1

Fault ride-through capabilities: the problem,

solutions and costs
C. J. Coelho Teixeira, PhD Student, PDEEC

Abstract—Transmission Systems Operators (TSO) require that grid. Fault ride-through (FRT) capability is the ability of each
wind generators remain connected during certain disturbances machine to fulfil those requirements, and solutions depend on
on the networks, in order to improve system’s stability and, at the type of machine used.
the same time, requires that wind parks help supporting system’s
voltages, by injecting large amounts of relative current. Wind
II. WIND GENERATORS
manufacturers and wind park promoters should prove the
system ability to fulfil these requirements, otherwise licenses will Actually, the most common generators used on wind energy
not be delivered. In this paper, the general FRT requirements on conversion systems are of two types: doubly fed induction
Grid Codes will be investigated as well as solutions provided by generator (DFIG) and permanent magnet synchronous
different manufacturers, or by the promoters of former wind generators (PMSG) combined with full-scale power
parks, where FRT will be applied to the global facility instead of
individual machines. converters.
Index Terms—Grid codes, DFIG, Fault ride-through, full A. The DFIG
rated converters, voltage support.
The stator of the DFIG is connected directly to the network
I. INTRODUCTION (operating synchronously at grid frequency) while the wound
rotor current is controlled by a power converter to vary the
T HE share of wind energy in Europe’s energy generation is
expected to increase from 4.1% in 2008 to a value
between 14.2% and 16.7% [1]. The installed power on each
electro-magnetic torque and machine excitation [7]. The DFIG
schematic is shown in Figure 1.
wind farm as well as on each machine is increasing fast, and
new connections are often realized into the Transmission
Networks, through AC or DC lines [2] depending on the
power and on the systems characteristics. DC transmission
systems, which are being preferred on offshore
installations [3], offers active and reactive power
controllability due to the necessary use of converters on both
terminals.
Both synchronous generators and induction generators can
be used to convert mechanical energy from wind turbines into Figure 1 – general DFIG control schematics [8]
electrical energy. Fixed speed systems require using a gearbox
in order to directly connect generators to the grid, while The back-to-back converters used in the rotor connection
variable speed systems require the use of converters to can operate in both directions (current can flow into or out of
interface it with the grid [4]. the rotor) [9], which allow for two different operational
Former wind parks were mainly directly connected to the modes: sub-synchronism (Figure 2) and super-synchronism
grid, most of them using fixed speed induction generators [5], (Figure 3). In super synchronism mode, the active power
each one rated with some hundreds of kW. As induction delivered to the grid is greater than the power produced
generators require external reactive power, usually provided through the stator while in sub-synchronism the power
total or partially by capacitor banks or static var compensators, delivered to the grid is lower than the power produced by the
any voltage reduction in the interconnection point requires the stator.
disconnection of the wind farm. With the increasing capacity
of wind parks, this disconnection originates stability problems
to power systems, and is now forcing Systems operators to
change the way how wind generators should operate under
disturbances on the grid [6].
Transmission System Operators (TSO) are now requiring
that wind farms help the system, contributing to support the
grid voltage and to maintain frequency within small variations
(47.5-51.5 Hz for the Portuguese system). This requires wind
Figure 2 –DFIG in sub-synchronism operation mode [7]
generators to remain connected during disturbances, without
contributing to them, and helping system to recover after the
disturbance, by adjusting active power to be injected in the

Figure 3 – DFIG in super-synchronism operation mode [7]
In super synchronism mode, the active power delivered to
the grid is greater than the power produced through the stator
while in sub-synchronism the power delivered to the grid is
lower than the power produced by the stator.
When a voltage dip occurs in the connection to the AC grid,
large voltages in rotor windings are induced and high rotor
currents can appear, damaging the rotor-side converter [4]. To
avoid its damage, the rotor-side converter is deactivated by
using the so-called crowbar resistors [7, 10] (see Figure 1),
until rotor current returns to its normal value. Also, the DC-
link capacitor may experience overvoltages, and should be
protected.
During this transient period, the generator is converted into
a conventional induction generator, consuming reactive power
from the network. During the fault, turbine will start to
increase speed, and the pitch control will be activated in order
to avoid over speeding. When the rotor current returns to its
normal value, the crowbar is disconnected and the DFIG goes
again under control.
i. The crowbar
Crowbars are special arrangements of resistances and
electronic switches. In the left side of Figure 4 three
resistances are inserted in a star configuration by by placing
two pairs of anti-parallel thyristors between the phases, while
in the right side, a diode bridge is combined with a single
thyristor to insert the resistance. These arrangements are
known as an AC crowbar and as a DC crowbar, respectively.
Figure 4 – Crow bar options [7]
Crowbars can be triggered both by converter overcurrent
protection signal and by the DC-link overvoltage protection,
and thyristors can take tens of milliseconds to disconnect the
rotor, since current interruption occurs only when it crosses a
zero value. To overcome this inconvenient, an active crowbar
can be used, where thyristors are replaced by GTO-thyristors
or by IGBTs, forcing current to cease [7, 11].
ii. The DC-link chopper (OVP)
The dc-link may be protected against overvoltages (OVP)
by a braking resistor, which is also known as a dc-link
chopper. It consists of a resistor and an electronic switch,
2
usually an IGBT, used to dissipate excess energy in the dc-link
capacitor during a grid fault [7].
The chopper module is not essential for fault ride-through
operation but it increases the normal range of DFIG operation
by smoothing the DC-link voltage during heavy imbalances of
active power on the rotor-side and line-side converter [12].
B. Synchronous machines driven by full converters
Actual alternatives to DFIG based wind conversion systems
rely on Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators (PMSG),
which are connected to the grid through full-rated converters,
as shown on Figure 5.
Figure 5 – PMSG connection through full converter[8]
While the back-to-back converter used in the rotor
connection of the DFIG is designed to carry about 30% of the
total capacity of the generator, a PMSG with variable
frequency requires a full rated converter [8]. Voltage/current
characteristics on the system essentially depend on the control
system of the Generator Side and on the Grid Side Converters.
When the current limit of IGBTs is reached, they are
blocked and current start to flow through the free-wheeling
diodes, charging the DC-link capacitor. In order to avoid
overvoltages, the capacitor should be protected through the
DC-link Chopper..
III. GRID CODES REQUIREMENTS
Most TSOs require wind parks to help supporting voltage
when the main grid faces a fault resulting in voltage
amplitudes lower than nominal values, instead of forcing its
disconnection (to do not feed fault currents) as before. Actual
grid codes require wind generators to remain connected while
voltage is over a specified voltage/time curve and. Also, grid
codes require large reactive current injection, in order to help
supporting network’s voltage.
Figure 6 – Fault ride-through requirements over different grid codes1
1
www.ea.govt.nz/document/12785/.../our.../generation-fault-ride-through/

From literature and from national Grid Codes, several
curves can be obtained, as shown in Figure 6. Although the
most common requirement is related with low voltages
(voltage dips), some of them also require high-voltage ride-
through capabilities.
A. The Portuguese FRT requirements
According with the Portuguese grid code, new wind parks
should be equipped with generators capable of remain
connected during the first 500 milliseconds of a disturbance, if
the voltage remain above 0.2 p.u. (which means, for any
voltage value greater than 20% of the nominal value) and after
the disturbance, if voltage recovers with a certain rate. For the
first second, the voltage is expected to recover from 20% to
80%, and form this value to 90% along the remaining
8.5 msec. The Portuguese grid code requirements are
expressed in a graph similar to Figure 7.
Figure 7 – Portuguese grid code FRT requirements
Regarding voltage support, wind generators are requested to
inject through the interconnection line considerable amounts
of reactive current during disturbances. The reactive current to
be injected is related with the total current produced before the
disturbance, and depends on the voltage dip. Voltage dips
higher than 50% (U/Un < 0.5 p.u.) require reactive current to
be greater than 90% of the total current being delivered before
the disturbance. If the voltage dip is less severe, reactive
current must be in the dark area of Figure 8.
Figure 8 – Portuguese grid code voltage support requirements
These FRT capabilities are mandatory for new wind farms
and represent great challenges to wind generator industry.
Different solutions are being discussed and implemented by
wind generator manufacturers, depending on the machine they
use as well as on the type of system used to connect wind
farms to the main grid. Also for actual wind parks not
equipped with the most recent wind generators, solutions are
being discussed.
3
According with the Portuguese Grid code, facilities should
remain connected while frequency remain in the range 47.5-
51,5 Hz, and cannot absorb active neither reactive power
during the transient period originated by any fault as well as
while voltage is recovering according with Figure 8. Also,
after fault clearing, active power should recover with a rate not
lower than 5% of the nominal power per second, in order to
maintain system’s frequency.
IV. FRT SCHEMES ON DFIG BASED WIND PARKS
Fault ride-through capability of a generator means its ability
to remain connected even during grid faults, where low
voltages appear in the point of interconnection. As the DFIG’s
stator is directly connected to the grid and the converter has
only partial control over the generator, a fault in the network
results in high rotor currents, which lead to the blocking of the
rotor–side converter (RSC). As the grid voltage drops at the
fault moment and the grid-side converter is not able to transfer
the power from the rotor-side converter further to the grid, the
additional energy goes into charging the DC bus capacitor and
its bus voltage rises rapidly [6].
In normal operation state, DFIG control design philosophy
is as follows: the rotor-side converter controls independently
the active and reactive power on the grid, while the grid-side
converter has to maintain the DC link capacitor voltage at a set
value regardless of the magnitude and direction of the rotor
power and to guarantee converter operation with unity power
factor (zero reactive power) [6], meaning that all reactive
power to the grid is transferred through the stator.
In order to allow for FRT ability, additional control blocks
are required. This control stage contains three additional
controllers (see Figure 9, namely a damping controller, a
rotor-side converter (RSC) voltage controller and a grid-side
converter (GSC) reactive power boosting [6]. The last function
is required for grid voltage support, where the GSC will be
used as a STATCOM, injecting the maximum possible
reactive current.
Figure 9 – additional control stage to deal with FRT requirements
The damping controller is required to damp torsional
excitations of the rotor, since pitch control has slow response,
and cannot be an effective protection. Insufficient control on
this problem can lead to self-excitation of the drive train and
to the tripping of the machine due to excessive vibrations on
mechanical construction. The third control stage modify
reference signals and, through them, the machine’s behaviour.

A. Using an active crowbar
As seen before, the crowbar is used to reduce rotor currents
and, by this way, reducing the currents through the rotor-side
converter. In order to overcome the problems related with the
crow bar activation, namely the loss of control over DFIG,
some alternatives are being discussed [11, 13], using a DC
crow bar (as in the right side of Figure 4), which allow for
controlled switch-on and switch-off.
In [11, 13], the crowbar is activated only if the rotor
currents exceed a preset threshold, and is cutted-off
immediately after the currents are reduced, so that the crowbar
only has to work for a very short time (in [11], the crowbar
application periods were 11–16 ms in duration, once each at
fault initiation and at fault clearance).
V. FRT ON FULL CONVERTER-DRIVEN WIND GENERATORS
Electrical behaviour of full rated converter-based wind
turbines does not depends explicitly on the type of generator
used (geared or not geared, synchronous or asynchronous
machines) [14]. Main differences are related with
signal/output controls used in the Generator Side converter.
Mainly, synchronous generators are used, which rotor can be
either an electrically excited wound rotor or a permanent
magnet rotor.
Different control strategies for the GSC have been
discussed, as referenced by [14]: maximum torque control
(also known as vector control), generator unity power factor or
constant stator voltage. The grid-side controller uses a vector
control strategy, also, based on a dq-frame rotating at the AC
networks synchronous speed.
When a fault occurs in the AC grid, the voltage is reduced
and the the active power that can be transferred to the grid is
reduced. So, the active power generated by each turbine must
be reduced accordingly, in a process known as “de-loading”.
A. De-loading a FRC wind turbine
After a sudden decrease in the power that can be transferred
to the grid, the generator side converter should start reducing
the power transferred from the generator to the grid through
the DC-link (de-loading the turbine), as shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10 – variation of power flow at the DC link, during a fault [14]
As it is not possible to reduce power instantaneously, the
remaining power (difference, at each instant, between the
power generated and that absorbed by the grid) will charge the
capacitor. In order to avoid an overvoltage, the de-loading
process is implemented by adding a droop to the torque block
input of the machine side converter.
According with [14], for a typical 2 MW wind turbine
4
which grid load reduces suddenly from 2 MW to 0 MW, the
de-loading droop should assure that generated power will
reduce in the same way within 13 ms, for a maximum DC
voltage variation of 100V (considering the threshold voltage
equal to 1250 V).
In order to support voltage, each machine’s grid-side
converter is controlled to provide additional reactive current,
by reducing the active current to allow reactive current
injection, without exceeding the converter current limits.
VI. FRT SCHEMES ON HVDC CONNECTED WIND PARKS
Although most of the actual connections use HVAC lines,
recent off-shore wind farms are using HVDC cables to make
the connection. HVDC links can use line commutated
converters (LCC-HVDC), most suitable for long distances
using overhead lines, mainly using thyristors [15, 16] as well
as self-commutated converters, referred as Voltage Source
Converters (VSC). VSC relies on IGBTs and are similar to the
back-to-back converters used both in DFIG and in FRC
schemes discussed before. In HVDC transmission, the Wind
Park-side converter and the Grid-side converter are connected
through a long DC cable, sometimes underwatered or
undergrounded [17, 18].
Any fault in the main AC grid will not affect directly the
voltage in the wind farm busbar, as both terminal converters
are operating in isolated mode. So, FRT schemes are different
from those used in HVAC connected windfarms.
A. Wind parks equipped with DFIG
According with [19], reducing the power from wind farm
may be achieved by de-loading or by blocking the power at
the wind farm-side converter. De-loading can be achieved
electrically or mechanically, by the pitch-control. The last has
slow response, while the electrical de-loading can generate
electromechanical transients (torsional). In [20], another
solution was shown: a DC Chopper (shown in Figure 11), used
to to dissipate all the waste energy in breaking resistors.
Figure 11 – DC chopper in a HVDC link [20]
The main advantage of this technique is that the WF stays
completely unaffected by the fault i.e., the output power of the
WTs remains constant during fault. Accordingly there is no
impact on the mechanical drive train and thus, the WTs do not
speed up during fault energy in breaking resistors [20]. The
DC chopper needs to be capable of dissipating all excess of
energy, so it is rated according with the HVDC link
characteristics.
De-loading the turbine can be achieved by blocking the
wind park-side converter of the DC-link, responding to the

increased DC-link voltage, which will reduce power
transferred from each machine, and the pitch controller. The
rotor starts to accelerate, converting wind power in kinetic
energy, forcing the pitch control to reduce the wind power
applied. In [19], some additional [20]shown in order to obtain
smooth FRT.
i. Modifying the offshore (WF-side) converter controls
This method is referenced in [19] as well as the “method B”
in [20]. Solutions are different, but will reach similar results.
In [19], two additional functions are added to the phase angle
control (Figure 12) and in the DC peak voltage control (Figure
13), used by the PWM converter control.
Figure 12 – additional phase angle control block [19]
Figure 13 – additional voltage control block [19]
In the first case, frequency is let to vary between 50Hz and
52Hz, to which will correspond a different torque slip curve,
as shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14 – shifting the torque-slip curve of generators [19]
According to [20] these schemes can create some
mechanical stress, and overvoltages considering the
interaction between the terminal converters of the DC line and
of each wind generator.
ii. Rotor converter control addition
When an active power unbalance occurs, and an increased
frequency is detected, a de-loading block (as show in Figure
15) will add a droop in the torque specification, forcing to
reduce the WT power when the DC link voltage reaches a
maximum specified value.
5
Figure 15 – de-loading droop in the rotor-side converter control [14]
iii. Controlled Demagnetization
Considering that any abrupt voltage drop at the generator
terminals results in typical short circuit currents with DC
components and high peak values, a new method was
proposed in [20], which demagnetizes the machines in a fast
but controlled way.
B. Wind parks with FRC-PMSG
The implementation of a FRT scheme on a wind park
equipped with full-rated converters, and connected to the main
AC grid through an HVDC link requires the addition of
supplementary control inputs to the generators-side converters
and/or generator controllers.
Figure 16 – extra droop block to the generator control [14]
In Figure 16, the extra droop block, controlled by the
HVDC link voltage, is added to the torque control
specification. By this way, torque will reduce and also the
active power generated. This signal must be sent to each
individual machine, since the DC voltage on the HVDC
terminal is measured far from each turbine.
Alternatively, the “de-load” signal can be sent to the
generator’s grid-side converter controllers, as shown in Figure
17, applied to the q-component of the current.
Figure 17 – droop block added to the generator’s grid-side controller [14]
When the HVDC link voltage increases beyond its
threshold value, the wind turbines’ grid side active power
current is reduced to block the wind turbine output power.
Reducing the power at the wind turbine grid side converter
increases the wind turbine DC link voltage and in turn
 6

activates the wind turbine de-loading controller. voltage constant. The reactive current is adjusted according to
Both solutions considered an ideal communication medium the V-I curve shown in Figure 19, and can operate at rated
between the wind park-side HVDC converter and every wind current even for low voltages.
turbine to dispatch the de-loading signals. In practice, there
may be a delay in sending the de-loading signals (due to the
unavailability of communication channels) to each wind
turbine. So, overvoltages may appear due to these delays and
new strategies should be adopted.
The alternative pointed out in [14] is like transferring the
onshore fault to the offshore AC wind farm network by
reducing the voltage at the offshore HVDC converter terminal.
The voltage in the AC side of the offshore converter is
decreased (by PWM), according with a de-loading droop and
Figure 19 – STATCOM V-I curve [21]
turbine’s controllers, detecting an apparent fault, will activate
its own de-loading controllers. In Figure 20 a more detailed device is shown, referred as
DSTATCOM [5], where the AC voltage is synthetized using a
VII. FRT SCHEMES ON FORMER FSIG BASED WIND PARKS PWM technique.
Although some of the wind farms installed before actual
Grid Codes, were already based on doubly-fed induction
generators, most of the Wind Farms in exploration where
constructed some years ago (last two decades), were equipped
mainly with conventional induction generators. Upgrading
DFIGs to deal with FRT requirements is possible, since some
of the solutions only require modifying control devices,
although taking time to upgrade all the machines and requiring
some investments.
Fixed Speed Induction Generators (FSIG) are connected to
wind turbines through gearboxes, and are directly connected to
the grid. As FSIG always absorb external reactive power, Figure 20 – STATCOM control scheme [5]
reactive power sources are required or, in alternative, reactive By using DSTATCOMs fault ride-through capabilities can
power is absorbed from the Grid. Usually, static reactive be implemented in existent wind parks based on FSIGs, and
power generation capabilities (Static Var Compensators), are can be combined with other controls, as the pitch control [21].
used, but more advanced technologies are also used, DSTATCOM allows for FRT during symmetrical as well in
sometimes even combining more than one technology. asymmetrical faults, as shown in [5], although requiring some
As shunt capacitors used in reactive power compensation do modifications in the control algorithms.
not perform well under fault condition, any fault ride-trough
capabilities require some kind of dynamic reactive power VIII. SUMMARY
compensation devices. According with [5], possible options In this work, the fault-ride through and voltage support
include Static Var Compensator (SVC), STATic synchronous issues were discussed, as they are being discussed, along the
COMpensator (STATCOM) and Distribution STATCOMs last years, due to the new Grid Codes requirements. Solutions
(DSTATCOM). SVC systems are made up of Thyristor were compared both for new and for existent wind parks. In
Controlled Reactors (TCR) and Thyristor Switched Capacitors the last, those equipped with conventional induction machines
(TSC). STATCOM devices are pure power electronic systems require the installation of advanced reactive sources,
made up of IGBT or GTO based converters. The schematic dynamically controlled, as the static Var compensators cannot
diagram of a STATCOM is shown in Figure 18. control reactive power, especially when low voltages (large
dips) appear. STATCOM can be used solely or combined with
steady-state simpler shunt capacitors, to improve the system’s
behaviour. More robust control [23] schemes continue to be
discussed, as it is not expected in the next decades all FSIG
are replaced by new DFIGs or PMSGs.
In new or recently installed wind farms, mainly DFIG and
PMSG are used, the last one fully connected to the grid
Figure 18 – The schematic diagram of a STATCOM [21] through an HVDC link. In DFIG, a similar DC link exists to
feed the rotor, allowing controlling P and G generated in the
Compared to SVCs, STATCOMs are faster, smaller, and wind generator. Both machine-based wind farms can be
have better performances at reduced voltages [22]. The connected to the main grid through HVAC or HVDC lines. In
STATCOM usually operates in order to maintain its DC

the first, any voltage reduction in the main grid appears in the
wind farm networks and can be easily detected by under
voltage relays, while in the second kind of connection the
main effects will appear in the DC-link voltages.
Main solutions require modifying control blocks, either in
the grid side converters or in the rotor side converters. DFIGs
require also a rotor current limitation device (crowbar), which
can be passive or active. Active crowbars can help in FRT
issues, combined with other solutions. A DC chopper can be
used to prevent DC-link overvoltages, both on DFIGs rotors
feeding circuit and on full-rated converters or in HVDC
transmission lines. In this case, the chopper resistor may
dissipate the full active power, during the fault period. As the
active power generated is not modified, as soon as the fault is
cleared, the full active power can continue to be delivered to
the grid.
Concerning with cost analysis, no specific works were
found. The grid codes, imposing the FRT requirements, do not
give choice for new farms promoters. Accepting that the
recent wind generators are prepared to ride through the faults,
the over costs associated with these ability are certainly
compensated by the lower rate of disconnection and, so, by an
increased amount of energy delivered, considering that
without this ability, generators will be disconnected, for long
periods, considering the maximum rates of connection
manoeuvres admissible. From the point of view of the
network, the costs are directly related with the avoided extra
capacity reserve that the networks should have to run during
power imbalances (primary and secondary reserves).
New communications are being presented [23-26] on these
subjects, considering these issues recently introduced in most
countries and that new projects are being prepared with this
features already included.
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C. J. Coelho Teixeira was born in Santa Marinha
do Zêzere (Baião) on the 7th February 1974.
He got the his First Degree and MSc in
Electrical and Computer Engineering, from
Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto,
Oporto, Portugal in 1997 and 2005, respectively.
His major fields of study are electrical power
systems and high voltage engineering technics.
He is a Teacher Assistant at Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Coimbra,
from 1997.