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Accelerated Autogenous Healing of Concrete Pipe Sections with Crack and

Decalcification Damage

Article  in  Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering · December 2018

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002503

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 Accelerated Autogenous Healing of Concrete Pipe
Sections with Crack and Decalcification Damage
J. Rose, S.M.ASCE 1; Z. Grasley, Ph.D., P.E., M.ASCE 2; M. Tang, Ph.D. 3;
M. Edwards, Ph.D., M.ASCE 4; and F. Wang, Ph.D. 5
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Abstract: Many concrete water-distribution systems are past their service life and need repair due to leaks associated with cracks.
Autogenous healing of concrete cracks and leaks can sometimes occur if the chemistry of distributed water is favorable, whereas small
leaks eventually cause pipe failures if water chemistry is unfavorable. This study evaluates autogenous healing of simulated potable-water
concrete distribution pipe leaks. Cement mortar pipe sections with leaks created by controlled cracking, extremes of decalcification, and
water chemistry are studied, with the trajectory of leaks (and autogenous repair) monitored by permeability. Cracked specimens show sig-
nificantly high permeability compared with decalcified specimens. The healing solutions reduce the permeability of the damaged specimens
by as much as a factor of 12.5 for cracked specimens and by a factor of 3.5 for decalcified specimens. The healing process essentially
requires solutions with supersaturated amounts of calcium carbonate to significantly reduce permeability of the cracked or leached specimens.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002503. © 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Introduction packed calcium silica hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium hydroxide

A significant fraction of the United Stated potable-water distribu-
tion system is on the verge of failure and needs immediate attention,
and represents one the most urgent societal infrastructure chal-
lenges. Conventional repair involves removing pipes from service
to access them for relining or replacement. However, in some sit-
uations, repair and replacement is very difficult, for instance, with
some pipes buried 300–1,500 ft deep, and there is also widespread
interest in new and transformative methods of extending the life-
time of pipelines or preventing their degradation in the first place.
Concrete is the second most used material in the world after
water. Use of concrete in water-distribution systems can be dated
to the first century CE by the Roman empire. The technology was
lost in the middle ages and gained immense popularity in the early
twentieth century. Concrete by itself is not completely impervious
to water because 100% water-tightness cannot be achieved due to
the porous nature of the material. However, the permeability of con-
crete is low enough that the amount of water leaking through a new
concrete pipe without cracks is nearly negligible. One of the rea-
sons for the low permeability of sound concrete is the densely
1
Ph.D. Candidate, Zachry Dept. of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M
Univ., Bizzell St., College Station, TX 77843. Email: jrose@tamu.edu
2
Professor, Zachry Dept. of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M Univ.,
Bizzell St., College Station, TX 77843 (corresponding author). ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4246-196X. Email: zgrasley@tamu.edu
3
Postdoctoral Research Associate, Charles E. Via, Jr. Dept. of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Patton Hall, Blacksburg,
VA 24061. Email: mint3@vt.edu
4 as calcium carbonate in the damaged areas of the concrete, thereby
Professor, Charles E. Via, Jr. Dept. of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Virginia Tech, Patton Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061. Email:
edwardsm@vt.edu
5
Research Scientist, Charles E. Via, Jr. Dept. of Civil and Environmen-
tal Engineering, Virginia Tech, Patton Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061. Email:
feiwang@vt.edu
Note. This manuscript was submitted on October 26, 2017; approved on
May 17, 2018; published online on September 12, 2018. Discussion period
open until February 12, 2019; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561.
(CH) phases, which are hydration products of portland cement.
C-S-H contributes to the strength of concrete and CH naturally fills
up pores contributing to the low permeability of concrete. However,
CH is soluble in typical potable water, so over the course of the life
of a water-distribution system it is leached out of the concrete, in-
creasing permeability (Phung et al. 2014) of the pipe walls, weak-
ening the pipe, and increasing water leakage and the likelihood of
pipe failure. Decalcification can be a very slow or rapid process,
depending on the level of CO2 and the acidity of the water, which
can accelerate leaching or stop it completely. Furthermore, once
cracks start to form in concrete pipes, if they are not repaired,
the permeability of the pipe wall will continue to increase signifi-
cantly as holes grow larger (Aldea et al. 1999a, b; Gérard et al.
1996; Hearn 1999). The primary objective of this study is to de-
velop a method to track the repair of leaks that can occur naturally
in some situations via autogenous healing, and to use the method to
evaluate the effectiveness of several different potable waters in the
autogenous healing of cracked or leached pipes.
Self-healing in concrete was first reported in 1836 in the French
Academy of Science. One way to achieve self-healing is by using
biomineralization bacteria. Biomineralization is the process in
which living organisms are used to produce mineral deposits when
exposed to certain conditions. The effect of biomineralization bac-
teria on the healing effect in damaged concrete has been explored
extensively in previous research (Başaran Bundur et al. 2017;
Bundur et al. 2015; De Muynck et al. 2008; Jonkers et al. 2010;
Li and Herbert 2012; Palin 2017; Williams et al. 2017). The result
of biomineralization is precipitation of relatively inert solids such
healing the concrete (De Rooij et al. 2011; Jonkers and Schlangen
2007). Biomineralization bacteria are a promising self-healing
option for newly laid concrete pipes, but for existing infrastructure
they are not a viable solution because the bacteria must be
embedded in the concrete itself for it to work.
Autogenous healing of leaks in concrete is a self-repair process
by which water reacts with the concrete, especially CH, to form
calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) that can clog leaks. This healing effect
is particularly of interest in water-distribution systems in which

© ASCE 04018308-1 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(12): 04018308


Fig. 1. Leak trajectory with precipitation kinetics of healing precipi-
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tates. Calcium carbonate is the main precipitate for the healing solution.
(Reprinted from Tang 2017.)
many new concrete pipes are installed with cracks that sometimes
quickly self-repair in some waters (Edvardsen 1999; Hearn 1998;
Phillips 1925). However, the influence of self-repair and water
chemistry on the long-term performance of concrete pipes has re-
ceived relatively little study. Many studies have related the physical
properties of early age concrete to the likelihood of autogenous
healing (Munday et al. 1976; Yang et al. 2009; Zhong and Yao
2008). In early age concrete, cracks are repaired to a great extent
by the continuing hydration of the concrete. The self-repair indi-
cates that early age concrete has properties similar to autogenous
healing, but it is a result of hydration.
Previous research has demonstrated that the chemistry of water
passing through the leak can be an overarching control factor that
determines whether leaks grow larger or end up self-repairing
(Edwards et al. 2005; Parks et al. 2010). This study tests the
hypothesis that accelerated healing of lab-scale concrete water-
distribution pipes may be achieved by adjusting the water’s satu-
ration index of CaCO3 . Fig. 1 shows a graphic representation of the
leak water path and how the precipitates clog the leak and poten-
tially heal the damage in the pipe. The hypothesis is evaluated by
direct measurements of permeability of the walls of miniaturized,
damaged concrete pipe sections both before and after flowing the
supersaturated healing water through the sections for fixed periods.
Experimental Procedure
Specimen Preparation
This study used cement mortar specimens. Controlled cracking
and controlled decalcification were induced in the cement mortar
specimens. Regular Type I/II cement was used along with river
sand passing 100% through a No. 16 sieve as fine aggregate.
A water:cement mass ratio of 0.5 and an aggregate:cement mass
ratio of 2 was used in the sample preparation. The sections used to
induce crack damage had polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) microfibers 1%
by volume of mortar to ensure that the samples remained intact
after the cracks had formed. Table 1 lists the properties of the PVA
fibers used in the mix design. The lab-scale pipe specimens used
in the study had the following dimensions: 25.4-mm (1-in.) outer
diameter, 6.35-mm (0.25-in.) inner diameter, and 50.8-mm (2-in.)
length. Fig. 2 shows the cross section and top views of a sample
specimen and shows a pipe section specimen with the end plates
attached.
The cement mortars were prepared per ASTM C305 (ASTM
2014). The samples were prepared by pouring the mortar mix into
© ASCE
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(12): 04018308
Table 1. Properties of PVA fiber RECS 15 × 8 mm
Property Value
Diameter (μm) 40
Cut length (mm) 8
Tensile strength (N=mm2 ) 1,600 (232.1 ksi)
Elongation (%) 7
Young’s modulus (kN=mm2 ) 40 (5,801 ksi)
Specific gravity 1.3
Fig. 2. Cross section, top view of pipe section specimens, and pipe
section specimen prepared for decalcification and cracking with end
plates attached with marine epoxy.
25.4-mm inner diameter polycarbonate tube molds. The hole in the
middle was made using a 6.35 mm polyethylene tube. The ends of
the molds were sealed using 25.4 mm steel washers with a 6.35 mm
hole. After casting, the samples were maintained at room temper-
ature (20°C) in a sealed condition and then demolded after 24 h.
After demolding the pipe sections, steel end plates (with threaded
center holes) were attached to both ends to allow connectivity to
a hose.
The specimens prepared were first tested for permeability. The
specimens were then subjected to controlled damage: cracking and
decalcification. The damaged specimens were tested for permeabil-
ity again to provide the values of damaged permeability. The spec-
imens were then subjected to healing, which was performed using
the healing rig. The healed samples were tested for permeability
again to provide the healed permeability values. The factor of
permeability reduction from damaged to healed specimens was de-
termined by calculating the ratio between the damaged permeabil-
ity and healed permeability and averaging the results obtained from
each sample.
Permeability Testing
Testing for permeability of concrete is an effective measure of
the transport properties of the material. Cracked and decalcified
concrete have higher permeability than does concrete that is not
damaged. Therefore, this study used permeability to test the level
of damage in the material.
Conventional methods to test permeability involve applying
hydrostatic pressure on one side of the material and measuring
the fluid flux through the material (El-Dieb and Hooton 1994;
Hooton 1986; Ye et al. 2006). A downside to these techniques
is the time taken to complete the test in the case of a material
with low permeability, such as concrete. For example, it may take
04018308-2 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

weeks to test concrete permeability with the conventional method.
Poromechanical techniques have been shown to reduce the time
required to obtain permeability results by several orders of
magnitude (Jones and Grasley 2009a, b; Scherer 2000a, b, 2006).
Poromechanical methods measure the time-dependent deformation
associated with fluid flow into a porous material upon application
external stress. The measured deformation rate is used to calculate
the permeability of the material.
For this study, the techniques used for measuring permeability
were hollow dynamic pressurization (HDP) and radial flow-
through (RFT). HDP is a poromechanical technique used to
measure permeability of specimens with very low permeability
(<10−19 m2 ). RFT is a semiconventional permeability testing
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method (using radial rather than linear flow) that is used to measure
permeability of specimens with higher permeability (>10−19 m2 )
(Jones and Grasley 2009c).
The HDP technique involves a pressure chamber in which the
inner and outer surfaces of a hollow cylindrical test specimen are
pressurized hydrostatically. The chamber used in this study could
withstand pressure up to 13.1 MPa (1,900 psi). Fig. 3 shows a
schematic of the HDP apparatus. The specimen to be tested is sus-
pended in the pressure chamber filled with the pressurizing fluid.
The method starts with the rapid pressurization of the chamber to a
desirable pressure level, thereby simulating a step pressure incre-
ment. The specimen initially contracts volumetrically; the magni-
tude of the volume change depends on the bulk moduli of the
specimen and the pore fluid. The bulk modulus of the solid phases
is significantly higher than that of the pore fluid, so that the stress
field in the specimen is carried primarily by the solids. The pore
fluid pressure near the radial surface is essentially equal to the ap-
plied step pressure immediately after pressurizing the chamber, but
the pore fluid pressure within the sample is much lower. The pres-
sure gradient forces the fluid to flow from the surface pores to the
inner pores. The specimen expands as the fluid flows in to the inner
pores. The permeability of the specimen is calculated via the use of
poroelasticity and the measured rate of axial expansion.
The RFT was a relatively simple radial flow-through test. Fig. 4
shows a schematic of the RFT apparatus. The hollow cylindrical
specimen was sealed on both ends with steel plates. A rapid step
pressure pressurized the outer radial surface of the cylinder.
Because of the pressure gradient between the outer and inner radial
surfaces of the cylinder, the fluid moved through the pore network
LVDT coil
Electric-hydraulic pump
LVDT core
Pressure Sensor
Hydraulic oil Data logger
Threaded Pipe
Steel end caps Steel rod
Hollow cylindrical
specimen
Saturated lime
water
Fig. 3. Hollow dynamic pressurization setup: hydrostatic step pressure
is applied to both inner (radial) and outer surfaces of the hollow cy-
lindrical specimen, causing the specimen to contract initially. As water
flowed into the pore network of the specimen, its corresponding expan-
sion was measured with a LVDT. (Reprinted from Rose and Grasley
2017, © ASCE.)
© ASCE
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(12): 04018308
Float
LVDT coil
LVDT core
Electric-hydraulic pump
Pressure Sensor
Hydraulic oil
Data logger
Threaded Pipe
Steel end caps
Hollow cylindrical
Saturated lime specimen
water
Fig. 4. Radial flow-through setup: hydrostatic step pressure is applied
to outer surface of hollow cylindrical specimen. The steady state rate of
flow of water into the middle hole was measured with a LVDT attached
to a float. (Reprinted from Rose and Grasley 2017, © ASCE.)
and into the middle hole of the cylinder. The rate of flow of fluid
in the middle was determined by measuring the height of the fluid
level, which increased as more fluid flowed into the middle. The
permeability of the specimen was determined by measuring the
flow rate once a steady-state flux was achieved.
Previous research has shown that HDP measures the resistance
to fluid flow into the pore network of the material that is being
tested and RFT measured the fastest rate at which the fluid can flow
through a section of the material. These can be used to determine
different damage types that occur in cementitious material. HDP
can be used to measure the effect of leaching and chemical attack,
whereas RFT can be used to study the effect of cracks (Rose and
Grasley 2017).
Controlled Decalcification
To fully examine the effects of decalcification, this study subjected
the mortar specimens to accelerated decalcification in a controlled
environment. Carde et al. (1997) and Gérard et al. (2002) showed
that the leaching process can be accelerated significantly in the lab-
oratory by exposing concrete to 6M ammonium nitrate solution.
The accelerated leaching reaction is described by
CaðOHÞ2 þ 2NH4 NO3 → CaðNO3 Þ2 þ 2NH3 þ 2H2 O ð1Þ
The pH of the resulting solution decreases to 4.5, thereby
accelerating the dissolution of calcium hydroxide. The leaching
technique simulates years of decalcification occurring in concrete
pipes in the field within a matter of days in the lab. Based on Carde
et al. (1997), the depth of decalcification from a surface with ex-
posure to 6M ammonium nitrate solution can be approximated as
pffiffi
d ¼ 1.31 t ð2Þ
where d = depth of decalcification (mm); and t = time of exposure
(days). For comparison, the depth of decalcification from a concrete
surface exposed to deionized water is approximately given by
pffiffi
d ¼ 0.12 t ð3Þ
Accelerated decalcification of the cement mortar specimens was
needed to simulate different levels of long-term decalcification in a
real-world scenario. The rate of the reaction of ammonium nitrate
with the calcium hydroxide in the microstructure is significantly
04018308-3 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 tangential hoop stress exceeded the tensile strength of the speci-
men, cracks formed. Several freeze–thaw cycles were required
to form visible cracks, which were anticipated to induce large in-
creases in the effective permeability of the pipe section walls. The
cracked specimens were tested for permeability using the RFT
method.

Healing Rig
The healing rig (Fig. 5) comprised a submersible pump capable
of pumping water from a reservoir into four 6.35-mm-diameter
(0.25-in.) tubes at a flow rate of 0.6 m=s (2 ft=s). Each flow path
was attached to a damaged specimen. The other end of the damaged
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specimen was connected to tubes which returned the healing

solution to the healing water reservoir.

Fig. 5. Healing rig: reservoir of healing water which was pumped
through pipe section specimens by submersible pump at flow rate
of 0.6 m=s.
faster than that of deionized water with the calcium hydroxide, as
shown by Eqs. (2) and (3) (Carde et al. 1997). The cement mortar
samples were cured for 28 days in a saturated lime water solution to
improve the degree of saturation and to prevent calcium hydroxide
leaching out during the curing period. The mortar samples were
then exposed to a solution of 6M ammonium nitrate for periods
varying from 24 to 120 h. Exposure to the ammonium nitrate
solution was controlled so that only the outer and inner radial sur-
face of the specimens was in contact with the solution. By control-
ling the exposure time, the depth of decalcification within the
specimen was also controlled. The undamaged (prior to exposure
to ammonium nitrate solution) and the decalcified cement mortar
pipe section specimens were tested for permeability using the HDP
method.
Controlled Cracking
Controlled radial cracks were introduced into the pipe section spec-
imens by freezing water in the middle hole of the cylinders. One
end of the specimen was sealed water-tight and then the middle
hole of the specimen was filled with water. The specimen was then
placed in a temperature-controlled environmental test chamber at
−20°C. As the water in the middle reached freezing temperature,
it expanded to induce radial pressure on the inner radial surface
of the hollow cylindrical specimen. When the corresponding
Healing Waters
Four simulated potable waters were designed to examine ex-
tremes of calcium carbonate saturation that could be encountered
in potable water. Water 1 was a synthesized drinking water with
only Ca2þ, which lacked any of the naturally occurring inorganic
carbon (i.e., HCO− −2
3 or CO3 ) needed to form CaCO3 after reacting
with CH (Table 1). Water 2 used only Ca2þ added to a water with
a moderate level of inorganic carbon so that the water was just at
saturation with CaCO3 . Water 3 included enough Ca2þ and inor-
ganic carbon that the water was slightly supersaturated, increasing
the probability of precipitating solids if in contact with a suitable
surface but which would not form CaCO3 in the feed solution.
Water 4 had 5–15 mg=L solid CaCO3 present. The solutions were
run through the rig for 72 h because no further reductions in
permeability were observed when treated for increased durations.
Table 2 shows the chemical composition of the different healing
solutions used.
Results
Controlled Decalcification
Five sets of three specimens for each exposure time were tested
for permeability; Fig. 6 graphs the results. From Eq. (2), the amount
of ammonium nitrate exposure time needed to fully decalcify the
specimens was estimated to be 120 h. The results showed that 120 h
of decalcification increased the permeability by two orders of mag-
nitude compared with 24-h decalcification. This study exposed all
decalcified specimens for 120 h to ensure complete decalcification
on the pipe section specimens. Table 3 lists the permeability results
and the standard deviations for decalcification tests.

Table 2. Composition of five different healing solutions

CaCl2 NaHCO3 NaCl Suspended solid
Water (mmol=L) (mmol=L) (mmol=L) pH1day concentration Description
Control 0 0 0 7 — Drinking water without any added ions.
#1 0.87 0 1 7.63 — Synthesized drinking water with only Ca2þ.
#2 0.87 0.87 1 8.33 — Same as #1, but with Ca2þ added so that water is
just at saturation (no precipitate).
#3 1.30 1.30 1 7.65 — Same as #2, but with enough Ca2þ added so that
water is slightly supersaturated. There is a high
probability of precipitates forming on contact with
suitable surface.
#4 1.80 1.80 1 7.71 ∼12.5 mg=L as CaCO3 Same as #3, but with more Ca2þ added so that
there is obvious (approximately 5–15 mg=L)
precipitate in the water.

© ASCE 04018308-4 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(12): 04018308

 10 17 Table 4. Mean RFT permeability values measured for specimens cracked
with varying freeze–thaw cycles
Number of
10 18
(m2 )

freeze–thaw cycles RFT permeability (m2 ) Standard deviation

1 5.64 × 10−21 1.51 × 10−17
Permeability

10 19 2 7.85 × 10−19 8.01 × 10−16

3 3.55 × 10−19 1.72 × 10−15

10 20

10 21
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
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Exposure Time (Hours)

Fig. 6. Measured permeability of pipe section specimens (m2 ) versus

exposure time to ammonium nitrate solution (h) shows that permeabil-
ity of the decalcified samples increased by several orders magnitude
when completely decalcified. The error bars are one standard deviation
from the mean.

Fig. 8. Cross section and 3D reconstructed image of cracked section

Table 3. Mean HDP permeability values measured for specimens with obtained from X-ray CT imaging. Cracks are shown by lighter shade.
varying exposure to ammonium nitrate solution
Exposure time (h) HDP permeability (m2 ) Standard deviation
cracking required to give consistent permeability changes com-
0 4.2 × 10−22 9.48 × 10−21
pared with uncracked specimens. The permeability did not increase
24 9.48 × 10−21 2.03 × 10−21
48 1.20 × 10−19 4.68 × 10−20 after the third freeze-thaw cycle because the specimens were too
72 2.12 × 10−19 1.20 × 10−19 permeable to hold the freezing water in the middle hole of the
96 3.15 × 10−19 9.66 × 10−20 hollow cylindrical specimen. Table 4 lists the values of the RFT
120 1.03 × 10−18 4.69 × 10−19 permeability along with the standard deviations. Fig. 8 shows a
cross-section image and a three-dimensional (3D) reconstructed
view of the cracked specimen obtained from X-ray computed
tomography (CT) scans. The image was processed using Mathema-
10 14
tica software (version 10.1) and reconstructed using ImageJ soft-
ware (version 1.5). The spatial resolution of the X-ray CT image
10 15 was 25 μm. The crack widths of the cracked specimens were ob-
Permeability (m )

tained from the X-ray CT analysis. The surface crack widths ranged
2

10 16 from 100 to 150 μm for the cracked specimens.

10 17 Decalcification Healing
Five sets of four standardized decalcified samples were prepared for
10 18 healing with the four different healing solutions and the control
solution. The healing solutions were run through the decalcified
10 19
samples for 72 h. The specimens were tested for permeability using
1 2 3 the HDP method before and after healing. Fig. 9 graphs the results
No. of freeze thaw cycles for the different healing waters and Table 5 lists the mean values.
Healing Water 3 and healing Water 4 (both supersaturated with
Fig. 7. Measured permeability of pipe section specimens (m2 ) versus Ca2þ ions) showed the most promising results for healing decalci-
number of freeze–thaw cycles shows that induced cracks increased fied pipe sections in terms of permeability. Permeability reduction
permeability by several orders of magnitude. The error bars are one by a factor or 3.5 was observed in the case of Water 4.
standard deviation from the mean.

Controlled Cracking
Three sets of three specimens for each level of freeze–thaw were
tested for permeability; Fig. 7 graphs the results. Thus, three differ-
ent severities of cracked samples were tested for permeability. The
experimental variance of permeability for one freeze–thaw cycle
was too high, but the variance for three cycles of free–thaw showed
consistent permeability results. Therefore, three cycles of freezing
and thawing was chosen as the optimal amount to induce the
Cracked Healing
Five sets of four freeze-thaw cracked samples were prepared for
healing with the four different healing waters and the control sol-
ution. All the healing solutions were run through the cracked sam-
ples for 72 h. The healed samples were tested for permeability
using the RFT method. Fig. 10 graphs the results for the different
healing waters and Table 6 lists mean values.
The control and the first two healing waters did not show any
significant reduction in the permeability of the cracked samples.
However, healing Waters 3 and 4 decreased the permeability for

© ASCE 04018308-5 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(12): 04018308

 1. × 10 16 10 13
5. × 10 17 Healed Permeability Healed Permeability
Decalcified Permeability Cracked Permeability
10 14
2

2
m

17

Permeability m
1. × 10
5. × 10 18
Permeability

10 15

1. × 10 18
5. × 10 19
10 16

1. 10 19
Control Water 1 Water 2 Water 3 Water 4
10 17
Healing Waters Control Water 1 Water 2 Water 3 Water 4
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Fig. 9. Measured HDP permeability of decalcified pipe section speci-
mens before and after healing for control and four healing waters shows
that Waters 3 and 4 induced greatest decrease in permeability after
healing. Error bars are one standard deviation from the mean.
Healing Waters
Fig. 10. Measured RFT permeability of cracked pipe section speci-
mens before and after healing for control and four healing waters shows
that Waters 3 and 4 induced greatest decrease in permeability after
healing. Error bars are one standard deviation from the mean.

the healed samples, with healing Water 4 showing the maximum

reduction in permeability, a reduction factor of 12.5.
Discussion
The permeability results obtained from the cracked and healed
specimens for both damage types (i.e., decalcification and crack-
ing) are promising. The permeability of the healed samples de-
creased compared with that of the damaged samples for healing
Waters 3 and 4. For healing Waters 1 and 2, the permeability of the
healed specimens was relatively close to the damaged permeability.
In the case of cracking damage, the healed samples showed
more than an order of magnitude reduction of permeability when
healed with Water 4. Healing Water 3 resulted in a permeability
decrease by a factor of 3.4. Healing Waters 1 and 2 showed minimal
reductions in permeability for the flow rate and healing duration
considered in this work. Thus, the authors conclude that supersatu-
rated solutions are needed to produce any meaningful change in the
values of permeability in the case of cracked specimens, at least for
the crack sizes and healing duration and flow rates considered in
this work.
In the case of decalcification damage, a similar trend as in the
case of cracked specimens was observed. The permeability de-
creases for healing Waters 3 and 4 were higher than the decreases
for healing Waters 1 and 2. However, the permeability decreased
for healing Water 4 only by a factor of 3.5. Healing Water 3 resulted
in a permeability decrease by a factor of 2.25. Thus, the authors
conclude that in the case of decalcification damage, the healing ef-
fects of the waters are not as prominent as in the case of cracking
damage.
Fig. 11 graphs the permeability results comparing an undam-
aged specimen, a leached specimen, and a cracked specimen.
Comparing the permeabilities of specimens subjected to the two
different damage types indicates that cracking is a much greater
threat to cause leakage in a water-distribution system than is decal-
cification. Cracked samples have a higher permeability than decal-
cified samples because they have a direct pathway through the
pipe section for the water to flow across. In the case of decalcified
samples, the damage induced increased the size of the pore
network within the specimens, which increased the permeability,
but it was a much more distributed damage than the few discrete
pathways created via cracks. Because permeability scales roughly
with the cube of crack width (Bazant et al. 1987), a few larger,
discrete cracks will tend to increase permeability much more than
will a coarsening of pores (which is equivalent in effect to numer-
ous very small cracks). However, decalcification and cracking are
not discrete events. Complete decalcification of concrete leads to
further cracking. Therefore, healing decalcified concrete sections
indirectly contributes to the longevity of the pipe section’s life.
Conclusion
This study explored the technique of autogenous healing for restor-
ing permeability of damaged cement mortar pipe sections. An ac-
celerated healing technique altered the water chemistry of potable
water flowing through these sections. Four different healing waters
were used and the pipe sections were subjected to these healing
waters for 72 h. The types of damage considered in the study were
cracking and decalcification. The cement mortar samples were
damaged in a controlled manner and then tested for permeability
before and after healing. The primary results obtained are
• The differences in permeability between undamaged and
damaged sections were compared for two damage types: con-
trolled cracking and decalcification. Cracked sections had a

Table 5. Mean HDP permeability values measured before and after healing of decalcified specimens
Solution used Damaged permeability (m2 ) Standard deviation Healed permeability (m2 ) Standard deviation
Control 1.08 × 10−18 3.68 × 10−19 1.03 × 10−18 2.61 × 10−19
Water 1 8.67 × 10−19 1.03 × 10−19 7.54 × 10−19 3.23 × 10−19
Water 2 1.42 × 10−18 4.68 × 10−19 9.48 × 10−19 3.17 × 10−19
Water 3 2.7 × 10−19 9.66 × 10−19 1.20 × 10−19 9.46 × 10−19
Water 4 1.05 × 10−18 5.07 × 10−19 2.15 × 10−19 2.07 × 10−19

© ASCE 04018308-6 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(12): 04018308

 Table 6. Mean RFT permeability values measured before and after healing of cracked specimens
Solution used Damaged permeability (m2 ) Standard deviation Healed permeability (m2 ) Standard deviation
Control 2.71 × 10−15 1.07 × 10−15 3.15 × 10−15 1.86 × 10−15
Water 1 1.54 × 10−15 1.01 × 10−15 2.24 × 10−15 2.46 × 10−15
Water 2 5.62 × 10−15 1.72 × 10−15 3.29 × 10−15 3.17 × 10−15
Water 3 3.24 × 10−15 8.46 × 10−16 9.58 × 10−16 9.46 × 10−16
Water 4 3.55 × 10−15 2.37 × 10−15 3.62 × 10−16 2.07 × 10−16

Aldea, C.-M., S. P. Shah, and A. Karr. 1999b. “Permeability of cracked

concrete.” Mater. Struct. 32 (5): 370–376. https://doi.org/10.1007
10 15
/BF02479629.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by CASA Institution Identity on 10/10/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

ASTM. 2014. Standard practice for mechanical mixing of hydraulic

cement pastes and mortars of plastic consistency. ASTM C305.
2
Permeability m

10 17 West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.

10 19
10 21
Undamaged Specimen Fully Leached Specimen Cracked with 3 Cycles
Damage types
Fig. 11. Comparison of permeability values for two damage types con-
sidered and an undamaged specimen. Cracking increases permeability
significantly compared with decalcification. Error bars are one standard
deviation from the mean.
significantly higher permeability increase than did decalcified
sections.
• The supersaturated healing waters decreased the permeability of
the damaged pipe sections.
• Healing waters that were supersaturated with calcium reduced
permeability more successfully than did the waters that were not
supersaturated.
• The permeability of cracked sections that were healed decreased
by as much as a factor of 12.5.
• The permeability of decalcified sections that were healed
decreased by as much as a factor of 3.5.
This study showed that the method of inducing accelerated
autogenous healing by altering potable-water chemistry effectively
reduces the permeability of both cracked and decalcified samples.
The results also show that cracking is a more significant risk for
causing water leaks in concrete or mortar pipe sections than is
decalcification.
Acknowledgments
This material is based upon work supported by the National
Science Foundation under Grant No. 1336616. Any opinions,
findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this
material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the National Science Foundation.
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