Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AND
FINANCIAL
As
we
know
a
firm
has
to
have
different
liquidity.
In
other
words
they
have
to
be
able
to
meet
their
day
to
day
payments.
It
is
no
good
having
your
money
tied
up
or
invested
so
that
you
haven’t
enough
money
to
meet
your
bills!
Current
assets
and
liabilities
are
an
important
part
of
this
liquidity
and
so
to
measure
the
firms
liquidity
situation
we
can
work
out
a
ratio.
The
current
ratio
is
worked
out
by
dividing
the
current
assets
by
the
current
liabilities.
CURRENT
RATIO
=
Current
assets
_
Current
liabilities
The
figure
should
always
be
above
1
or
the
form
does
not
have
enough
assets
to
meet
its
liabilities
and
is
therefore
technically
insolvent.
However,
a
figure
close
to
1
would
be
a
little
close
for
a
firm
as
they
would
only
just
be
able
to
meet
their
liabilities
and
so
a
figure
of
between
1.5
and
2
is
generally
considered
being
desirable.
A
figure
of
2
means
that
they
can
meet
their
liabilities
twice
over
and
so
is
safe
for
them.
If
the
figure
is
any
bigger
than
this
then
the
firm
may
be
tying
too
much
of
their
money
in
a
form
that
is
not
earning
them
anything.
If
the
current
ratio
is
bigger
than
2
they
should
therefore
perhaps
consider
investing
some
for
a
longer
period
to
earn
them
more.
However,
the
current
assets
also
include
the
firm’s
stock.
If
the
firm
has
a
high
level
of
stock,
it
may
mean
one
of
the
two
things,
1. Sales
are
booming
and
they’re
producing
a
lot
to
keep
up
with
demand.
2. They
can’t
sell
all
they’re
producing
and
it’s
piling
up
in
the
warehouse!
If
the
second
of
these
is
true
then
stock
may
not
be
a
very
useful
current
asset,
and
even
if
they
could
sell
it
isn’t
as
liquid
as
cash
in
the
bank,
and
so
a
better
measure
of
liquidity
is
the
ACID
TEST
(or
QUICK)
RATIO.
This
excludes
stock
from
the
current
assets,
but
is
otherwise
the
same
as
the
current
ratio.
ACID
TEST
RATIO
=
Current
assets
–
stock
Current
liabilities
Ideally
this
figure
should
also
be
above
1.5
for
the
firm
to
be
comfortable.
That
would
mean
that
they
can
meet
all
their
liabilities
without
having
to
pay
any
of
their
stock
and
still
have
some
buffer.
This
would
make
potential
investors
feel
more
comfortable
about
their
liquidity.
If
the
figure
is
below
1,
they
may
begin
to
get
worried
about
their
firm’s
ability
to
meet
its
debts.
Note
:
Working
Capital
=
Current
Assets
–
Current
Liabilities
Rate
of
Stock
Turnover
It
shows
the
number
of
times,
on
average,
that
the
business
will
sell
its
stock
in
a
given
period
of
time.
It
basically
gives
an
indication
of
how
well
the
stock
has
been
managed.
A
high
ratio
is
desirable
because
the
quicker
the
stock
is
turned
over,
more
profit
can
be
generated.
A
low
ratio
indicates
that
stocks
are
kept
for
a
longer
period
of
time
(which
is
not
good).
Cost
of
Goods
Sold
=
____
Times
(
higher
the
better)
Average
Inventory
Inventory
Days:
This
is
Rate
of
Inventory
turnover
in
days.
Lower
the
better.
Average
Inventory
x
365
=
____
Days
(
lower
the
better)
Cost
of
Goods
Sold
Trade
Recieveables
Days(
Collection
Period)
Shows
how
long
it
takes
on
average
to
recover
the
money
from
debtors.
Lower
the
better.
Closing
Trade
Receiveables
x
365
=
____
Days
(lower
the
better)
Credit
Sales
Trade
Payables
Days:
(Payment
Period)
Shows
how
long
it
takes
on
average
to
payback
the
creditors.
Higher
the
better.
Closing
Trade
Payables
x
365
=
____
Days
Credit
Purchases
Note:
Average
Inventory
=
Opening
+
Closing
2
Utilization
Ratios
(All
higher
the
better)
Total
Asset
utilization
(Total
Asset
Turnover)
Shows
how
much
sales
are
being
generated
on
Total
Assets.
Higher
ratio
indicates
better
utilization
of
Total
Assets.
Net
Sales
=
____
Times
Total
Assets
Non
Current
Asset
Utilization
(Non
Current
Asset
Turnover)
Shows
how
much
sales
are
being
generated
on
Non
current
assets.
Higher
ratio
indicates
better
utilization
of.
Net
Sales
=
____
Times
Non
Current
Assets
Working
Capital
Utilization
(Working
Capital
Turnover)
Sows
how
much
sales
are
being
generated
on
Working
Capital.
Higher
ratio
indicates
better
utilization
of
Working
Capital.
Net
Sales
=
____
Times
Working
Capital
Advantages
of
Ratios
1. Shows
a
trend
2. Helps
to
compare
a
single
firm
over
a
two
years
(time
–
series)
3. Helps
to
compare
to
similar
firms
over
a
particular
year.
4. Helps
in
making
decisions
Disadvantages
(Limitations):
1. A
ratio
on
its
own
is
isolated
(We
need
to
compare
it
with
some
figures)
2. Depends
upon
the
reliability
of
the
information
from
which
ratios
are
calculated.
3. Different
industries
will
have
different
ideal
ratios.
4. Different
companies
have
different
accounting
policies.
E.g.
Method
of
depreciation
used.
5. Ratios
do
not
take
inflation
into
account.
6. Ratios
can
over
simplify
a
situation
so
can
be
misleading.
7. Outside
influences
can
affect
ratios
e.g.
world
economy,
trade
cycles.
8. After
calculating
ratios
we
still
have
to
analyze
them
in
order
to
derive
a
conclusion.
How
to
Comment:
Usually
in
CIE
they
assign
2
marks
for
comment
on
each
ratio.
One
mark
is
for
indicating
if
the
ratio
is
better
or
worse
(not
higher
or
lower).
The
second
mark
is
to
explain
the
importance
or
the
reason
of
the
change
in
ratio.
For
e.g.
If
Gross
Profit
Margin
was
40%
and
now
its
50%,
you
should
say
that
the
Gross
profit
Margin
has
improved
(rather
than
increased)
and
this
may
be
due
to
an
increase
in
selling
price
or
a
decrease
in
cost
of
goods
sold
(depending
upon
the
question).
Also
remember
that
the
liquidity
and
utilization
ratios
should
be
close
to
industry
average.
Too
less
or
too
much
liquidity
is
bad!
At
the
end
of
your
answer,
always
give
a
conclusion
• When
comparing
a
single
firm
over
two
years
then
do
mention
performance
of
which
year
is
better.
(In
terms
of
profitability
and
liquidity)
• When
comparing
two
different
firms
over
the
same
year
do
mention
performance
of
which
firm
is
better.
(In
terms
of
profitability
and
liquidity).
If
the
question
says
evaluate
profitability
then
use
(GP
Margin,
NP
Margin
and
ROCE)
If
the
question
says
evaluate
liquidity,
use
(Current
Ratio,
Acid
Test
and
Rate
of
Stock
Turnover)
If
the
question
says
evaluate
the
performance
it
means
both
profitability
and
liquidity.
Best
way:
3
–
Profitability
2
–
Liquidity
&
1
–
Utilization
INVENTORY
VALUATION
(
STOCK)
Remember
stock
is
valued
at
lower
of
cost
or
net
realisable
value
(N.R.V).
This
is
basically
the
current
market
value
of
the
stock
after
deducting
any
repair
cost.
This
is
application
of
the
prudence
concept.
E.g.
If
a
piece
of
stock
costing
$40
is
damaged.
Now
it
can
be
sold
for
$48
but
only
if
$10
of
repair
is
undertaken.
This
means
the
NRV
of
stock
is
38
(48
–
10).
Since
NRV
(38)
is
lower
than
the
cost
(40),
we
should
value
it
as
38.
It
lets
say
the
NRV
was
$41,
then
than
the
stock
would
have
been
valued
at
$40.
Assumptions
in
Stock
Valuations
FIFO
Advantages
1. Good
representation
of
sound
storekeeping
as
oldest
stock
is
issued
first.
2. Stock
is
shown
close
to
the
current
market
value
(because
it
is
valued
at
most
recent
price)
3. This
method
is
acceptable
by
accounting
regulations
Disadvantages
1. In
inflation
stock
is
valued
the
highest
and
it
overstates
profit
2. Since
the
value
of
stock
issued
fluctuates,
this
will
lead
to
a
different
cost
for
an
identical
unit.
AVCO
Advantages
1. Since
the
value
of
stock
issued
does
not
fluctuate,
this
will
lead
to
a
same
cost
for
an
identical
unit.
2. This
method
is
acceptable
by
accounting
regulations.
Disadvantages
1. Difficult
to
calculate.
2. Average
price
does
not
represents
the
true
value
of
stock
ACCOUNTING
CONCEPTS
Money
Measurement
Also
known
as
Monetary
unit.
Transactions
related
to
the
Concept
business,
and
having
money
value
are
recorded
in
the
books
of
accounts.
Events
or
transactions
which
cannot
be
expressed
in
term
of
money
do
not
find
a
place
in
the
books
of
accounts.
For
example
motivation
/
skill
/
morale
of
employees
cannot
be
recorded
in
accounts.
Also
the
internally
generated
goodwill
of
the
business
should
be
written
off
immediately
Prudence
/
Conservatism
Take
into
account
unrealized
losses,
not
unrealized
profits/gains.
Concept
Assets
should
not
be
over-‐valued,
liabilities
under-‐valued.
Provisions
are
example
of
prudence
or
conservatism
concept.
Also
under
this
prudence/conservatism
concept,
stock/inventory
is
value
at
lower
of
cost
or
market
value.
This
concept
guides
accountants
to
choose
option
that
minimize
the
possibility
of
overstating
an
asset
or
income.
Major
Applications
include
1. Provision
for
doubtful
debts
2. Provision
for
depreciation
3. Valuation
of
inventory
4. Writing
off
goodwill
Substance
Over
Form
Real
substance
takes
over
legal
form
namely
we
consider
the
economic
or
accounting
point
of
view
rather
than
the
legal
point
of
view
in
recording
transactions.
Major
application
is
when
we
are
leasing
the
assets
we
don’t
have
the
legal
ownership
but
the
economic
benefits
do
flow
towards
the
firm
so
it
is
recorded
as
an
asset
.
COST
ACCOUNTING
What
is
Cost
Accounting?
Cost
accounting
is
basically
the
determination
of
cost
whether
for
a
specified
thing
or
activity.
To
determine
cost,
we
need
to
apply
accounting
and
costing
principles
and
techniques.
The
cost
accounting
information
is
used
within
the
business
for
planning,
controlling
and
decision
making.
What
is
a
Cost
Centre?
Cost
centre
is
the
area
or
a
department
in
a
business
for
which
cost
are
accumulated.
There
are
two
main
types
of
Cost
Centres
• Production
Cost
Centre:
Departments
which
are
involved
directly
in
production
of
a
product.
For
example,
Moulding,
Cutting
or
Assemble
Department.
• Service
Cost
Centre:
Departments
in
which
production
doesn’t
take
place
but
they
provide
service
to
the
production
departments.
For
example:
store
Department
or
Maintenance
Department.
What
is
a
Cost
Unit?
Costs
are
always
related
to
some
object
or
function
or
service.
For
example,
the
cost
of
a
car,
a
haircut,
a
ton
of
coal
etc.
Such
units
are
known
as
cost
units
and
can
be
defined
as
‘A
unit
of
product
or
service
in
relation
to
which
costs
are
determined’.
Cost
unit
may
be
units
of
production,
e.g.
kilos
of
cement,
gallons
of
beer
OR
may
be
units
of
service,
e.g.
consulting
hours,
Patient
nights,
Kilowatt
hour.
How
is
cost
classified?
There
are
three
possible
classifications
• Type
1:
Direct
and
Indirect
Cost
(classification
as
per
traceability
of
cost)
Direct
cost:
This
includes
all
such
cost
which
can
easily
be
traced
to
the
item
being
manufactured.
E.g.
Direct
Material,
Direct
Labour
and
Direct
Expenses
(royalties
or
artwork).
There
can
also
be
Direct
Selling
Cost
like
Installation
or
Sales
Commission.
Indirect
Cost:
All
the
cost
which
cannot
be
easily
traced
to
the
item
is
the
Indirect
Cost.
These
are
widely
known
as
Overheads.
Overheads
can
be
production
or
non-‐production
(selling
and
administration).
• Type
2:
Production
and
Non-‐Production
Cost
(classification
as
per
function)
Any
cost
which
is
incurred
in
manufacturing
the
item
is
referred
as
Production
Cost.
All
the
other
cost
is
Non
production
(Selling
)
,
Non
production
(
Administration
)
,
Non
Production
(
Financial
charges).
• Type
3:
Variable
and
Fixed
Cost
(
classification
as
per
behavior
of
cost)
Variable
Cost:
Those
cost
that
change
in
total
in
direct
proportion
to
changes
in
level
of
activity.
An
increase/decrease
in
activity
brings
proportional
increase/decrease
in
total
variable
cost.
E.g.
Direct
Material,
Direct
Labor.
Always
remember
Variable
Cost
per
Unit
will
remain
constant.
Fixed
cost:
Those
cost
that
DOES
NOT
change
regardless
of
changes
in
activity
level.
E.g.
Rent,
Depreciation
etc.
Fixed
Cost
does
not
change
in
Total
but
Fixed
Cost
per
unit
will
decrease
as
more
units
are
produced.
Semi
Variable
(Mixed)
Cost:
Include
both
fixed
and
variable
elements.
For
example
Repairs,
Maintenance
and
Electricity.
For
example
the
cost
of
a
service:
$2
per
unit
produced
up
to
a
maximum
of
$5
000
per
year
will
show
the
following
pattern
on
a
graph:
Another
example
of
semi-‐variable
costs
in
the
form
of
standing
charge
of
$2
500
for
maintenance
charges
for
a
specific
level
plus
a
charge
of
$
5
per
unit
to
a
maximum
of
$10
000
per
year,
will
show
the
following
outline
on
a
graph:
The
graphs
for
the
fixed
cost
per
unit
and
variable
cost
per
unit
look
exactly
opposite
to
total
fixed
costs
and
total
variable
costs
graphs.
Although
total
fixed
costs
are
constant,
the
fixed
cost
per
unit
changes
with
the
number
of
units.
The
variable
cost
per
unit
is
constant.
What
is
the
difference
between
direct
cost
and
variable
cost?
The
direct
cost
is
directly
related
to
a
product
and
it
can
be
easily
traced
to
the
item
being
manufactured
but
it
does
not
include
any
type
of
variable
overheads.
The
variable
cost
includes
all
direct
cost
and
variable
overheads
as
well.
For
e.g.
the
variable
part
of
the
electricity.