225.98 + 232.4365 = 458.419 W 1.14 Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Load Consider a transformer supplying the load as shown in the Fig. 1.23. Ry xy Ra Xp Fig. 1.23 ‘The various transformer parameters are, R xX Ry Xp now where I, Primary winding resistance Primary leakage reactance Secondary winding resistance Secondary leakage reactance Load impedance Primary current Secondary current = I, = Load current +h No load current Load component of current decided by the load K I, where K is transformation ratioElectrical Machine 1-29 Single Phase Transformers The primary voltage V, has now three components, 1. ~ By, the induced emf. which opposes V; 2. 1, Ry, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I, 3.1, X;, the drop across the reactance, leading I, by 90° V, = -E+0R +X, ... phasor sum = -E, +i, R+jX) V, = -B+0Z The secondary induced e.m.f. E, has also three components, 1. Vp, the terminal voltage across the load 2. Ip Ry the drop across the resistance, in phase with I, 3. 1 Xz, the drop across the reactance, leading I by 90° E, = V,+0R) +x, «s+ phasor sum. V. = B-LR+iX) Vv, = E,-hZ ‘The phasor diagram for the transformer on load depends on the nature of the load power factor. Let us consider the various cases of the load power factor. 1.14.1 Unity Power Factor Load, cos 6, = 1 As load power factor is unity, the voltage V) and I, are in phase. Steps to draw the phasor diagram are, 1. Consider flux 9 as reference 2. By lags @ by 90°. Reverse E, to get ~ E,. 3. E, and E, are in phase. 4. Assume V, in a particular direction. 5. I; is in phase with V2. 6. Add I, R; and I, X to V3 to get Ey. 7. Reverse I, to get Ij. 8 Add I, and I; to get I,. 9. Add I, R, and 1, X; to ~ E, to get V,. Angle between V, and I, is 6, and cos 6, is primary power factor. Remember that ],X; leads I, direction by 90° and 1 X, leads I, by 90° as current through inductance lags voltage across inductance by 90°. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.24.Electrical Machine 1-30 Single Phase Transformers -E,+i2,-¥, Tey Fig. 1.24 Phasor diagram for unity power factor load 1.14.2 Lagging Power Factor Load, cos 0, As load power factor is lagging cos 62, the current I; lags Vz by angle 62. So only change in drawing the phasor diagram is to draw I, lagging V, by $2 in step 5 discussed earlier. Accordingly directions of 1,R,, 1X, 14, I, IR, and 1,X, will change. Remember that whatever may be the power factor of load, IX, leads I, by 90° and 1,X, leads I, by 90%. ‘The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.25. Vy Direction of V3 Fig. 1.25 Phasor diagram for lagging power factor loadctrical Machi 1-34 1.14.3 Leading Power Factor Load, cos ¢, ‘As load power factor is leading, the current 1, leads V, by angle 65. So the change is to draw I, leading V, by angle $2. All other steps remain same as before. The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.26. Direction of ly Xp Fig. 1.26 Phasor diagram for leading power factor load 1.15 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer The term equivalent circuit of a machine means the combination of fixed and variable resistances and reactances, which exactly simulates performance and working of the machine. For a transformer, no load primary current I, has two components, Ip = I, sin 6, = Magnetising component I, = 1, cos 6, = Active component Im produces the flux and is assumed to flow through reactance X, called no load reactance bo while I, is active component representing core he Im losses hence is assumed to flow through the Vi Ry Xp resistance R,. Hence equivalent circuit on no load ’ can be shown as in the Fig. 1.27. This circuit | consisting of R, and X, in parallel is called oe exciting circuit. From the equivalent circuit we Fig. 1.27 No load equivalent circuit ca write,Electrical Machine 1-32 Single Phase Transformers and When the load is connected to the transformer then secondary current I, flows. This causes voltage drop across R, and X,. Due to I,, primary draws an additional current 15 = / K. Now |, is the phasor addition of I, and 15. This 1, causes the voltage drop across primary resistance R, and reactance X,. Hence the equivalent circuit can be shown as in the Fig. 1.28. Fig. 1.28 But in the equivalent circuit, windings are not shown and it is further simplified by transferring all the values to the primary or secondary. This makes the transformer calculations much easy. So transferring secondary parameters to primary we get, ’ R; 1X 2%: Res, Mag Za while By = 2, 1; = Ky, Aa 4 = Kh N2 where K= = Ni While transferring the values remember the rule that Low voltage winding — High current — Low impedance High voltage winding — Low current — High impedance ‘Thus the exact equivalent circuit referred to primary can be shown as in the Fig. 1.29. Similarly all the primary value can be referred to secondary and we can obtain the equivalent circuit referred to secondary.Electrical Machine 1-33 Single Phase Transformers Fig. 1.29 Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary Ro=KR, X{=KX, Z=K?Z, R=KE yeh s Similarly the exciting circuit parameters also gets transferred to secondary as R/, and X{. The circuit is shown in the Fig. 1.30. Fig, 1.30 Exact equivalent circuit referred to secondary Now as long as no load branch ie. exciting branch is in between Z, and Z4, the impedances cannot be combined. So further simplification of the circuit can be done. Such circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit. 1.15.1 Approximate Equivalent Circuit To get approximate equivalent circuit, shift the no load branch containing R, and X, to the left of R, and X,. By doing this we are creating an error that the drop across R, and X, due to I, is neglected. Hence such an equivalent circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit. So approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary can be as shown in the Fig. 1.31.Electrical Machine 1-34 Single Phase Transformers 1, & Ry Xy Re XS Fig. 1.31 Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary In this circuit now R, and R} can be combined to get equivalent resistance referred to primary R,, as discussed earlier. Similarly X; and X; can be combined to get X;.. And equivalent circuit can be simplified as shown in the Fig. 1.32. Fig. 1.32 We know that, Ry = Ry +RS=R, + be Xe = Zy. = R, = and i = I,cos, and I, =I, sino, In the similar fashion, the approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary also can be obtained.Electrical Machine 1-35 Single Phase Transformers 1.16 Approximate Voltage Drop in a Transformer Consider the equivalent circuit referred to secondary as shown in the Fig. 1.33. Xoo Fig. 1.33 From the Fig. 1.33 we can write, E, = DR, +h, + V2 5+ Yeh, Va + iy Rae +5 Xa) ‘As primary parameters are referred to secondary, there are no voltage drops in primary. When there is no load, I, = 0 and we get no load terminal voltage Vay as E). Vo = Ey = No load terminal voltage while V, = Terminal voltage on load Consider the phasor diagram for lagging pf. load. The current I, lags V2 by angle $3. Take V; as reference phasor. I, R,, is in phase with I, while I, X,. leads I, by 9°. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.34. To derive the expression for approximate voltage drop, draw the circle with O as centre and OC as radius, cutting extended OA at M. 2 As OA = V; and now OM = E, the total Fig. 1.34 voltage drop is AM = I; Z:,. But approximating this voltage drop is equal to AN instead of AM where N is intersection of perpendicular drawn from C on AM. This is because angle 0. is practically very very small and in practice M and N are very close to each other. Ree Approximate voltage drop = AN Draw perpendicular from B on AM intersecting it at D and draw parallel to DN from B to the point L shown in the Fig. 1.34. “ AD = AB cos 4, = 1; Ry, cos 6Electrical Machine and DN = BL=BC sino, Single Phase Transformers Ty Xoe sin 2 AN = AD + DN=I; Ry, 005 2 + I; Xz, Sin Assuming o% = =o +. Approximate voltage drop LRzp COS + Ty Xpq sin > If all the parameters are referred to primary then we get, Approximate voltage drop = I, Ry, cos 6 + I; Xie sin Fig. 1.35 If the load has leading p.f. then we get the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig-135. The I, leads Vp by angle ¢. In this case, the expression for approximate voltage drop remains same but the sign of 1X, sing reverses. Approximate voltage drop T, R,, cos 6~ 1, X,, sin | ... using referred to secondary values I, Rie cos $~ I, Xie sin 6]... using referred to primary values It can be noticed that for leading power factor E, < V;. For the unity power factor, the phasor diagram is simple and is shown in the Fig. 1.36. For this case, as cos @= 1 and sin >= 0, the approximate voltage drop is I, Ry, or Ty Rie TrRee c 'Xre Thus the general expression for the total approximate voltage drop is, Approximate voltage drop = E, - V, = Tag Rag C05 O# Ine Xoo Sin --. using referred to secondary values = The Rig €08 6 # lhe Xte Sin 6 .. using referred to primary values + sign for lagging power factor while - sign for leading power factor loads.Electrical Machine 1-37 Single Phase Transformers: 1.17 Voltage Regulation of Transformer Because of the voltage drop across the primary and secondary impedances it is observed that the secondary terminal voltage drops from its no load value (E,) to load value (V;) as load and load current increases. This decrease in the secondary terminal voltage expressed as a fraction of the no load secondary terminal voltage is called regulation of a transformer. The regulation is defined as change in the magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage, when fulll load i.e. rated load of specified power factor supplied at rated voltage is reduced to no load, with primary voltage maintained constant expressed as the percentage of the rated terminal voltage. Let E, = secondary terminal voltage on no load V, = secondary terminal voltage on given load then mathematically voltage regulation at given load can be expressed as, % voltage regulation = Fave x10 - The ratio (E, ~ V,/V2) is called per unit regulation. The secondary terminal voltage does not depend only on the magnitude of the load current but also on the nature of the power factor of the load. If V; is determined for full load and specified power factor condition the regulation is called full load regulation. ‘As load current increases, the voltage drops tend to increase and V, drops more and more. In case of lagging power factor V, < E, and we get positive voltage regulation, while for leading power factor E, < V, and we get negative voltage regulation. The voltage drop should be as small as possible hence less the regulation better is the performance of a transformer. 1.17.1 Expression for Voltage Regulation The voltage regulation is defined as, Ey - %R = N2 100 = 100 ‘Total voltage drop 2 V2 The expression for the total approximate voltage drop is already derived. Total voltage drop = 1, R;, cos o+1; X,, sin} Hence the regulation can be expressed as, TaR2e 608 9 #13X2e iN 99 2 %R =Electrical Machine 1-38 Single Phase Transformers ‘+’ sign for lagging power factor while’ sign for leading power factor loads. The regulation can be further expressed interms of I,, Vi, Rye and Xi_- Ve VY I, =K if V, = KV) h=x 4 Rae X20 while Re = gar Nea FE Substituting in the regulation expression we get, oy R = Rie 6089 2h Xie siN 9 199 1.17.2 Zero Voltage Regulation We have seen that for lagging power factor and unity power factor condition V, < E, and we get positive regulation. But as load becomes capacitive, V; starts increasing as load increases. At a certain leading power factor we get E, = V2 and the regulation becomes zero. If the load is increased further, E, becomes less than V, and we get negative regulation. . For zero voltage regulation, E, = V2 E,-V, = 0 or Vp cos 6- Vy sing = 0 +. “ve sign as leading power factor 1,Roe _ Lie 1pXze _ X10 = BR _ he y, Mae where Va = Vee and Vx v, Vacos = Vy sino tang = <8 cos @ = cos {tan ()} This is the leading pf. at which voltage regulation becomes zero while supplying the load. 1.17.3 Constants of a Transformer From the regulation expression we can define constants of a transformer. Ty Roy cost Ip E %R = 20 81 10939 Single Phase Transformers Electrical Machine Joona (* x 2 2) sin 00 is called per unit resistive drop and denoted as Vp. Tz Rae _ Ly Rie a The ratio 2 Vy = per unit reactive drop = 12% 2 The terms Vp and Vx are called constants of a transformer because for the rated output I,, Ey, Rie Xie Rog, Xe a€€ constants. The regulation can be expressed interms of Vx and Vx as, %R = [Vg cos ¢+ Vy sin 4] x 100 On no load condition, E = V; and E, = V, where V, and V, are the given voltage ratings of a transformer. Hence V_ and Vx can be expressed as, and where V, and V, are no load primary and secondary voltages. Vp and Vx can be represented on percentage basis as, Percentage resistive drop = Vp x 100 Percentage reactive drop = Vx x 100 Key Point: Note that Vz and Vx are also called per unit resistance and reactance respectively. a> Example 1.8 : 250/125 V, 5 kVA single phase transformer has primary resistance of 0.2 Qand reactance of 0.75 Q The secondary resistance is 0.05 2 and reactance of 0.2 2 i) Determine its regulation while supplying full load on 0.8 leading p,f. ii) The secondary terminal voltage on full load and 0.8 leading pf. Solution : The given values are, R; = 0.2 Q X, = 0.75 @ R, = 0.05 Q X, = 0.2 @, cos = 0.8 leadingSingle Phase Transformers K = g = 2597 7-05 — VA _5x109 _ G) EL = “p> = agg = 0A ..- full load Re = Ry +K'R, = 0.05+(05)?x02 = 0.1.2 Nye = Xp + K? X, = 0.24(05)? x 075 = 0.3875 @ 4) Regulation on full load, cos 6 = 0.8 leading sind = 06 1, Rye 6080 Ta Xse sind %R = 00, where 1, = Full load current R= (W001 08400387509) = 488% ii) For secondary terminal voltage, use basic expression of regulation = EexVe %R = = Ex100 naan = Ve 100 -61 = 125-V, V, = 1311V Tt can be seen that for leading p.f. E, < V, ‘mm Example 1.9: Calculate the regulation of a transformer in which the copper loss is 1% of output and the percentage reactance drop is 5% when load power factor is i) 0.9 lagging and ii) 0.9 leading. Solution : Given values are, %X = 5% Now copper loss is, Pa = 13 Rye and output is, Pou = Vol % Copper loss % VeElectrical Machine 1-41 Single Phase Transformers = ie xt00 = Re tao % copper loss Vp 1% = 0.01 and Vy = 5% = 0.05 i) cos ¢ = 0.9 lagging sing = 0.4358. % R= (Vy cos 64 Vx sin 6) x100 = (00109 +005% 0.4358) 100 = + 3.08% ii) cos ¢ = 0.9 leading %R = (Vp cosg— Vx sing)x 100 = (0.01 x0.9-0.05 x 0.4358) x 100 = - 1.28% 1.18 Losses in a Transformer In a transformer, there exists two types of losses. i) The core gets subjected to an alternating flux, causing core losses. ii) The windings carry currents when transformer is loaded, causing copper losses. 1.18.1 Core or Iron Losses Due to alternating flux set up in the magnetic core of the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of magnetisation and demagnetisation. Due to hysteresis effect there is loss of energy in this process which is called hysteresis loss. It is given by, hysteresis loss = K, Bi; fv watts where K, ~ Hysteresis constant depends on material. B,, = Maximum flux density. f = Frequency. v = Volume of the core. The induced e.m.f. in the core tries to set up eddy currents in the core and hence responsible for the eddy current losses. The eddy current loss is given by, Eddy current loss = K, B2, f # watts/unit volume where K t = Thickness of the core ‘As seen earlier, the flux in the core is almost constant as supply voltage V; at rated frequency f is always constant. Hence the flux density B,, in the core and hence both Eddy current constantElectrical Machine 1-42 ‘Single Phase Transformers hysteresis and eddy current losses are constants at all the loads. Hence the core or iron losses are also called constant losses. The iron losses are denoted as P,. The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core material like silicon steel having very low hysteresis loop and by manufaciuring the core in the form of laminations. 1.18.2 Copper Losses The copper losses are due to the power wasted in the form of PR loss due to the resistances of the primary and secondary windings. The copper loss depends on the magnitude of the currents flowing through the windings. Total Culoss = I? R,}+13R, = 1? (Ry +R5) = 13 (Ro +RI) If Rye = 13 Rie The copper losses are denoted as P.,, If the current through the windings is full load current, we get copper losses at full load. If the load on transformer is half then we get copper losses at half load which are Jess than full load copper losses. Thus copper losses are called variable losses. For transformer VA rating is V, I, or V2 [,. As V; is constant, we can say that copper losses are proportional to the square of the kVA rating. So, P,, « Po (kVA)? Thus for a transformer, Total losses = Iron losses + Copper losses = PtPy Key Point: It is seen that the iron losses depend on the supply voltage while the copper lasses depend on the current. The losses are not dependent on the phase angle between voltage and current. Hence the rating of the transformer is expressed as a product of voltage and current and called VA rating of transformer. It is not expressed in watts or kilo watts. Most of the times, rating is expressed in kVA. 1.19 Efficiency of a Transformer Due to the losses in a transformer, the output power of a transformer is less than the input power supplied. Power output = Power input ~ Total losses Power input = Power output + Total losses Power output + P; + Poy The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of the power output to power input, So for a transformer the efficiency can be expressed as,Electrical Machine 1-43 Single Phase Transformers Power output Power input Power output "= Power outputs P, +P, Now Power output = V2 Ip cos ¢ where cos 6 = Load power factor The transformer supplies full load of current I, and with terminal voltage V,. P., = Copper losses on full load = 13 Ro, Vz 1, 60892 1 = Voty cosdg +B, +17 Ry, But V2, = VA rating of a transformer (VA rating)x cos 1 WA rating)xcoso+P, +12 Ry, (VA rating) x cos = ee eet ——x 100 (VA rating) x cos $+ P, +13 Ra. % This is full load percentage efficiency with, 1, = Full load secondary current But if the transformer is subjected to fractional load then using the appropriate values of various quantities, the efficiency can be obtained. Actual load Let_| 1 = Fraction by which load is less than full load = SPOS For example, if transformer is subjected to half load then, = Halfload _ (2) _ 5 “ Fullload ~ ~T ~~ When load changes, the load current changes by same proportion. new p= 1 (L) FL. Similarly the output V; Ip cos $2 also reduces by the same fraction. Thus fraction of VA rating is available at the output. Similarly as copper losses are proportional to square of current then, new P,, =n? (P.,) RL Key Point: So copper losses get reduced by n’. In general for fractional load the efficiency is given by,Electrical Machine 1-44 Single Phase Transformers %n= x 100 n(VA rating) coso+ P, +n? (P,,)F.L. where n = Fraction by which load is less than full load. Key Point : For all types of load power factors lagging, leading and unity the efficiency expression does not change, and remains same. wm) Example 1.10: A 4 kVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has equivalent resistance referred to primary as 0.15 Q Calculate, i) The total copper losses on full load. ii) The efficiency while supplying full load at 0.9 pf. lagging. iti) The efficiency while supplying half load at 0.8 py. leading. Assume total iron losses equal to 60 W. Solution : The given values are, V, = 200 V, V, = 400 V, S$ = 4 kVA, R, = 0.15 9 P, = 60 W 400 K = en Ry = K?R, =(2)?x015 = 0.6 Q 3 ary = NA 4x10" L404 2 () Total copper losses on full load, (P,) FL. = [(L) FLFR, = (10)? x06 = 60 W (i) cos § = 0.9 lagging and full load VA rating cos en = VAqating coso+ P +(Pa) EL. 1? °x0.9 — ————— X100 = 96.77 % ™* Fxd03 x09+60+60 * (ii) cos 4 = 08 leading, half load Ashalfload, n = 05. (P.)JH-L. = n?x (P.,)F.L. = (0.5)? x60 = 15 W nx(VA rating) cos @ nX(VA rating) cosp+ P+ (PHL. %N = * 100 3 - 05%4x105X08 199 _ 9552 % 05x 4x10 x0.8+ 60415Electrical Machine 1-45 Single Phase Transformers 1.20 Condition for Maximum Efficiency ‘When a transformer works on a constant input voltage and frequency then efficiency varies with the load. As load increases, the efficiency increases. At a certain load current, it achieves a maximum value. If the transformer is loaded further the efficiency starts decreasing. The graph of efficiency against load current [, is shown in the Fig. 1.37. The load current at which the efficiency attains Fig. 1.37 maximum value is denoted as Ih, and maximum efficiency is denoted 25 Max Let us determine, 1. Condition for maximum efficiency. 2. Load current at which Tmax OCCUIS. 3. KVA supplied at maximum efficiency. The efficiency is a function of load ie. load current I; assuming cos $2 constant. The secondary terminal voltage V» is also assumed constant. So for maximum efficiency, dn. ar, ° = V2 1 Ty cos; +P, +H Ry ans i Vp 1p cosbs |e “ 1, COS >, +P, +13 Ry # (Vp 1p cos, +P +13 Roe) aT, 5 (2 1, cos) = (Vo Tp €0869) +3 a T, cos) +P, +13 Ro.) = 2. (Vz Ty c08$, +P, +13 Rag) (Vz €0863) — (Vz I, 20862) (Vz C082 + 21; Roe) = 0 Cancelling (V2 cos ,) from both the terms we get, Vz 1, cos, +P, +13 Ry, - Vp Iz cosh; -2 13 Ra Pi-1 Ry = 0 Pi = GRy= Pa So condition to achieve maximum efficiency is that, Copper losses = Iron lossesElectrical Machine 1-46 Single Phase Transformers 4.20.1 Load Current I,,, at Maximum Efficiency ForNnaxy 1 Rae = 2 But = lop Ty Roe = Py P te = de This is the load current at Nnax- Let (,)F.L. = Full load current ®OFL. Py lm = (h) FL. Vener This is the load current at Tay interms of full load current. 1.20.2 kVA Supplied at Maximum Efficiency For constant V, the kVA supplied is the function of load current KVA at Mnax = lam V2 = Vo (I))F-L. x KVA at Mau = (KVA rating) x Substituting condition for ),,,, in the expression of efficiency, we can write expression fOr Nnax aS, _ V2 Tam 6089 = % max = VeTng cos0F 27, x100 as Py =P, ie Vang = aoRVA Lot c08% EVA for Max C089 2P, ‘us Example 4.11: A 250 kVA single phase transformer has iron loss of 1.8 KW: The full load copper loss is 2000 watts. Calculate i) Efficiency at full load, 0.8 lagging py. ii) KVA supplied at maximum efficiency. iti) Maximum efficiency at 0.8 lagging pf.Electrical Machine 1-47 Single Phase Transformers Solution : The given values are, P, = 1800W, (P,)FL. = 2000 W a _ (VA rating) cos @ ) % 0 = yA Tating) cosg+ P, (Py) FL. * 10° 250%103 x08 = 10 25010 x0.8 + 1800 +2000 = 98.135 % 8) RVA at Mga = KVA rating lp Se = 250x,)280 = 237.1708 kVA KVA at thn X€080 iti) = QWAattima x cOsO+ x 100 where = P,=1800W 3 = ___2371708x10° X08 9g 237.1708 x105 x0.8+2x1800 = 98.137 % 1.21 Effect of Power Factor on Efficiency ‘The efficiency of a transformer is given by, output _ input —losses losses 1 > Snput > — input input ~ Now, input = output + losses = V; 15 cos 9+ losses ge losses. Using in (1), Vz Tz cos $+ losses losses Vz 1, cng DSS ~ @ Vo Ta Let Josses x and using in (2), V2 In a ne ings 1- et 2)Electrical Machine 1-48 Single Phase Transformers Thus as the power factor of the load is more ie, cos is higher, x/cos@ is lesser. Hence the second term in the equation (3) becomes lesser and efficiency will be more. Key Point : As power factor increases, the efficiency increases. % Full load Thus the family of efficiency [ Curent curves are obtained as power 0 00 120 | factor increases, as shown in the oy poe Fig. 1.38. Fig. 1.38 Effect of p.f. on efficiency 1.22 Effect of Frequency and Supply Voltage on Iron Losses The iron losses of a transformer includes two types of losses, 1. Hysteresis loss and 2. Eddy current loss For a given volume and thickness of laminations, these losses depend on the operating frequency, maximum flux density and the voltage. Hysteresis loss Eddy current loss K,= Constant v= Volume of core t= Lamination thickness Fig. 1.39 It is known that for a transformer, V = 444 £6,,N=444 £B, AN Where A = area By «» For constant A and NElectrical Machine 1-49 ‘Single Phase Transformers Thus as voltage changes, the maximum flux density changes and both eddy current and hysteresis losses also change. As voltage increases, the maximum flux density in the core increases and total iron loss increases. As frequency increases, the flux density in the core decreases but as the iron loss is directly proportional to the frequency hence effect of increased frequency is to increase the iron losses. Key Point: Thus iron loss increases as the voltage and frequency increases for the transformer. ™m> Example 1.12: 1 kV/2kV transformer has 750 W hysteresis losses and 250 W eddy current losses. When the applied voltage is doubled and frequency is halfed, find the new losses. Solution : The hysteresis loss is given by, P, & BSE ‘The eddy current loss is given by, P, co Bif? But By « ¥ 16 2 he ( J ix and r«(F) xf Pu Vy f Pa _ M ? fy ? § ? Pe (i)" Pak ant Ft ve) “\h) “Ue Now V; =2 Vj and f = 05 f ais 750 (0.5)! «(0.5 x2 and 79205)? x(0.5)? x2)? Pra Par Pro = 3446.095 W and P. = 1000 W +. Total new iron loss = Pky + P.y = 4446.095 WElectrical Machine 1-50 Single Phase Transformers 1.23 O.C. and S.C. Tests on Single Phase Transformer The efficiency and regulation of a transformer on any load condition and at any power factor condition can be predetermined by indirect loading method. In this method, the actual load is not used on transformer. But the equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer are determined by conducting two tests on a transformer which are, 1. Open circuit test (O.C. Test) 2. Short circuit test (S.C. Test) The parameters calculated from these test results are effective in determining the regulation and efficiency of a transformer at any load and power factor condition, without actually loading the transformer. The advantage of this method is that without much power loss the tests can be performed and results can be obtained. Let us discuss in detail how to perform these tests and how to use the results to calculate equivalent circuit parameters. 1.23.1 Open Circuit Test (0.C. Test) The experimental circuit to conduct O.C. test is shown in the Fig. 1.40. Single —o phase Ey, AC. 21°? Open supply —o HY. side Variac LV. Transiormer side Fig. 1.40 Experimental circuit for O.C. test ‘The transformer primary is connected to a.c. supply through ammeter, wattmeter and variac, The secondary of transformer is kept open. Usually low voltage side is used as primary and high voltage side as secondary to conduct O.C. test. The primary is excited by rated voltage, which is adjusted precisely with the help of a variac. The watimeter measures input power. The ammeter measures input current. The voltmeter gives the value of rated primary voltage applied at rated frequency. Sometimes a voltmeter may be connected across secondary to measure secondary voltage which is V. = E, when primary is supplied with rated voltage. As voltmeter resistance is very high, though voltmeter is connected, secondary is treated to be open circuit as voltmeter current is always negligibly small.Electrical Machine 1-51 Single Phase Transformers: When the primary voltage is adjusted to its rated value with the help of variac, readings of ammeter and wattmeter are to be recorded. The observation table is as follows Vo volts 1, amperes We watts Rated V, = Rated voltage W, = Input power I, = Input current = no load current As transformer secondary is open, it is on no load. So current drawn by the primary is no load current I,. The two components of this no load current are, 1, =, sin 6, I. =I, cos 0, where cos @, = No load power factor ‘And hence power input can be written as, Wo = Vo by 005 9 ‘The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.41. As secondary is open, I, = 0. Thus its reflected current on primary Ij is also zero. So we have primary current I, = ly. The transformer no load current is always very small, hardly 2 to 4 % of its full load value. As Ip = 0, secondary copper losses are zero. And 1, = I, is very low hence copper losses on primary are also very very low. Thus the total copper Fig. 1.41 losses in O.C. test are negligibly small. As against this the input voltage is rated at rated frequency hence flux density in the core is at its maximum value. Hence iron losses are at rated voltage. As output power is zero and copper losses are very low, the total input power is used to supply iron losses. This power is measured by the wattmeter ie. W,. Hence the wattmeter in O.C. test gives iron losses which remain constant for all the loads. W, = P, = Iron losses Calculations : We know that, We = Vol, cos o2 08 y= we = no load power factor Once cos 9, is known we can obtain, I, = 1, cos 4, and 1, =1, sind, Once I, and I,, are known we can determine exciting circuit parameters as, Vo = 2 and =o Xo=p° 2 Key Point : The no load power factor cos », is very low hence wattmeter used must be low power factor type otherwise there might be error in the results. If the meters are connected on secondary and primary is kept open then from O.C. test we get R’, and X! with which we can obtain R, and X, knowing the transformation ratio K. 1.23.2 Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test) In this test, primary is connected to a.c. supply through variac, ammeter and voltmeter as shown in the Fig. 1.42. Single —o phase Shor AC circut supply —o Variac Primary Secondary Fig. 1.42 Experimental circuit for S.C. test ‘The secondary is short circuited with the help of thick copper wire or solid link. As high voltage side is always low current side, it is convenient to connect high voltage side to supply and shorting the low voltage side. As secondary is shorted, its resistance is very very small and on rated voltage it may draw very large current. Such large current can cause overheating and burning of the transformer. To limit this short circuit current, primary is supplied with low voltage which is just enough to cause rated current to flow through primary which can be observed onElectrical Machine 1-53 Single Phase Transformers an ammeter. The low voltage can be adjusted with the help of variac. Hence this test is also called low voltage test or reduced voltage test. The wattmeter reading as well as voltmeter, ammeter readings are recorded. The observation table is as follows, Vee Volts ee amperes We watts Rated Now the currents flowing through the windings are rated currents hence the total copper loss is full load copper loss. Now the voltage applied is low which is a small fraction of the rated voltage. The iron losses are function of applied voltage. So the iron losses in reduced voltage test are very small. Hence the wattmeter reading is the power loss which is equal to full load copper losses as iron losses are very low. We = (Pey) FiL. = Full load copper loss Calculations : From S.C. test readings we can write, Wee = Vee Hye €08 Ys Vi.1 €0S Oye = —yy%© = short circuit power factor Wy, = I2 Rig = copper loss Wee Re = =U RR+XR while Xie = V ZR RR Thus we get the equivalent circuit parameters Rye Xje and Zi Knowing the transformation ratio K, the equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary also can be obtained. Important Note : If the transformer is step up transformer, its primary is LV. while secondary is H.V. winding. In S.C. test, supply is given to H.V. winding and LV. is shorted. In such case we connect meters on H.V. side which is transformer secondary though for S.C. test purpose H.V. side acts as primary. In such case the parameters calculated from S.C. test readings are referred to secondary which are Ree, Zae and Xze. SO before doing calculations it is necessary to find out where the readings are recorded on transformer primary or secondary and accordingly the parameters are to be determined. In step down transformer, primary is high voltage itself to which supply is given in S.C. test. So in such case test results give us parameters referred to primary ie. Rie, Zie and Xie.Electrical Machine 1-54 Single Phase Transformers Key Point: In short, if meters are connected to primary of transformer in S.C. test, calculations give us R,. and Z,. If meters are connected to secondary of transformer in S.C. test calculations give us R,, and Zp. 4.23.3 Calculation of Efficiency from 0.C. and S.C. Tests We know that, From OC. test, W, = P, From SC. test, Wy = (P,) FL. . V> (Iz) F.L.cos @ Ynon full load = YET ase We FW Thus for any p.f. cos 0 the efficiency can be predetermined. Similarly at any load which is fraction of full load then also efficiency can be predetermined as, nx(VA rating) xcos & SUA rating) 688 ___ 199 TX(VA rating)x cos + W, +n? W,. © %n at any load = where n = fraction of full load n Vp I, cos on = ——— a2 SF _ 100 o %N = Voi coso+ W, +n? We where bh = n (i) FL. 1.23.4 Calculation of Regulation From S.C. test we get the equivalent circuit parameters referred to primary or secondary. The rated voltages V,, V2 and rated currents (1,) F-L. and (1) F.L. are known for the given transformer. Hence the regulation can be determined as, Tz Ra, cos o+T2 Xa. sing %R= 100 — TRiecos oh Xie SING 199 where Ij, I, are rated currents for full load regulation. For any other load the currents I;, I, must be changed by fraction n. I,, I, at any other load = n (I) FL, n () FL. Key Point: Thus regulation at any load and any power factor can be predetermined, without actually loading the transformer.Electrical Machine 1-55 Single Phase Transformers ym Example 1.13: A 5 kVA, 500/250 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer gave the following readings, O.C. Test : 500 V, 1 A, 50 W (LV. side open) S.C. Test : 25 V, 10 A, 60 W (L.V. side shorted) Determine : i) The efficiency on full load, 0.8 lagging pf. ii) The voltage regulaion on full load, 0.8 leading p.f. iii) The efficiency on 60% of full load, 0.8 leading pf iv) Drazo the equivalent circuit referred to primary and insert all the values ist it. Solution : In both the tests, meters are on H.Y. side which is primary of the transformer. Hence the parameters obtained from test results will be referred to primary. From O.C. test, V, = 500 V,1,=1A, W, = 50W cos}, = wc BOR * mT I, = I, cos 0,= 1x01 =01A and Tm = Jy sin 9) = 1x 0.9949 = 09949 R, = and Xo = 72> pay = 502520 and W, = P, = iron losses = 50 W From $C. test, Vie = 25 V; Ie = 10 A, Wy. = 60 W Re = Lie = X,. = (57-6 = 2.4269 2 () FL. = “Te = 5x10: =A and ke = Ww. = i) qon full load, cos, = 0.8 laggingElectrical Machine 1-56 Single Phase Transformers (VA rating) cos “oN = (x qating) cos, +P, +O) FL 100 3 = 2x10 X08 x 109 = 97.32 % 5x40? x0.84+50460 ii) Regulation on full load, cos 6 = 0.8 leading (Ly) F. L. Rye cos (Ly) F. L. Xe sing ah ano = 10x06%0.8-10%24269%0.6 ~ 500 %R = 00 «100 = 195% iii) For 60 % of full load, n = 06 and cos , = 0.8 leading Py = copper loss on new load = n? x (P,,) F.L. = (0.6 x 60 = 21.6 W n (VA rating) cos 62 Sep 5 ee oe n(VA tating) cos @) + F +n? (P,) FL x100 0.6x5x10 x 0.8 = een 100 DSxSxI10* xO5+ 504216 = 97.103 % iv) The equivalent circuit referred to primary is shown in the Fig. 1.43. Rie X10 062” 2.42690 eS te X, ce 502.529 Fig. 1.43Electrical Machine 1-57 Single Phase Transformers im Example 1.14 : The open circuit and short circuit tests on a 10 kVA, 125/250 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer gave the following results : OC. test : 125 V, 0.6 A, 50 W (on L.V. side) S.C. test : 15 V, 30 A, 100 W (on H.V. side) Calculate : i) copper loss on full load ii) full load efficiency at 0.8 leading p,f iti) half load efficiency at 0.8 leading pf. iv) regulation at full load, 0.9 leading py. Solution : From O.C. test we can write, W, = P, = 50 W = Iron loss From S.C. test we can find the parameters of equivalent circuit. Now S.C. test is conducted on H.V. side i.e. meters are on H.V. side which is transformer secondary. Hence parameters from S.C. test results will be referred to secondary. Veg = 15 V, ie = 30 A, W,, = 100 W 10 -oine (30? 15 39 7 052 Xp» = 4Z3,-RE = 04875 0 i) Copper loss on full load VA rating _10x105 _ (L) FL. = eS = = 40 A In short circuit test, [,, = 30 A and not equal to full load value 40 A. Hence W,, does not give copper loss on full load Wye = Pay at 30 A = 100 W Now Py « FP Poy at30A _ (30)? P.,atfOA ~ (40 100-300 P.,atd0A ~ 1600 P,, at 40 A = 177.78W (Poy) FL. = 177.78 WElectrical Machine 1-58 Single Phase Transformers ii) Full load n , cos 9, = 0.8 oy - Vo(l2) F. L. 608 92 Yo non full load = ose cag eee L 250x 40x08 = BORG 08 450+ 17778 * 100 = 97-23 Yo iii) Half load 9, cos 0 = 0.8 n= O5as half load, (L) HL.= 4x 40=20A y . % non half load = ————V2lls) HL. 60862 agg Vu(I)H. Licos 6, +P +nX(P,,.) FL. n(VA rating) cos 9 05x10 x10" x08 8 100 O5xT0x10° x0.8+504 (05)? x17778 © = 97.69 % iv) Regulation at full load, cos 6 = 0.9 leading og (l2) Fabs Rye €08 = (12) FL. Xap 819 9, 99 V2 40x 011 (9 - 400.4875 x 0.4958 - ea eee «100 = - 1.8015 % 1.24 Polarity Test When the primary winding of a transformer is excited with suitable rated voltage then emf. gets induced in both the windings. The polarities of these e.m.f.s depend on how the windings are wound on the core. It is usual practice to determine which ends of the two windings acquire simultaneously positive or negative polarity. This polarity determination is carried out by conducting the polarity test on a transformer. Consider a transformer shown in the Fig. 3.5. Usually the ends of the L.V. winding are Iebelled with small letters as a,, a, while the ends of the H.V. windings are lebelled with capital letters as Ay, Ay. In determining the relative polarity of the two windings of a transformer using polarity test, the two windings are connected in series across a voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected across a, ~ Ay. One of the windings is excited by suitable voltage source. So a, — ay is excited by voltage V). Let E, and E, are the induced eam.fs.Electrical Machine 1-59 Single Phase Transformers {lL ke iL vale © Fig. 1.44 Polarity test Key Point: If the voltmeter reads E, ~ Fz, thus voltmeter reading is less than V;, then the polarities are called subtractive in nature. ‘The net voltage acting around the local circuit consisting the voltmeter is E, ~ Ey. In such case the ends a,, A, are simultaneously positive or negative. This is indicated by dots, as shown in the Fig. 3.5. Key Point: But if the windings are wound in such a way that the voltmeter reads Ey + Ey, the polarities are said to be additive. In such case the voltmeter reading is more than V;. This confirms that if a, is positive, terminal A, is negative and vice-versa. In such case, the polarity markings of one of the windings must be interchanged. Key Point: In practice the transformer windings are wound in such a way that the relative polarities are subtractive which is indicated by dots, as per the dot convention. 1.25 Sumpner's Test (Back to Back Test) ‘The Sumpner's test is another method of determining efficiency, regulation and heating under load conditions. The O.C. and S.C. tests give us the equivalent circuit parameters but cannot give heating information under various load conditions. The Sumpner's test gives heating information also. In O.C. test, there is no load on the transformer while in S.C. test also only fractional load gets applied. In all in OCC. and S.C. tests, the loading conditions are absent. Hence the results are inaccurate. In Sumpner's test, actual loading conditions are simulated hence the results obtained are much more accurate, Thus Sumpner's test is much improved method of predetermining regulation and efficiency than O.. and S.C. tests. The Sumpner's test requires two identical transformers. Both the transformers are connected to the supply such that one transformer is loaded on the other. Thus power taken from the supply is that much necessary for supplying the losses of both the transformers and there is very small loss in the control circuit. While conducting this test, the primaries of the two identical transformers are connected in parallel across the supply V;. While the secondaries are connected in series opposition so that induced em.fs in the two secondaries oppose each other. The secondaries are supplied from another low voltage supply are connected in each circuit to get the readings. The connection diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.45.Electrical Machine 1-60 Single Phase Transformers 1.72: Identical transformers 1 Low | votane supply 2 Regulating transformer AC. _4| ‘Supply 1 Fig. 1.45 Connection diagram for Sumpner's test T, and T, are two identical transformers. The secondaries of T, and T, are connected in series opposition. So Ey; = Egy ie. induced in two secondaries are equal but the secondaries are connected such that E is connected to G and F is connected to H. Due to such series opposition, two e.m.fs act in opposite direction to each other and cancel each other. So net voltage in the local circuit of secondaries is zero, when primaries are excited by supply 1 of rated voltage and frequency. So there is no current flowing in the loop formed by two secondaries. The series opposition can be checked by another voltmeter connected in the secondary circuit as per polarity test. If it reads zero, the secondaries are in series opposition and if it reads double the induced emf. in each secondary, it is necessary to reverse the connections of one of the secondaries As per superposition theorem, if V, is assumed zero then due to phase opposition no current flows through secondary and both the transformers T,, T, are as good as on no load. So O.C. test gets simulated. The current drawn from source V; in such case is 2 I, where I, is no load current of each transformer. The input power as measured by wattmeter W, thus reads the iron losses of both the transformers. P, per transformer = “Wi | as T,, T, are identical Then a small voltage V; is injected into the secondary with the help of low voltage transformer, by closing the switch $. With regulating mechanism, the voltage V, is adjusted so that the rated secondary current I, flows through the secondaries as shown. Ip flows from E to F and then from H to G. The flow of I, is restricted to the loop BAIJCDLKB and it does not pass through W,. Hence W, continues to read core losses. Both primaries and secondaries carry rated current so S.C. test condition gets simulated. Thus the wattmeter W, reads the total full load copper losses of both the transformers.Electrical Machine 1-61 ‘Single Phase Transformers (P,,)E.L. per transformer = % Key Point: Thus in the Sumpner’s test without supplying the load, full iron loss occurs in the core while full copper loss occurs in the windings simultaneously. Hence heat run test can be conducted on the two transformers. In O.C. and S.C. test, both the losses do not occur simultaneously hence heat run test cannot be conducted. This is the advantage of Sumpner's test. From the test results the full load efficiency of each transformer can be calculated as, % tip of each transformer = Output wr x100 Output+— cara where output = VA rating x cos Key Point: As all the voltages, currents and powers are measured during the test, the equivalent circuit parameters also can be determined. Hence the regulation at any load and load power factor condition can be predetermined. The only limitation is that two identical transformers are required. In practice exact identical transformers cannot be obtained. As two transformers are required, the test is not economical. wm Example 1.15: Two similar 200 kVA, single phase transformers gave the following results when tested by Sumpner's test : ‘Mains wattmeter W, = 4 KW Series wattmeter W, = 6 KW at full load current Find out individual transformer efficiencies at, i) Full-load at unity pf. it) Half load at 08 pf. lead Solution: The given values are, Rating = 200kVA, W,=4KkW, W,=6kW W, = Iron loss of both the transformers p, = Wh 4-2 kw for individual transformer W, = Full load copper loss for both the transformers (JEL. = We = $= 3 kW for individual transformer , _ VA rating cos $2 , i) At fall load, %N = —Yapang cose; FF ¥ a) RL® 00 with cos 62 200>10? x1 = x10 = 97.56 % 200%103 x1+2%103 + 3x10Electrical Machine 1-62 Single Phase Transformers ii) At half load, cos 9, = 0.8 and n _nx(VA rating) x¢0s $2 %y = n ~ x 100 1 x(VA rating) x cos +P, +n? x(P.,) LL. (P.JH.L. = n?x(P.,)F.L. where n = fraction of full load 3 wen = 05 20010? x08 100 eee 05x 20010" x0.8+2x10° +(05)? x 3x10" 96.67 % 1.26 Separation of Core Losses Test It is seen that the core losses of transformer includes, 1. Hysteresis loss 2. Eddy cwurent loss For a given volume and thickeness of laminations, these losses depend on the operating frequency, maximum flux density in the core and the voltage. The hysteresis loss is given by Steinmet’z relation, P, = K,BL7FV watts ie. P, = A BLOF watts (1) Where A = constant assuming constant voltage. ‘The eddy current loss is given by, P, = K,B2 ft? watts ie. P, = BBE £? watts (2) i constant for given thickness t of core Thus the total core loss becomes, ABLS’f + BB3 8) Practically conduct two tests on transformers at two different frequencies f, and f, keeping maximum flux density B,, in the core same. The results are to be used in the equations (1), (2) and (3) to obtain the constants A and B. Thus the core losses ie. iron losses can be separated into hysteresis and eddy current losses. imm> Example 1.16 : A single phase transformer shows 63 W core losses at 40 Hz while 110 W at 60 Hz. Both the tests are performed at same value of maximum flux density in the core. Find hysteresis and eddy current losses at 50 Hz frequency.Electrical Machine 1-63 Single Phase Transformers Solution : P, = 63W, f, = 40 Hz, P,=110W, f= 60Hz, B,, is same. As By, is same, it can be absorbed in the constants A and B. Thus we can write, P, = Af while P,=Bf P= P,+P, = Af+Bi? 63 = Ax40+Bx(40)? (1) and 110 = Ax60+Bx(60)? +Q) Solving (1) and (2) we get, A = 10584, B = 0.0129 Thus two losses at 50 Hz are, P, = Af= 1.0584 x 50 = 5292 W P, = Bf? = 0.0129 x 50? = 32.25 W 1.27 Parallel Operation of Transformers The transformers are connected in parallel when the load on them is more than the rating of the individual transformers. Several smaller units are operated in parallel which share a common load. Thus it is avoided that the total load is supplied by single unit due to use of parallel operation. The parallel operation is advantageous in the sense that the spare parts can be used interchangeably and their storage is easy. From the Fig. 146 it can be seen that the primary windings are connected to the supply bus bars while the secondary windings are connected to load bus bars. ty Te Supply Load side side Fig. 1.46 Parallel operationElectrical Mac! ie 1-64 Single Phase Transformers ‘Thus two or more transformers are connected in parallel to carry common load. If a given transformer is insufficient in capacity to deliver a particular load it may either be taken out of the circuit and replaced with a larger unit or an additional unit may be added to the circuit by connecting its primary side to the same source of supply and its secondary side to the same load circuit. The second unit is then said to be operating in parallel with the first unit. For satisfactory parallel operation of transformers there are certain conditions that must be satisfied. The parallel operation may be obtained generally by connecting common primary and secondary leads and then connecting the bank thus formed to the primary and secondary circuits. This is shown in the Fig. 1.46. The difference between the connections shown in the Fig. 1.46 and the Fig. 1.47 is that, though both the transformers are energized from the same source of supply and are connected to the same load circuit, in first case the transformers are connected directly to the supply and load circuits whereas in second case the two units are first connected together and then connected to the respective supply and load circuits. Vy V, 4 © Transformer 7 Primary Secondary side side Transformer 2 Primary [Secondary busbar busbar Fig. 1.47 Alternative connection of parallel transformer The division of load between the two transformers connected in parallel by either of the two ways mentioned above will be different. Key Point : Satisfactory parallel operation of the transformers implies that the transformers connected in parallel share common load approximately in proportion to their ratings. The most satisfactory condition is achieved when the load shared by the transformers is in exact proportion with their ratings.Electrical Machine 1-65 Single Phase Transformers 1.28 Conditions for Satisfactory Parallel Operation The conditions that must be followed for satisfactory parallel operation of transformers are as follows : 1) The supply system voltage and frequency must suit the primary windings of the transformers. 2) The transformers that are connected must have same polarity. In case of three phase transformers the transformers should have same angular displacement and same phase sequence 3) The voltage ratios of primaries and secondaries of the transformers must be same. 4) The percentage impedances should be equal in magnitude and have same X/R ratio in order to avoid circulating currents and operating at different power factors. 5) If the transformers have the different kVA ratings, the equivalent impedances should be inversely proportional to individual KVA rating to avoid circulating currents. 1.28.1 Explanation of Conditions The condition (1) can be easily satisfied. The condition (2) is an important condition for the faithful parallel operation of transformers. The secondary windings of the two transformers which are connected in parallel are either in phase with each other having zero degree phase displacement between the voltages or the voltages are in opposite time-phase relationship with a phase difference of 180° between them. A closed series circuit is formed by this parallel connection. If two voltages are having same phase relationship, the induced voltages from either common connection to the other are in the same direction. Thus there is no current flow in the series circuit. Thus the parallel operation works satisfactorily with no load connected. The windings so connected will have same polarity. If the two voltages are in phase opposition, the induced voltages from either common connection to the other are in opposite directions, hence adding to one another in the series circuit. Thus a large current will flow in the series circuit which is equivalent to a short circuit on both transformers. The two windings will have opposite polarity and parallel operation will not work properly. ‘This polarity designation should not be confused with the terms additive polarity and subtractive polarity as applied to individual units which are used only to give the relative directions of induced voltages and are helpful in proper paralleling of the transformers. If the lead marking is not available while making parallel connection then it is suggested that the two leads located in similar positions with respect to the bank is connected together and a fuse of low current rating is inserted between remaining leads. With windings having similar polarity the voltage across the fuse will be zero and noElectrical Machine 1-66 Single Phase Transformers current will flow. If the windings are of opposite polarity the voltage across the fuse will be twice the voltage of either winding. Thus short circuit current will flow and fuse will blow out. Thus in this case the connections are to be interchanged for reliable parallel operation. For parallel operation of three phase transformers having same voltage ratio, polarity may not be required to be considered. For satisfactory operation, the angular displacement and phase rotation between the two units to be paralleled must be the same. Paralleling of three phase transformers is simplified by standardizing the lead markings and various three phase connections have been placed in three different groups depending upon their angular displacement. The advantage of this is that it is not required to test for polarity, angular displacement and phase rotation. If condition (3) i.e. voltage ratios of primaries and secondaries of the transformers must be same is not satisfied the difference in voltage between the windings will cause a current to flow in the circuit at all time. This circulating current will be limited only by the sum of the impedances of the two transformers. Though this condition is not perfectly met still parallel operation is possible at the cost of the circulating current. When load is connected across the secondaries this circulating current in local circuit will produce unequal loading condition. The amount of circulating current can be calculated by making use of following formula, : the ble = arr emg, <1 where % Io = Percentage circulating current in % of normal load current of one transformer. ‘%e = Percentage of normal voltage indicating difference in voltage between the two windings. %IZ, %1Z, = Percentage impedance of transformer 2. In the above formula it is assumed that the capacity of both the units as the same. Key Point: With different capacities, the percent impedances in the formula should be based upon the same KVA rating and the percent circulating current is then percent of normal load current at this same kVA rating. If there is small difference between the ratios of transformers connected in parallel then it will produce relatively large circulating current. Percentage impedance of transformer 1. Key Point: For satisfactory parallel operation, the circulating current should not exceed 10 percent of normal load current.Electrical Machine 4-67 Single Phase Transformers By making use of balance coil in case of single phase and three phase transformers with different voltage ratios parallel operation will be reliable. With violence of condition (4) ic. if the percentage impedances are not equal in magnitude then also parallel operation is possible. Under this case the impedance triangles are not identical in shape and size. Also the two transformers will operate at different power factors from the power factor of the combined load. One transformer will operate at higher power factor and the other will operate at a lower power factor that of combined load. The effect of this will be that the two transformers will not share the load in proportion to their kVA ratings. The ratio of resistance to reactance must also be same for each of the transformers. So that the currents in each of the transformers are in phase. If these ratios are not same, the currents in the transformers are not in phase and the sum of the winding current will be gteater than the line current. If the percentage impedance of all the units connected in parallel is same then the load will divide in the individual units in the ratio of their capacities even if the error is introduced due to unequal ratio of resistance and reactance. The total permissible load will be equal to the sum of capacities of the individual units connected in parallel. 1.29 Parallel Operation of Two Ideal Transformers Now we will consider ideal case of two transformers having the same voltage ratio and their voltage triangles are equal in size and shape. The circuit shown in the Fig. 148 consists of two transformers in parallel. Fig. 1.48 ‘The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.49. ‘As seen from the Fig. 1.49 the impedance voltage triangles of both the transformers is same. I, and J, are the currents flowing through transformers A and B which are in parallel. These currents are in phase with the load current and are inversely proportional io the respective impedances.Electrical Machine Single Phase Transformers Fig. 1.49 Applying KCL, I=h+h Secondary voltage, V, = E-K2,=E Also, LZ = and R 1.30 Parallel Operation of Transformers with Equal Voltage Ratios Zz, wy a xy Ro Xp win 2 =, 2 Fig. 1.50 Let us now consider the case of two transformers connected in parallel having equal voltage ratios. The two transformers are having no load secondary voltage same. ie. Ey=E, = E. These voltages are in phase with each other. This is possible if the magnetizing currents of the two transformers are not much different. With this case theElectrical Machino 1-69 Singlo Phase Transformors primaries and secondaries of the two transformers canbe connected in parallel and no current will circulate under no load condition. This is represented in the Fig. 1.51. If we neglect magnetizing components, the two transformers ate represented as shown in the Fig. 4.61 Fig. 1.51. The phasor diagram under this case is shown in the Fig. 1.52. The two impedances Z, and Z, are in parallel. The values of Z, and Z, are with respect to secondary. e,-Es Fig. 1.52 Z, and Z, are in parallel therefore the equivalent impedance is given by, = AZr 2q= TZ, LZ, = = =Electrical Machine 1-70 Single Phase Transformers Multiplying both terms of above equation by voltage V;, Z. Vi = ViIgtz Z, Vy = Vil gz But V, I x10 is Q i.e. the combined load in kVA From this kVA carried by each transformer is calculated as, Qa = and Q The above expressions are useful in determining the values of Q, and Qy in magnitude and in phase. Key Point: The equation contains impedance ratio hence ohmic values of resistances and reactances are not required. The two transformers work at different power factors. One operates at high p.f. while the other at low p.f. If the impedances Z, and Z, are equal both in magnitude and quality i (= 2) , both transformers operate at the same p.f. which is the p-f. of the load. 1 This can be solved graphically also. First we have to draw currents I, and I, with angular difference of (6-42) and magnitude inversely proportional to the respective impedances with some suitable scale. The phase sum of I, and I, gives total current 1 From loading condition the phase angle and magnitude of I can be obtained which can give the values of currents I, and I, can be determined. 1.31 Parallel Operation of Transformers with Unequal Voltage Ratios Now we will consider the case of two transformers working in parallel and having unequal voltage ratio. This is shown in the Fig. 1.53. The voltage ratios of the two transformers are not equal. The parallel operation under this case is still possible. But as seen previously there would be a circulating current under no load condition.Electrical Machine 1-71 Single Phase Transformers bat | R, x, 2 Va Load % E » alge | Let us consider voltage ratio of transformer 1 is slightly more than 2. So that induced e.m.f. E; is greater than E,. Thus the resultant terminal voltage will be E, - E, which will cause a circulating current under no load condition. ce Fig. 1.53 k= 3am From the circuit diagram we have, B= With B= +h Also, L=+h Vo = A= +h) EB, = +) Z+1,2Z, (a) R= G+QA+hZ + ©) Subtracting equations (a) and (o) we have, E,-E = 124,-L2 1 = Gc Eth Ze Ey Substituting this value in equation (b), b- LZ + [fErtpteZalar]z, E2 2; - (&) - Ep) Z, Z, Zy+Z, Zi +Zy) E, = Similarly, = fee eaElectrical Machine 1-72 Single Phase Transformers Adding the above equations, = E, Z, +E2Z) Nth ZUG @ 4B) ~@ But h=h+h Load voltage, Vo = LZ Dividing both numerator and denominator of equation (c) by Z; Zyy EE = = E, /Z, +E, /Z. Vo = | Z= fies yes Za MIT E, /Z; + Ep/Z2 “aa Zaz If impedances Z, and Z, are small in comparision with load impedance Z, then product Z, Z, may be neglected so we get, 1, Ey Za = Ee VS 2 Git 2) 2422 - RZ 1 — Ep ZZ +Z) Z,+Z, But we know that = Ic Key Point: This circulating current Ic adds to I, but subtracts from Ip. Hence transformer 1 gets overloaded. The transformers will not share the load according to their ratings. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.54.Electrical Machine 1-73 Single Phase Transformers EQ | SHR, Fig. 1.54 The two transformers will operate at different power factors , and 9, are the power factor angles of these two transformers whereas @ is the combined pf. angle. Here E, and Ey have the same phase but there may be some phase difference between the two due to some difference of intemal connection as for the connection in parallel of a Star/Star and a Star/Delta 3 phase transformers. Key Point: While solving the problems on parallel operation of transformers it is convenient to work with numerical values of impedances instead of percentage values. ma» Example 1.17: Two transformers A and B are connected in parallel to a load of (2+j15) Q Their impedances in secondary terms are Z, = (0.15 + j0.5) Q and Zy=(01+j0.6) Q Their no load terminal voltages are E, = 207 20? V and E, = 205 20° volts. Find the power output and power factor of each transformer. Solution : Two transformers A and B are supplying a load of impedance given by, Z, = @+jlsy2 Given Zp = (O15 +j05)Q — Zy = (0.1 + j0.6) @ E, = 207 20° volts, Ey = 205 20° volts. Using the following formulae for I, and Ip, ty - ba Zot 2.(Ba ~ En) A Zy Lut Zy Ey + Ze) _ Ex 2p-2(E, - Es) ana te ZA Zp thy Ca Za) 1, = 1207 20°] 10.14 0.6] (24 1.5) [2072 0" = 205 20°] = (OAS j0.5) (0.14 0.5) + G+] 1.5) (O1d+50.5)+ (1+; 06) _ (207.2 0°) (0 . 6082 4 80 . 53°) + (2+ j 1.5) [207+ jO- 205 - j0] ~ (05220 273.30" ) (0.6082 Z 80.53°)+ (2.5.2 36.86") (0.254 j1.1)Electrical Machine 1-74 Single Phase Transformers (125.8974 Z 80.53°) + (2.5 Z 36.86) (2 2 0°) ~ O37T T1538) + (25 236 86)+ (1.1280 Z771P) _ (20.7140 + j 124.1816) + (4+ 8) ~ (031742 153.83") + (282 2 114.05") 24.7140 + j 127.1816 TU 2SIS+ 0139+ C1194 525751) 24.7140+j 127.1816 129.5605. 79° =TaB4 [2715 ~ 3.07043 2117.84 = (42196 2-38.84) A = (82.866 — j26.463) A Bo Zs = 21 (Ea = Es) Zn Za+Z, Za +Zn) (205.2 0°) [0.15 + j 0.5)- (2+ j 1.5) (2072 0° - 20520") W154 05) O14 7 0.6)+ + j 1.5) 10.154} 05)+ O.l+j05)] (205) (0.5220 2 73. 90° (2.5 236.86) (2) ~L BI +2715 (107.012 73.30°)~ (6 2 36.86") ej 2715 (30.7504 + j 102.49) ~ (4+) 3) = Tass 72715 26.7504 + 599.49 _ 103.0235.2 74.95° = 1434452715 — 3.07043 2117.84" = (83.5534 Z— 42.89") A = (24.5832 —j 22.8362) A = I, +1 = (62.866 —j 26.463) + (24.5832 — j 22.8362) = (57.4492 — j 49.2992) A = 75.70 2-40.69 A Ta Now, ly I Now total current is given by, i The load voltage, Mi = i Z, = (7570 2-40.63") (2 +4 1.5) = (75.70 Z— 10.63%) (2.5 236.86°) = 189.25 4-3.77 voltsElectrical Machine 1-75 ‘Single Phase Transformers The angle between V, and I, can be calculated as, a= (- 38.849) - (- 3.777) =- 35.07 ep. = €08 oq = cos (35.07) = 0.8184 (lagging) The angle between V, and Ip can be calculated as, (- 42.89) - (- 3.77) — 39.12" p.l. = COS On = cos (39.12) = 0.7758 (lagging) Ia Fig. 1.56 Power output of transformer A = V, I, cos Q, = 189.25 42.196%0.8184 = 6535.40 W = 6.5354 kW Power output of transformer B = Vi, Ip cos @g = (189.25) (83.5534) (0.7758) = 4926.31 W = 4.9263 kW ‘ump Example 1.18: A 500 kVA, single phase transformer with 0.010 p.u. resistance and 0.05 pu. reactance is to share a load of 750 kVA at 0.8 pf. lag with a 250 kVA transformer with 0.015 p.u. resistance and 0.04 pu. reactance. Find the load on each transformer when the open circuit secondary voltages are respectively 405 V and 415 V. Solution : Two transformers 1 and 2 are operating in parallel with their specifications given as Transformer 1 KVA rating = 500, p.u resistance = 0.010, p.u. reactance = 0.05. Transformer 2 KVA rating = 250, p.u resistance = 0.015, p.u. reactance = 0.04 These two transformers are sharing a common load of 750 kVA at 0.8 p.f. E, = 405 V, E,=415VElectrical Machine 1-76 Single Phase Transformers Let us find the impedances in ohmic values instead on p.u. basis for convenience by assuming the terminal voltage as 400 V J, R, = (0.010 x 400) = 4 volts 3 But, 1, = KYAL _ 500%10° _ 950 4 R, = 1X, = (0.05 x 400) = 20 volts X= isp = 0016 2 Similarly, 1, R, = (0.015 x 400) = 6 volts KVA; _ 250x10° _ But, R= 7 R 8. = 0.0096 2 1, ~ 635 LX, = (0.04 x 400) = 16 volts 16 16 Xe = GP = gag = 00256 0 Combining these resistances and reactances Z, = Ry + j X = (0.0032 + j0.016) Q = 0.0163 278.69 2 Zy = Ry + j Xz = (0.0096 + j0.0256) 2 = 0.02734 < 69.44° 2 Now I, can be calculated as, E, Z; -Z,(E, ~E,) N= Za FZ, @4Z) Note that E, > E, therefore equation will be slightly modified as given above First we have to calculate Z;, KVA rating = V>l; v.(2)=72 = 2 Z = WK R, = Z,cos ¢ = 0.213 x 0.8 = 0.1704 @Electrical Machine 1-77 Single Phase Transformers X= Zsin o= 0.213 x 0.6 = 0.1278 9 Z, = Ry +) X= (0.1704 + 0.1278) Q (405) (0.02734 2 69.44° ) — (0.1704 + j 0.1278) (415-405) ~ (C0163Z 78.6%) (0.02734 Z69.AN° )+ (0.1704 + j 0.1278) [(0.0032+ j 0.016) + (0.0096 + j 0.0256)] (11.0727 2 69.44") - (0.213 36.86°) (10) * [OOO04456 2 148.13" 1+ 10.2132 36.861 [0.0435 272.89] [3.8886 + j10.3674] - [1.7042+ j1.2777] F 010003784+ j0.0002352]+ [- 0.00313 + j0.00872), 2.1844 + 9.0897 9.34842 76.48° D004; OURS ~ TOOT Z TILA ~ 97277 A 4- 3487 A E, Z, +Z, (E2.-E) Similarly, Lh 2740 GFZ) 415 (0.01632 78.69" ) + (0.2132 36.86") (10) © [CUI Z 78.6") (002734 OFAN) + (O1704 +5 0.1278) { (0.0032 + j 0.016) + 0.0016) + (0.0096 + j 0.0256) | (6.76452 78.69 )+ (1.7042 +j 1.2777) 0.009612 111.35° _ (1.3266 +] 6.6331)+ (1.7042 +) 12777) - V00961 ZTT.35* 3.0308+j 7.9108 _ 8.47152 69.03° ~ 0.00961 271135 ~ 0.009612 11135" = 881.52 2-42.32 A Load shared by transformer A, Q = Vz 1, x 10° = 400 x 972.77 x 10 * = 389.108 kVA. Load shared by transformer B, Q = Vy I, x 10°? = 400 x 881.52 x 10°* = 352.608 kVA cos $, = cos 34.87° = 0.8204 (lag) cos) = cos 42.3% = 0.7393 (lag)Electrical Machine ym Example 1.19 : Two 250 kVA transformers suppling a network are connected in parallel on both primary and secondary sides. Their voltage ratios are the same. The resistance drops the reactance drops are 3.33% and 4% respectively. Calculate the transformer and its power factor when the total load on the are 1.5% and 0.9% and KVA loading on each transformers is 500 KVA Solution : Given values are, KVA of transformer 1 KVA of transformer 2 %R, = 1 Load combined, 1-78 and at 0.707 lagging pf. 250 250 % Ry = 09, 5, % X, = 333, Q = 500KVA, p.f. of Load = 0.707 lag Since the voltage ratios of the two transformers are same, ) Load shared by transformer 1 = (eee We have % Z 1 #% Ly Similarly Load shared by transformer pf. Load shared by transformer 2, Zt, 0.9+)4 2545733 05316 2 5.44° 154} 333 24+ 3.6522 £ 65.75° 771 £7187" 0.4736 2 - 612 = Zr 1=0(75%, (600 2— 45°) (0.5316 2 544°) 265.8 KVA /- 39.55 cos 39.55 = 0.7709 (lag) = Zy *-0(z22;) (600 2— 45°) (0.4736 4 - 6.12) 236.8 £- 51.12 kVA cos 51.12 = 0.6276 (lag) Single Phase TransformersElectrical Machine 1-80 Single Phase Transformers im Example 1.21: A L-phase transformer has 360 turns and 180 turns respectively in its secondary and primary windings. The respective resistances are 0.233 Q and 0.0672 Calculate the equivalent resistance of i) the primary in terms of the secondary winding. ii) the secondary in terms of the primary winding, and iii) the total resistance of the transformer in terms of the primary. Solution : N, = 180, N, = 360, R, = 0.067 9, R, = 0.2332 N, _ 360 K= Ny 7 180 = Key Point : As secondary turns are more, secondary winding is high voltage side. Hence on secondary the resistance values are higher. aR = (2)? x 0.067 = 0.268 2 i) R = Be = = 0.05825 Q fii) R,, = R, + Ri = 0.067 + 0.05825 = 0.12525 2 im Example 1.22 : A 500 kVA transformer has an iron loss of 500 W and full load copper loss of 600 W. Calculate the efficiency at 3/""full load and 0.8 power factor. Also calculate the meximum efficiency at that power factor. Solution : P, = 500 W, P.,(F.L.) = 600 W, n = 3/4 = 0.75, coso = 0.8 ven = Whore Poet) 0.75 50010? x z 100 0.75 x500 x 103 x 0.8 +500 +(0.75)* x 600 [500 00% 255 and Py = P,=500W for Trax KVA for Mhmax 608 0 %o Mmx = TVA for ign coso+P, +P, *100 = 99.7216 % KVA fortinn = KVAx == = 456.435 kVA 456.435x103 x08 456435103 x 0.8 +500 +500 = 99,7268 %Electrical Machine 1-80 Single Phase Transformers imp Example 1.21: A L-phase transformer has 360 turns and 180 turns respectively in its secondary and primary windings. The respective resistances are 0.233 Q and 00672 Calculate the equivalent resistance of i) the primary in terms of the secondary winding. ii) the secondary in terms of the primary winding, and iii) the total resistance of the transformer in terms of the primary. Solution : N, = 180, Nz = 360, R; = 0.0679, R, = 0.2330 = Na _ 300_ K= Me ig? Key Point : As secondary turns are more, secondary winding is high voltage side. Hence on secondary the resistance values are higher. i) RY = K?R, =(2)? x 0.067 = 0.268 Q R, _ 0233 ii) RS = eo OF = 0.05825 Q. iii) Ri, = Ry + Ry = 0.067 + 0.05825 = 0.12525 2 yum Example 1.22 : A 500 kVA transformer has an iron loss of 500 W and full load copper loss of 600 W. Calculate the efficiency at 34""full load and 0.8 power factor. Also calculate the maximum efficiency al that power factor. Solution : P, = 500 W, P.,(E.L) = 600 W, n = 3/4 = 0.75, cos = 0.8 nkVA cos nKVA cos+ P; +n? P.,(F.L.) 0.75500 x10? x0.8 = x08 ___ agg 0.75 x500 x 10° x 0.8 +500 +(0.75)” x 600 %n = x100 = 99.7216 % . By - (500 KVA Fortine = KVAX SBT = 200% yey = 456.435 kVA and Py = P,=500W for Tmax KVA for Thnx C050 EWA for tas coso+P, +P, “100 Nmax = 456.435%10° x 08 456435x 105 x 0.8 +500 +500 = 99,7268 %Electrical Machine 1-84 Single Phase Transformers Ym Example 1.23 : A single phase transformer working at unity p,f. has an efficiency of 90% at half of full load and full load of 500 KW. Determine its iron and full load copper loss. Solution : For both half load and full load, efficiency is 90 %. Let P, Iron loss and P.,,(F.L.) = Full load copper loss Py, = 500 kW for full load = kVA cos ¢ Son = ao tec™ 09 = 500x103 500x107+P, +P,,(F.L.) P,+Py(F-L.) = 55555.555 = (I) For half load, on = 3795 oe - Se 09 = 0.5x500%109 5500103 +P, +(05)* xP. (F.L.) P,+0.25P,(R.L.) = 27777777 we Q) Subtracting (2) from (1), 0.75 Poy(B.L.) = 27777777 P.,(F.L.) = 37037037 W «» Full load copper loss P, = 19518517 W ++ Iron loss imp Example 1.24: A 200 kVA, L-phase, 300/400 V transformer gave the following results in the short circuit test with 200 V applied to the primary and secondary short circuited, the primary curreni was full load value and the input power was 1650 W. Calculate the secondary potential difference and the % of regulation when the full load current was passing at a 0.707 pf. lagging with normal primary voltage. Solution : 200 kVA, 300/400 V Voc = 200 V, Tye = (L,)E.Ly We, = 1650 W VA rating 200x105 QUEL. = Vo = a5g = se W, 1650 Rye = so = ——~_ = 0.4492 0 Go? (60605)Electrical Machine 1-82 Single Phase Transformers Xe = VZi2-Ri? = 3.2693 0 To find % R for cos @ = 0.707 lagging, sin 6 = 0.707 IIR; Xie Sil %R = BURie cos 9+ Xe S89] 199 wl =Q)RL. A = 60.606[0.4492 x 0.707 + 3269307071 , 169 = 4.828 % 3300 ‘The approximate voltage drop on secondary = I[Ry¢ C08 6+ Xe sing ] we ly =(Q)F Le VA rating _ 200x103 I,)F.L. = —— = = =500A (ny Vi 400 400 K = a9 = 01212 Rye = K?Rye = 65984x109Q, Xz, = K2Xj_ = 0.04802 2 . Voltage drop on secondary = 500[6.5984%10-* x 0707 +004802X 0707] = 19.3076 V V, onload = V; on no load ~ Voltage drop = 400 - 19.3076 = 380.6924 V mm> Example 1.25: A 5 kVA, 220/110 volts, 1-phase transformer has a maximum efficiency of 96.97 % at 0.8 pf. lagging. It has a core loss of 50 watts and the full load regulation at 0.8 pf. lagging is 5 %. Find the efficiency and regulation at full load 0.9 p.f. lagging. Solution ; 5 kVA, 220/110 V, max = 96.97 %, cos 9 = 0.8, P, = 50 W At Nan’ P, = PR =50W nx VA rating xcos¢ % Nove = TVA rating x coso+ WP, 10° nx5x109 x08 nx5x10* x0.8+2x50 4000 n+ 100 = 4124.9871 n n= 08 i.e. max OCCUrS at 80 % of full load Now Pay = n2(Pqy)F.L. = 50 W at Nnax 50 = (0.8)7(P...JF-L. (Pa)E-L. = 78.125 WElectrical Machine 1-83 Single Phase Transformers VA rating _ 5x10? v0 Now (PEL. = [0)ELPR,. 78.125 = (227272)?Ry. R,. = 0.1512 0 Regulation full load at cos $ = 0.8 lag is 5 % given QFLIRiccos 0+%.sin 41199 (RL. = = 27272 %R = vy, 5 = 227272101512x08+X,. X06) 199 220 Xie = 0.605 2 Regulation and 1 on full load for cos = 09 lag is, . VA rating cos %" = Warating cos 647, +P,)F Lt 5x 103 x09 = 5x0" x09 +50+76105 = 93.231 % GR = VELL Rc0s 04%. Si) 599 vy = 227272{0.1512*0.8 +0.605% 0435) , 199 a = 3.968 % tm) Example 1.26: A 20 kVA, 2000/200 V single phase transformer has the following parameters. H.V. Winding : Ry = 3.9, X, = 53 O, L.V. winding :R, = 0.05 Q.X, = 0.10. Find the voltage regulation at, 1) Power factor of 0.8 lagging ii) UPF iii) 0.707 power factor leading Solution : V, = 2000 V, V, = 200 V, R, = 39, R, = 0.05 2, X, = 5.32, X,=012 Ke 2Electrical Machine 1-85 Single Phase Transformers im Example 1.28 : A single phase 120 kVA, 2000200 V 50 Hz transformer has impedance drop of 9 % and resistance drop of 4.5 % Find i) The regulation at 0.8 power factor lagging on full load. ii) At what power factor is the regulation zero? Solution : 120 kVA, V, = 2000 V, V, = 200 V Vz = % impedance drop = 9 % Vg = % resistance drop = 45 % LyeRoe % £100 Vx = ‘% reactive drop = /V}-Vz = 97-45? = 7.7942 % i) %R = [Vp cos $+ Vx sing] x 100 = [0.045% 08 +0.077942 x0.6]x100 = 8.2765 % Now Vz = “72100 and Vz cos = 0.8 lag ii) Regulation is zero when, cre i ( = 0.866 leading mmm> Example 1.29: A 40 kVA transformer with a ratio of 2000/250 V has a primary resistance of 1.15Q and a secondary resistance of 0.0155 Q Calculate i) total resistance in terms of the secondary winding ii) total resistance drop on full load and iii) the total copper loss on full load. Solution : The given values are : 250 1 2000 ~ 8 1.0155 Q 15Q and R= i) The secondary winding is low voltage i.e. low impedance winding. Hence Rj the primary resistance referred to secondary must decrease proportional to K” 2 = Re R= Ro KR, = 00155 +(§) x 1.15 = 0.03347 2 ii) The full load resistance drop is (I,) F. L. x Rae KVA rating — 40x10 == 160 A Now = ()R.L. =