SEHS2339 Fundamental Mathematics 8.

1 Power Series
∞
In an infinite series: a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋅⋅⋅ + an + ⋅⋅⋅ = ∑ ak
Chapter 8 a1, a2,… are terms of the series. an is the nth term.
k =1

n
Partial sums: S1 = a1 Sn = ∑ ak
Series S 2 = a1 + a2 k =1

S3 = a1 + a2 + a3 nth partial sum

If Sn has a limit as n → ∞ , then the series converges,

otherwise it diverges.
3

8.1 Power Series 8.1 Power Series

Start with a square one 1
1 Geometric Series:
unit by one unit: 1 32 64

8 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 In a geometric series, each term is found by multiplying
+ + + + + + ⋅⋅⋅ = 1 1 16
2 4 8 16 32 64 1 the preceding term by the same number, r.
2 ∞
This is an example of an
1 2 3
a + ar + ar + ar + ⋅⋅⋅ + ar n −1
+ ⋅⋅⋅ = ∑ ar n −1
infinite series. 4 n =1

a
This series converges 1 This converges to if r < 1, and diverges if r ≥ 1.
(approaches a limiting value.) 1− r
1 1 1 1 1
Many series do not converge: + + + + + ⋅⋅⋅ = ∞ −1 < r < 1 is the interval of convergence.
1 2 3 4 5 2 4
 8.1 Power Series 8.1 Power Series
A power series is in this form:
3 3 3 3 ∞
+ + + + ⋅⋅⋅
10 100 1000 10000 ∑c x
n=0
n
n
= c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + ⋅⋅⋅ + cn x n + ⋅⋅⋅ or
∞

.3 + .03 + .003 + .0003 + ⋅⋅⋅ = .333... =

1 ∑ c ( x − a)
n=0
n
n
= c0 + c1 ( x − a ) + c2 ( x − a ) 2 + c3 ( x − a ) 3 + ⋅⋅⋅ + cn ( x − a ) n + ⋅⋅⋅
3 The coefficients c0, c1, c2… are constants.
3 3
a 3 1 The center “a” is also a constant.
10 = 10 = =
1 9 9 3 (The first series would be centered at the origin if you
1− r
10 10 graphed it. The second series would be shifted left or right.
“a” is the new center.)
5 7

8.1 Power Series 8.1 Power Series

a (1 − r n )
1 1 1 The partial sum of a geometric series is: Sn =
1 − + − + ⋅⋅⋅ 1− r
2 4 8 0
a (1 − r n ) a
If r < 1 then lim =
n →∞ 1− r 1− r
1 a 1 1 2
= = = Ifx < 1 and we let r = x , then:
 1 1 3 3
1−  −  1+
 2 2 2 1
r
2 3 =
1 + x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅ 1 − x
6 8
 8.1 Power Series 8.1 Power Series
We could generate this 1 1
same series for
1 + x + x 2 + x3 + ⋅⋅⋅ Given: = 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + ⋅⋅⋅ find: 2
1 (1 − x ) 1 1− x (1 − x )
1− x 1− x
d 1 d −1 −2 1
x 2 = (1 − x ) = − (1 − x ) ⋅ −1 = 2
with polynomial
long division:
x−x dx 1 − x dx (1 − x )
x2 1 d
x 2 − x3 So: 2
= (1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ⋅⋅⋅)
(1 − x ) dx
x3
9
= 1 + 2 x + 3 x 2 + 4 x 3 + ⋅⋅⋅ We differentiated term by term.
11

8.1 Power Series 8.1 Power Series

Once we have a series that we know, we can find a new 1
series by doing the same thing to the left and right hand Given: = 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + ⋅⋅⋅ find: ln (1 + x )
1+ x
sides of the equation.
1 This is a geometric series where r=-x. 1
1+ x ∫ 1 + x dx = ln (1 + x ) + c
1
= 1 − x + x 2 − x3 + ⋅⋅⋅ hmm?
1+ x
x 1
To find a series for multiply both sides by x. = 1 − t + t 2 − t 3 + ⋅⋅⋅
1+ x 1+ t
x
= x − x 2 + x3 − x 4 ⋅⋅⋅
1+ x 10 12
 8.1 Power Series 8.2 Taylor Series
1
= 1 − t + t 2 − t 3 + ⋅⋅⋅
1+ t
x 1 x
∫0 1 + t ∫0 (1 − t + t − t + ⋅⋅⋅) dt
2 3
dt =
x
x 1 1 1 Brook Taylor was an
ln (1 + t ) 0 = t − t 2 + t 3 − t 4 + ⋅⋅⋅ accomplished musician and
2 3 4 0
painter. He did research in a
1 1 1 variety of areas, but is most
ln (1 + x ) − ln (1 + 0 ) = x − x 2 + x3 − x 4 + ⋅⋅⋅
2 3 4 famous for his development of
ideas regarding infinite series.
1 1 1 Brook Taylor
ln (1 + x ) = x − x 2 + x3 − x 4 + ⋅⋅⋅ −1 < x < 1
2 3 4 1685 - 1731
13 15

8.1 Power Series 8.2 Taylor Series

The previous examples of infinite series approximated Suppose we wanted to find a fourth degree polynomial of
simple functions such as 1 or 1 . the form:
3 1− x
This series would allow us to calculate a transcendental P ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x3 + a4 x 4
function to as much accuracy as we like using only
pencil and paper! that approximates the behavior of f ( x ) = ln ( x + 1) at x = 0

1 1 1 If we make P ( 0 ) = f ( 0 ), and the first, second, third and fourth

ln (1 + x ) = x − x 2 + x 3 − x 4 + ⋅⋅⋅ −1 < x < 1
2 3 4 derivatives the same, then we would have a pretty good
approximation.

14 16
 8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series
f ( x ) = ln ( x + 1) P ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x3 + a4 x 4 1 2 6
P ( x ) = 0 + 1x − x 2 + x 3 − x 4 f ( x ) = ln ( x + 1)
f ( 0 ) = ln (1) = 0 P ( 0 ) = a0 a0 = 0 2 6 24
x 2 x3 x 4
P ( x) = 0 + x − + −
f ′( x) =
1 P′ ( x ) = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x 2 + 4a4 x3 5 2 3 4
1+ x 4 If we plot both functions, 1

1 a1 = 1 we see that near zero the

f ′ ( 0) = = 1 P′ ( 0 ) = a1 3
2 functions match very well!
1 1 f ( x)
0.5

f ′′ ( x ) = −
1 P′′ ( x ) = 2a2 + 6a3 x + 12a4 x 2 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
2
(1 + x ) 1
-2

P′′ ( 0 ) = 2a2 a2 = − -3
1 -0.5
f ′′ ( 0 ) = − = −1 2 -4
1 -5 P ( x)
17 19
-1

8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series

1
f ′′ ( x ) = − P′′ ( x ) = 2a2 + 6a3 x + 12a4 x 2 1 2 6
(1 + x )
2
Our polynomial: 0 + 1x − x 2 + x 3 − x 4
1 2 6 24
1
f ′′ ( 0 ) = − = −1
P′′ ( 0 ) = 2a2 a2 = −
2 f ′′ ( 0 ) 2 f ′′′ ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0 ) 4
4
1 f ( 0) + f ′ ( 0) x + x + x +
has the form: x
2 6 24
1
f ′′′ ( x ) = 2 ⋅ 3
P′′′ ( x ) = 6a3 + 24a4 x
(1 + x ) or: f (0) f ′ (0) f ′′ ( 0 ) 2 f ′′′ ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0 ) 4
4

2 + x+ x + x + x
f ′′′ ( 0 ) = 2 P′′′ ( 0 ) = 6a3 a3 = 0! 1! 2! 3! 4!
6
1
P(
4)
f ( 4) ( x ) = −6 4 ( x ) = 24a4 This pattern occurs no matter what the original function was!
(1 + x ) 6
f ( 4)
( 0 ) = −6 P ( 4) ( 0 ) = 24a4 a4 = −
24 18 20
 8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series
f ( x ) = cos x f ( 0) = 1 f ′′′ ( x ) = sin x f ′′′ ( 0 ) = 0

f(
4)
f(
Maclaurin Series: 4)
f ′ ( x ) = − sin x f ′ (0) = 0 ( x ) = cos x ( 0) = 1
(generated by f at x = 0 )
f ′′ ( x ) = − cos x f ′′ ( 0 ) = −1
f ′′ ( 0 ) 2 f ′′′ ( 0 ) 3
P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f ′ ( 0) x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅
2! 3!
1x 2 0 x3 1x 4 0 x5 1x 6
P ( x) = 1+ 0x − + + + − + ⋅⋅⋅
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!

x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10
P ( x) = 1− + − + − ⋅⋅⋅
21
2! 4! 6! 8! 10! 23

8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series

x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10
y = cos x P ( x) = 1− + − + − ⋅⋅⋅
If we want to center the series (and it’s graph) at some 2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
point other than zero, we get the Taylor Series:

Taylor Series: 1
(generated by f at x = a )
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
f ′′ ( a ) 2 f ′′′ ( a ) 3
P ( x ) = f ( a ) + f ′ ( a )( x − a ) + ( x − a) + ( x − a ) + ⋅⋅⋅
2! 3! -1

The more terms we add, the better our approximation.

22 24
 8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series
There are some Maclaurin series that occur often enough
y = cos ( 2 x )
that they should be memorized. They are on pg 477
∞
1
Rather than start from scratch, we can use the function = 1 + x + x 2 + ... + x n + ... = ∑ x n (| x |< 1)
that we already know: 1− x n =0

∞
2 4 6 8 10
1
P ( x) = 1−
( 2x ) +
( 2x ) −
( 2x ) +
(2x) −
( 2x ) ⋅⋅⋅ = 1 − x + x − ... + (− x) + ... = ∑ (−1) n x n (| x |< 1)
2 n
2! 4! 6! 8! 10! 1+ x n =0

x2 xn ∞
xn
e = 1 + x + + ... + + ... = ∑ (all real x)
x

2! n! n =0 n!
25 27

8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series

π
example: y = cos ( x ) at x =
2 x3 x5 x 2 n+1 ∞
x 2 n+1
f ( x ) = cos x
π 
f  =0 2 3 sin x = x − + − ... + (−1) n
= ∑ (−1) n
 π 0 π 1 π 3! 5! (2n + 1)! n=0 (2n + 1)!
2 P ( x ) = 0 − 1 x −  +  x −  +  x −  + ⋅⋅⋅
 2  2!  2  3!  2
f ′ ( x ) = − sin x π 
f ′   = −1
2 x2 x4 n x
2n ∞
n x
2n
= ∑ (−1)
3 5
 π  π
cos x = 1 − + − ... + (−1)
 
π  x −   x − 
 π
f ′′ ( x ) = − cos x f ′′   = 0 P ( x) = −  x −  +   −  + ⋅⋅⋅
2 2 2! 4! (2n)! n=0 (2n)!
2  2 3! 5!
π 
f ′′′   = 1 x3 x5 x 7 ∞
n x
( 2 n +1)
f ′′′ ( x ) = sin x 2 tan ( x ) = x − + − + ⋅⋅⋅ = ∑ (−1)
−1

3 5 7 n =0 (2n + 1)
4 π 
f(
4)
( x ) = cos x f( ) =0
2 26 28
 8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series
When referring to Taylor polynomials, we can talk about 1 −1 f ′′ ( 0 ) 2 f ′′′ ( 0 ) 3
= (1 − x ) P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f ′ ( 0) x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅
number of terms, order or degree. 1− x 2! 3!

x2 x4 f ( n) ( x )
cos x = 1 − + This is a polynomial in 3 terms. −1 List the function and its
2! 4! (1 − x ) derivatives.
−2
(1 − x )
−3
2 (1 − x )
−4
6 (1 − x )
−5
24 (1 − x )
29 31

8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series

1 −1
x2 x4 = (1 − x ) f ′′ ( 0 ) 2 f ′′′ ( 0 ) 3
cos x = 1 − + 1− x P ( x ) = f (0) + f ′ (0) x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅
2! 4! (n)
2! 3!
It is a 4th order Taylor polynomial, because it was f ( n) ( x ) f ( 0 )
found using the 4th derivative. Evaluate column one
−1
(1 − x ) 1
1 for x = 0. 2 2 3! 3 4! 4
It is also a 4th degree polynomial, because x is raised −2 = 1 + 1x + x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅
to the 4th power. (1 − x ) 1 1− x 2! 3! 4!
−3 2
x2 2 (1 − x ) 1
The 3rd order polynomial for cos x is 1 − , but it is = 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + x 4 + ⋅⋅⋅
2! −4 1− x
degree 2. 6 (1 − x ) 6 = 3!
−5
The x3 term drops out when using the third derivative. 24 (1 − x ) 24 = 4! This is a geometric series with
This is also the 2nd order polynomial. 30
a = 1 and r = x. 32
 8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series
We could generate this We wouldn’t expect to use the previous two series to
same series for
1 + x + x 2 + x3 + ⋅⋅⋅ evaluate the functions, since we can evaluate the
1 (1 − x ) 1 functions directly.
1− x 1− x They do help to explain where the formula for the sum of
with polynomial x 2 an infinite geometric comes from.
long division: x−x We will find other uses for these series, as well.
x2
A more impressive use of Taylor series is to
x 2 − x3 evaluate transcendental functions.
x3
33 35

8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series

f ′′ ( 0 ) 2 f ′′′ ( 0 ) 3
1 P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f ′ ( 0) x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅ f ′′ ( 0 ) 2 f ′′′ ( 0 ) 3
= (1 + x )
−1
2! 3! cos ( x ) P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f ′ ( 0) x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅
1+ x 2! 3!
1 2 −3! 3 4! 4 −1 2 0 3 1 4
f ( n) ( x ) f ( n) ( 0 ) = 1 + −1x + x 2 + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅ ( n) ( n) cos ( x ) = 1 + 0 x + x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅
1+ x 2! 3! 4! f ( x) f ( 0) 2! 3! 4!
−1
(1 + x ) 1
1 cos ( x ) 1 x2 x 4 x6
−2 = 1 − x + x 2 − x3 + x 4 + ⋅⋅⋅ cos ( x ) = 1 − + − ⋅⋅⋅
− (1 + x ) −1 1+ x − sin ( x ) 0 2! 4! 6!
−3
2 (1 + x ) 2 − cos ( x ) −1 Both sides are even functions.
−4 This is a geometric series with
−6 (1 + x ) −6 = −3! sin ( x ) 0
a = 1 and r = -x. Cos (0) = 1 for both sides.
−5
24 (1 + x ) 24 = 4! cos ( x ) 1
34 36
 8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series
f ′′ ( 0 ) 2 f ′′′ ( 0 ) 3
sin ( x ) P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f ′ ( 0) x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅ 1
2! 3! = 1 − x 2 + x 4 − x 6 + x8 + ⋅⋅⋅
1 + x2

f ( n) ( x ) f ( n) ( 0 )
0 2 −1 3 0 4 If we integrate both sides:
sin ( x ) = 0 + 1x + x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅
sin ( x ) 0 2! 3! 4! 1
∫ 1+ x 2
dx = ∫ 1 − x 2 + x 4 − x 6 + x8 + ⋅⋅⋅ dx
cos ( x ) 1 x3 x5 x 7
sin ( x ) = x − + − ⋅⋅⋅ This looks the same as the
− sin ( x ) 0 3! 5! 7! x3 x5 x 7
tan −1 ( x ) = x − + − + ⋅⋅⋅ series for sin (x), but without
− cos ( x ) −1 3 5 7 the factorials.
sin ( x ) 0 Both sides are odd functions.

Sin (0) = 0 for both sides. 37 39

8.2 Taylor Series 8.2 Taylor Series

f ′′ ( 0 ) 2 f ′′′ ( 0 ) 3
1 ln (1 + x ) P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f ′ ( 0) x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅
2! 3!
1 + x2

1 f ( n) ( x ) f ( n) ( 0 )
If we start with this function: = 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + x 4 + ⋅⋅⋅
1+ x
ln (1 + x ) 0
2 1 2 4 6 8 −1 2 2 3 −3! 4
and substitute x for x , we get: 1 + x 2 = 1 − x + x − x + x + ⋅⋅⋅ −1 ln (1 + x ) = 0 + 1x + x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅
(1 + x ) 1 2! 3! 4!
− (1 + x )
−2 −1
This is a geometric series with a = 1 and r = -x2.
2 (1 + x )
−3
2 x 2 x3 x 4
ln (1 + x ) = x − + − + ⋅⋅⋅
2 3 4
−4
38 −6 (1 − x ) −6 = −3! 40
 8.3 Taylor’s Theorem 8.3 Taylor’s Theorem
Taylor series are used to estimate the value of functions (at
least theoretically - now days we can usually use the Taylor’s Theorem with Remainder
calculator or computer to calculate directly.)
If f has derivatives of all orders in an open interval I
An estimate is only useful if we have an idea of how containing a, then for each positive integer n and for each x
accurate the estimate is. in I:

When we use part of a Taylor series to estimate the value f ′′ ( a ) f (n) ( a )

f ( x ) = f ( a ) + f ′ ( a )( x − a ) + ( x − a )2 + ⋅⋅⋅ ( x − a )n + Rn ( x )
of a function, the end of the series that we do not use is 2! n!
called the remainder. If we know the size of the remainder,
then we know how close our estimate is. If Rn ( x) → 0, then the Taylor series converges
41 43

8.3 Taylor’s Theorem 8.3 Taylor’s Theorem

For a geometric series, this is easy:
1 Lagrange Form of the Remainder Remainder after
over ( −1,1) .
2 4 6
Use 1 + x + x + x to approximate
1 − x2 partial sum Sn
Since the truncated part of the series is: x8 + x10 + x12 + ⋅⋅⋅ , f ( n +1) ( c ) n +1 where c is between
Rn ( x ) = ( x − a)
the truncation error is x8 + x10 + x12 + ⋅⋅⋅ , which is
x8
.
( n + 1)! a and x.
1 − x2
When you “truncate” a number, you drop
off the end.
Of course this is also trivial, because we have a formula
that allows us to calculate the sum of a geometric series
directly. 42 44
 8.3 Taylor’s Theorem 8.3 Taylor’s Theorem

x 2 k +1
∑
∞
This is also called the remainder of order n or the error term. Prove that ( )k
k = 0 −1
, which is the Taylor
( 2k + 1)!
series for sin x, converges for all real x.
Note that this looks just like the next term in the series, but

“a” has been replaced by the number “c” in f ( n +1) ( c ) .

This seems kind of vague, since we don’t know the value of c,

but we can sometimes find a maximum value for f ( n +1) ( c ) .
45 47

8.3 Taylor’s Theorem 8.3 Taylor’s Theorem

Lagrange Form of the Remainder Since the maximum value of sin x or any of it’s
derivatives is 1, for all real x, M = 1.
( n +1)
Rn ( x ) =
f ( c ) x − a n +1
( ) 1 n +1
( n + 1 )! ∴ Rn ( x ) ≤ x−0
n +1
=
x
( n +1) ( n + 1)! ( n + 1)!
If M is the maximum value of f ( x) on the interval
between a and x, then:
n +1
Remainder Estimation Theorem Remainder Estimation Theorem x
Note lim =0
We willthat
call this
this isthe
not n →∞ (
n + 1) !
M n +1 the formulaEstimation
Remainder that is in M n +1
Rn ( x ) ≤ x−a our book. It is from Rn ( x ) ≤ x−a
( n + 1)! Theorem.
another textbook. ( n + 1)! so the series converges.
46 48
 8.3 Taylor’s Theorem 2
8.3 Taylor Series
x
Find the Lagrange Error Bound when x − is used
2
to approximate ln (1 + x ) and x ≤ 0.1.
2
x We have saved the best for last!
f ( x ) = ln (1 + x ) f ( x) = 0 + x − + R2 ( x )
2 2
f ′ ( x ) = (1 + x )−1 On the interval [ −.1,.1] , (1 + x ) 3 decreases, so
its maximum value occurs at the left end-point.
f ′′ ( x ) = − (1 + x )−2 2 2
M= = ≈ 2.74348422497
f ′′′ ( x ) = 2 (1 + x )−3 (1 + −.1) 3
(.9 )3
f ′ (0) f ′′ ( 0 ) 2
f ( x ) = f (0) + x+ x + R2 ( x )
1 2!
Remainder after 2nd order term 49 51

8.3 Taylor’s Theorem 8.3 Taylor Series

2
Find the Lagrange Error Bound when x − x is used
2 f ′′ ( 0 ) f ′′′ ( 0 )
to approximate ln (1 + x ) and x ≤ 0.1 . ex P ( x ) = f (0) + f ′ (0) x +
2!
x2 +
3!
x 3 + ⋅⋅⋅
2
Remainder Estimation On the interval [ −.1,.1] , (1 + x )3 decreases, so
Theorem
M its maximum value occurs at the left end-point. f ( n) ( x ) f (n) ( 0)
n+1
Rn ( x) ≤ x −a
( n +1)! 2 2
M= = ≈ 2.74348422497 ex 1
(1 + −.1) 3
(.9 )3 1 2 1 3 1 4
2.7435 .1 3
x 1 e x = 1 + 1x + x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅
Rn ( x ) ≤ x 2 e 2! 3! 4!
3! x ln (1 + x ) x− error
2 Error is ex 1
Rn ( x ) ≤ 0.000457
.1 .0953102 .095 .000310 less than x 1
e x 2 x3 x 4
error ex = 1 + x + + + + ⋅⋅⋅
−.1 −.1053605 −.105 .000361 bound. 1 2! 3! 4!
Lagrange Error Bound
50
ex 52
 8.3 Taylor Series 8.3 Taylor Series
x2 x4 x6  x3 x5 
An amazing use for infinite series: e xi = 1 − + − + ⋅⋅⋅ + i  x − + + ⋅⋅⋅ 
2! 4! 6!  3! 5! 
x 2 x3 x 4 Substitute xi for x. This is the series
ex = 1 + x + + + + ⋅⋅⋅ This is the series
2! 3! 4! for cosine. for sine.
e xi = cos ( x ) + i sin ( x )
( xi )2 ( xi )3 ( xi )4 ( xi )5 ( xi )6 Let x =π
e xi = 1 + xi + + + + + + ⋅⋅⋅ eiπ = cos (π ) + i sin (π )
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
eiπ = −1 + i ⋅ 0
x 2 i 2 x 3i 3 x 4 i 4 x 5 i 5 x 6 i 6 This amazing identity contains
e xi = 1 + xi + + + + + + ⋅⋅⋅
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! iπ the five most famous numbers
e +1 = 0 in mathematics, and shows
53 that they are interrelated. 55

8.3 Taylor Series

x 2 i 2 x 3i 3 x 4 i 4 x 5 i 5 x 6 i 6
e xi = 1 + xi + + + + + + ⋅⋅⋅
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!

x 2 x 3i x 4 x 5i x 6
e xi = 1 + xi − − + + − + ⋅⋅⋅ Factor out the i terms.
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!

x2 x4 x6  x3 x5 
e xi = 1 − + − + ⋅⋅⋅ + i  x − + + ⋅⋅⋅ 
2! 4! 6!  3! 5! 

54