KEY FEATURES OF PRE-CONFLICT, CONFLICT AND POST-

CONFLICT WITH EXAMPLES

BY

A. S. MBURA

MODIBBO ADAMA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, YOLA

ADAMAWA STATE, NIGERIA

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Introduction

Almost every academic discipline has its theoretical approach of understanding

conflicts, economists are focused on game-theory and decision-making,
psychologist explore interpersonal conflicts, sociologists take status and class
conflicts as the focal point, while political science is centered on intra-national and
international conflicts. Therefore to review the conflict literature as a whole is an
almost impossible task. However, our conflict review, though mainly concentrated
on interstate and international conflicts, will try to give short introduction of the
disputed notions and different definitions of a complex phenomenon called
conflict. In the same token the categorization and conflict typology will be
examined in order to describe the possible development and level of conflict
intensity, as well as its violent or non-violent manifestation. The review will also
depict the objects of conflict – territory, borders, power, resources, etc. – that
predominantly constitute the bone of contention in the interstate and intra-state
disputes. Finally, we will analyze managing the conflict in the forms of conflict
settlement, conflict resolution, conflict transformation and conflict prevention as a
way to reach the state of cooperation between the states.

Regarding the stages of conflict classified upon the dynamic of its own
development, different authors have different typology systems that determine the
level of conflict. The common thing is that the conflict is always described as
passing through a series of phases – beginning, development, and end – with
distinct intensity scale. A diagram by Brahm (2003) differentiates between seven
phases of conflict dynamic. The phases begin with the existence of a latent
conflict, followed by emergence, escalation, stalemate, conflict de-escalation and
ending with settlement and the post-conflict peace building as the last stage.

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Pre-Conflict
The pre-conflict stage of conflict is the phase in which a problem between parties
begins to manifest itself without the parties’ knowledge. In this stage of conflict
parties’ needs are not being met but are unaware of the relationship between them.

Features of Pre-Conflict
i. Differences in perception
Differences in perceptions, values and attitudes of individuals or groups over the
same problem leads to interpersonal or intergroup conflicts. For example, one
group of individuals may want that all employees use HP computers to maintain
standardisation while another group may promote different brands of computers to
maintain individuality. Differences in views lead to conflicts.

ii. Excessive competition

Organizational resources (men, material, money, space etc.) are scarce and each
unit wants maximum share of it. Competition amongst units for maximum share of
resources leads to conflict.

iii. Differences in goals

Different goals of individuals or groups leads to conflict amongst them. In order to
maximize profits, production department may want to produce limited varieties in
large volume so that costs are minimized. Sales department, on the other hand,
may feel that selling products of different sizes, colours and models can increase
sales and, thus, minimize costs. Differences in group goals leads to conflict
between the two. It may even affect the quality of products.

iv. Interdependence of tasks

When work is passed from one unit to the other, interdependence amongst units
can lead to conflict. Output of first unit becomes input of second unit. If first unit

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fails to process its work on time, the second unit will have to wait and stay idle till
it receives the process. This can cause inter-group conflict.

v. Habit patterns
Some people like to argue and debate. They enjoy conflict as a matter of habit. It
acts as a motivator for them to improve their performance.

vi. Personal characteristics

When group members differ in work attitudes, age, education, temperament and
status levels, the potential for inter-group conflict is high.

vii. Defined authority – responsibility relationships

When authority and responsibility of individuals and groups is not properly
defined, people do not understand each other’s role. There is lack of consistency in
work activities and communication distortions take place. This becomes a source
for inter-group conflict.

Examples of Pre-Conflict

Example 1
You enjoy your job; you love the work you do. However, you know there are
going to be some changes. The company has hired a new divisional VP, which has
led to a couple of management changes in your division. You have met the new
managers, and things seem fine at the moment. This could be the pre-conflict stage
because issues could be brewing, but you are not aware of them.

Example 2
 Your neighbors recently moved away. A new family has moved into the house,
and you notice that it’s a large family. They have a lot visitors. Still, they’re really

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nice people, and your kids get along with their kids. While you are a little surprised
by all the visitors, things seem fine at this point.

Example 3
 Your spouse comes home and says that he/she has been given extra assignments at
work that are going to require travel. Your spouse begins traveling quite a bit, and
you start feeling tired a lot. At this early stage, you haven’t really made the
connection between your spouse’s increased duties and your exhaustion.

Conflict
Literally, conflict arises whenever individuals have different values, opinions,
needs, interests and are unable to find a middle way. Conflict is defined as a clash
between individuals arising out of a difference in thought process, attitudes,
understanding, interests, requirements and even sometimes perceptions.

Features of Conflict
i. Conflict is a Process
Conflict occurs in ‘layers’. First layer is always misunderstanding. The other layers
are differences of values, differences of viewpoint, differences of interest, and
interpersonal differences. It is also called a process because it begins with one
party perceiving the other to oppose or negatively affect its interests and ends with
competing, collaborating, compromising or avoiding.

ii. Conflict is Inevitable

Conflict exists everywhere. No two persons are the same. Hence they may have
individual differences. And the differences may be because of values or otherwise,
lead to conflict. Although inevitable, conflict can be minimized, diverted and/or
resolved. Conflict develops because we are dealing with people’s lives, jobs,
children, pride, self-concept, ego and sense of mission. Conflict is inevitable and

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often good, for example, good teams always go through a “form, storm, norm and
perform” period.

iii. Conflict is a Normal Part of Life

Individuals, groups, and organizations have unlimited needs and different values
but limited resources. Thus, this incompatibility is bound to lead to conflicts. The
conflict is not a problem, but if it is poorly managed then it becomes a problem.

iv. Perception
It must be perceived by the parties to it, otherwise it does not exist. In interpersonal
interaction, perception is more important than reality. What we perceive and think
affects our behaviour, attitudes, and communication.

v. Opposition
One party to the conflict must be perceiving or doing something the other party
does not like or want.

vi. Interdependence and Interaction

There must be some kind of real or perceived interdependence. Without
interdependence there can be no interaction. Conflict occurs only when some kind
of interaction takes place.

vii. Everyone is inflicted with Conflict

Conflict may occur within an individual, between two or more individuals, groups
or between organizations.

viii. Conflict is not One-dimensional

It comes into different ways in accordance with degree of seriousness and capacity.
At times, it may improve even a difficult situation.

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Examples of Conflict
Example 1 (Interpersonal Conflict)
There are times when people simply don't get along. The larger the workforce, the
more opportunities there are for relationship conflicts to arise. These are conflicts
that happen because of misunderstandings, miscommunications and naivety about
other people. A common example of a person vs. person interpersonal conflict
scenario at work could include a male subordinate who doesn't believe that a
female leader is capable of giving orders or that she should be giving orders.

Example 2 (Inter-Dependency Conflict)

Many work environments can be compared to an assembly line of workers who
need to complete specific tasks before another department can complete a new
task. For example, if Jack is responsible for delivering floral arrangements that the
production department has made, he can't do his job if that department falls behind.
The task doesn't necessarily need to be between departments; the task could be
among specific individuals. 

Post Conflict
In this stage, the situation is resolved in a way that leads to an ending of any
violent confrontation, to a decrease in tensions and to more normal relationships
between the parties. However, if the issues and problems arising from their
incompatible goals have not been adequately addressed, this stage could eventually
lead back into another pre-conflict situation.

Features of Post Conflict

i. Security
After a conflict, a state needs to ensure its citizens’ safety from internal and
external threats. There must be a level of security sufficient to allow the recovery

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of the economy and society. The state must reestablish the rule of law, provide an
effective police force, protect its borders, carry out disarmament, safeguard the
infrastructure, dismantle repressive government institutions, respond to
emergencies, and suppress internal conflicts and armed rogue groups.

ii. Humanitarian Relief

A state needs to provide its citizens the basics needed for survival. Immediately
after a conflict, thousands of people may be injured, refugees, or otherwise unable
to provide themselves and their families with food, water, medical treatment,
shelter, and other living requirements. Also, the destruction of the infrastructure
means that even people who are healthy and have remained in their homes may no
longer have water, electricity for cooking, etc. Therefore, international relief
organizations must be allowed to assist in resolving humanitarian and refugee
crises until the government can reestablish basic services to its people.

iii. Governance
A system of governance must be created to provide security and make fair political
decisions.

iv. Infrastructure
Armed conflict destroys or disrupts the physical elements of a modern society,
such as transportation systems (roads, bridges, railroads, airports, etc.), power
supplies, water and wastewater treatment, telecommunications, and basic
sanitation.

v. Economy
Economic reconstruction is necessary to ensure that people have jobs and are able
to provide for their families. A government must address the consequences of

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illegal or underground economic activities (black markets) as it reestablishes banks
and other financial institutions.

vi. Social/Cultural
Schools, arts, medical, and religious organizations need to be reestablished after a
conflict. The social groups most affected by the conflict need help to reestablish
their social and cultural institutions, and the means of bringing about reconciliation
among competing groups will be important to achieving a lasting peace.

Examples of Post Conflict

Example 1 (Reconstruction driven by the local population)

When wars end, the affected areas are often left devastated. There are large
numbers of refugees, wounded and trauma victims. Reconstruction can only
succeed if it is initiated by the local population. They should have a significant say
in how funding is allocated.

It may take years for a country to show the first signs of recovery. Effective
coordination between donor countries and aid organisations is vital. There should
also be a focus on the region as a whole, so that reconstruction efforts target not
only the conflict zone itself but also the surrounding countries.

Example 2 (Boosting security in poor countries)

To improve security, it is vital to address problems within the organisations that

are responsible for it at national level – the army, the police and the judiciary. They
may be inclined to promote their own interests rather than those of the people.

Conclusion
The concept of conflict is controversial. Psychologists and sociologists have given
different meanings. It is being defined as a process by few, an obstructive

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behavior, and goal incompatibility by others. Conflict can be expressed as: Conflict
is a process, where perception (real or otherwise) leads to disruption of desirable
state of harmony and stability in an interdependent world.

Reference
Autesserre, S., (2010). The Trouble with the Congo: Local Violence and the
Failure of International Peacebuilding. Cambridge University Press: New
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Bouta, T., Frerks, G. and Bannon, I. (2005) Gender, Conflict and Development.
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World
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Brahm, E. (2003) Conflict Stages. In: Burgess, G and Burgess, H. eds. Beyond
Intractability. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado,
Boulder. [Internet] Available from:
<http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/conflict_stages/> Posted
September 2003.
Brown, G., Langer, A., Stewart.F., (2011). “A Typology of Post-conflict
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Lund, M. (1996) Preventing Violent Conflict: A Strategy for Preventive
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