bs_bs_banner

Animal Science Journal (2013) 84, 409–415 doi: 10.1111/asj.12024

ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Greenhouse gas reduction and improved sustainability
of animal husbandry using amino acids in swine,
poultry feeds
Susumu TSUJIMOTO,1 Tomo TAKAGI,1 Takashi OSADA2 and Akifumi OGINO2
1
Ajinomoto Co., Inc., Kawasaki and 2Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science, National Agriculture and Food
Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Japan

ABSTRACT
In Annex 1 countries, nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from swine and poultry excreta have been calculated and the N2O
reduction potential of each country by using amino acids in feed could also be calculated, then a comparison made among
the countries. The N2O reduction rates were approximately 25% for these Annex 1 countries and amino acids were able
to make a large contribution to that reduction. Greenhouse gases (GHG) which are N2O combined with methane (CH4)
were estimated to reduce by 24.8% in Japan when amino acids were introduced into the feed, but only a 7.2% reduction
was estimated in France. Purification, which is mainly used for manure treatment in Japan, emits much more N2O and less
CH4, whereas the liquid system which is mainly used in France emits more CH4 and less N2O based on the emission factors
from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change data base. Changing the French manure treatment
system to the Japanese style with amino acids in feed would reduce GHG emissions by 23.4%. Reduction of the arable land
use in Japan by changing crop formulations supported by adding amino acids to feed was also quantified as about 10%
and led to an increase in the production of meat using the same arable land area.

Key words: amino acids, CH4, N2O, poultry, swine.

INTRODUCTION of feed for swine and poultry were investigated by

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the livestock
sector were estimated to be about 18% of the global
GHG emissions according to the Feed and Agriculture
Organization Newsroom in 2006. On the other hand,
the growing global population also needs more meat
and eggs, so it is necessary to reduce GHG quickly by
embracing environment-friendly livestock production
methods.
Improvement of nutrition balance by adding amino
acid to swine feed prevents excessive protein intake
and reduces nitrogen waste (Knabe 1996). Improve-
ment of the amino acid balance in swine and poultry
feed would maintain animal husbandry performance
and reduce nitrogen excretion (Hoehler 2005).
Focusing on emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) and
methane (CH4), GHG emissions from animal hus-
bandry was investigated by Verge et al. (2009). They
calculated N2O, CH4 and energy-oriented carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions from the swine industry in
Canada, using the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) methodology and data. The
environmental impact of ingredients and production
Mosnier et al. (2011). They concluded that feed with
the maximum amount of amino acids reduces the cost
of feed, climate change and the cumulative energy
demand.
However, quantitative studies on N2O reduction at
the country level from using low-protein amino acid
technology have not been reported. To study these
mitigation measures on global warming, it is important
to quantify the effects of this technology across many
countries. In this study, N2O emissions and reductions
from adding amino acids to animal feed were quanti-
tatively evaluated. This makes it possible to compare
the N2O emissions and reduction potential of each
country.
The authors also introduced an estimation of CH4
and discuss a methodology to maximize GHG emission
Correspondence: Susumu Tsujimoto, Ajinomoto Co., Inc.
1-1, Kawasaki, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-8681, Japan.
(Email: susumu_tsujimoto@ajinomoto.com)
Received 21 March 2012; accepted for publication 18 Sep-
tember 2012.

© 2013 Japanese Society of Animal Science

410 S. TSUJIMOTO et al.
NH3 NOX
Swine
N2O
Poultry
Manure Treatment
N2O
(4)-1 From
ground water
Ground water
Figure 1 N2O emission pathways for swine and poultry excreta.
reductions in swine and poultry production by com-
paring manure treatment styles in France and Japan.
In addition, the reduction of arable land area
per unit of meat production using amino acid-
supplemented feed was discussed and improvement of
the productivity of arable land was found.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Estimation of N2O emissions and the
estimated reduction from using amino
acids in Japanese swine and poultry
production
Nitrogen from swine and poultry excreta converts to N2O and
the conversion mechanism is described in detail in figure 6-1
of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) National Inventory Report (NIR) 2010
Japan Chapter 6 (UNFCCC 2010a). N2O emissions from
swine and poultry excreta are produced from four pathways
as shown in Figure 1. They are: (i) direct emissions from
manure treatment; (ii) direct emissions from the soil; (iii)
indirect emissions caused by atmospheric deposition; and (iv)
indirect emissions caused by nitrogen leaching and run-off.
Total head number of swine and poultry were obtained
from the UNFCCC 2010 Japan Common Reporting Format
(CRF) table 4.B (b) (UNFCCC 2010b) and nitrogen excretion
figures for each species and N2O emission factors from the
four pathways were obtained from the UNFCCC 2010 Japan
NIR Chapter 6 tables 6–10, 6–13, 6–14, 6–18, 6–45, 6–49,
and 6–50.
Calculations were done using the methodology from
UNFCCC 2010 Japan NIR Chapter 6.3.1 and Chapter 6.5.3.
In the calculations, swine production was classified into
growing-finishing and breeding according to the Statistics on
Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
(MAFF 2010a). Poultry production was also segmented into
layers and broilers where layers were sub-classified into
chicks and adult hens according to MAFF 2010 Livestock
Statistics (ALIC 2010; MAFF 2010b).
The reduction of N2O emissions were calculated for each
direct and indirect mechanism on the basis of the reduction
of nitrogen excretion reported as follows. The reduction in
the amount of nitrogen excretion by adding amino acids to
© 2013 Japanese Society of Animal Science
N2O (3) Conversion from NH3 or NOX
(1) N2O during manure management
N2O (2) Direct emission
i i
from soil
Arable land
(4)-2 From surface water
NO3-
N2O
Fountain River
the feed were experimentally investigated in swine (Osada
et al. 2011), layers (Fujisaki et al. 2003) and broilers (Yama-
zaki et al. 1996). Reduction of percentage crude protein
(%CP) of feed and reduction of nitrogen excretion were
2.6% and 28.7% for swine, 3.0% and 26.8% for layers, and
2.0% and 17.0% for broilers, respectively.
Estimation of N2O emissions and
reduction from using amino
acid-supplemented feed for swine and
poultry in Annex 1 countries
For Annex 1 countries, the nitrogen excreta and the each
N2O emission factors for each pathway were not available for
Japan from the UNFCCC database.
The nitrogen excreta data and N2O emission factors were
applied from the UNFCCC 2010 for each country based on
the CRF table 4.B(b), 4.Ds1, and 4.Ds2 (UNFCCC 2010c).
Calculation methods used for the four N2O pathways were
from the IPCC Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty
Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
Chapter 4.4 for N2O direct emissions and Chapter 4.8 for N2O
indirect emissions (IPCC 2000).
The N2O emission mechanism in the calculation was the
same as the one used for N2O estimation in Japan noted
above.
N2O and CH4 emissions estimate and
GHG reduction estimate using a
combination of manure treatment
changes and amino acid-supplemented
diets in the swine and poultry industry
by comparing France and Japan
France is a good model country to analyze Annex 1 data of
the UNFCCC, and has the largest GHG emissions derived
from the livestock sector among the European Union coun-
tries and represents a typical European climate. GHG analysis
showed a large GHG reduction effect from using amino acid-
supplemented feed with an effective manure treatment
system.
GHG emissions were calculated as the CO2 equivalent from
the sum of N2O and CH4 emissions. Data for estimation of
N2O emissions were taken from the UNFCCC 2008–2010
Animal Science Journal (2013) 84, 409–415

Table 1 Number of head and nitrogen excretion of growing-finishing swine and breeding swine in Japan
Growing-finishing
Population (1000 head) 8,872.8
Nitrogen excretion (gN/head/day)
Feces 8.3
Urine 25.9
Total 34.2
Table 2 Population and nitrogen excretion for each segment of poultry production in Japan
Chick Ratio
Population (million head) 39.9 13.7%
Nitrogen excretion (gN/head/day) 1.54
France and Japan CRF (table 4.B(b), 4.Ds1, and 4.Ds2) and
the calculation of CH4 emissions adopted the method in the
UNFCCC 2008–2010 France and Japan CRF (table 4.B(a)s1
and 4.Bs2). The calculation methods for N2O and CH4 were
based on the IPCC Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty
Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
Chapter 4.4, Chapter 4.8 for N2O and Chapter 4.3 for CH4
respectively (IPCC 2000).
Estimation for the French N2O and CH4 emissions were
calculated by introducing the Japanese-style manure man-
agement using the same ratio of manure treatments as in
Japan (UNFCCC CRF 2008–2010) to the French manure
treatment ratio, and using the N2O and CH4 emission factor
of their own country.
The experimental nitrogen excretion data of the effects
adding amino acids to feed were applied from Takada, Fuji-
saki and Yamazaki, Japan, as described above.
Because the UNFCCC CRF data for the number of head
only lists the total combined number of poultry, the indi-
vidual numbers of layers and broilers were obtained from
FAOSTAT 2006–2008 (FAO 2011) to calculate N2O. The total
number of layers and broilers from FAOSTAT is about same
as the data from UNFCCC CRF.
The N2O emission mechanism was the same as shown in
Figure 1 and the N2O estimation was done in the same way
as Japan and the other Annex 1 countries. N2O emission
factors from each country were used.
Evaluation of reduction of arable land
for feed crops
Aiming at further increases in meat production, a quantita-
tive estimate of the reduction in arable land with and
without amino acid-supplemented feed was performed. The
arable lands area used for feed crops that are consumed in
swine and poultry production in Japan were compared with
and without amino acid supplementation. Feed formulation
data for swine, layers and broilers were applied from the
experimental conditions of Osada et al. (2011), Fujisaki et al.
(2003), and Yamazaki et al. (1996), respectively. The data of
USDA-FAS (2010) were used for the crop yield data. The
arable land area for each crop was calculated from the recip-
rocal number of the yield. The specific monetary value for
arable land was obtained by the weighted economical
average from each country from which the feed was
imported. Each specific arable land value for soybean meal
Animal Science Journal (2013) 84, 409–415
GREENHOUSE GAS REDUCTION BY AMINO ACIDS 411
Ratio Breeding Ratio Total head
90.1% 974.9 9.9% 9847.7
24.3% 11.0 21.6%
75.7% 40.0 78.4%
51.0
Adult hen Ratio Broiler Ratio Total head
144.1 49.6% 106.5 36.7% 290.5
3.28 2.62
and soybean oil, rice bran and brown rice was obtained from
the economic allocation data based on soybeans and rice.
RESULTS
Estimation of N2O emissions from
Japanese swine and poultry excreta
Table 1 shows the number of head for each swine
segment from the MAFF Livestock Statistics in Japan.
Nitrogen excretion from feces and urine of each swine
segment and the nitrogen ratio was applied from
tables 6–11 in UNFCCC NIR Japan 2010 Chapter 6.
Nitrogen excretion from urine was more than 75%
and this ratio shows that the largest component of the
nitrogen excreta was from urine.
The N2O emissions in each poultry segment was
calculated by using data from UNFCCC NIR Japan
2010 and the number of head for each segment was
applied from the MAFF Livestock Statistics in Japan.
Poultry was subdivided into layers and broilers. Layers
were further segmented into chicks and adult hens.
Total poultry numbers in Japan were 290.5 million
head, almost the same as the number in UNFCCC CRF
Japan 2008–2010 table 4.B(b) and the numbers are
summarized in Table 2. The nitrogen excreted from
each poultry segment is also shown in Table 2, which
was taken from tables 6–11 in UNFCCC NIR Japan
2010 Chapter 6.
N2O emissions from swine and poultry excreta in
Japan and the N2O emissions after adding amino acids
to the feed were calculated and are shown in Figure 2.
N2O emissions for swine were calculated to be 1700
thousand metric ton (kton) without amino acids and
1210 kton with amino acids. N2O emissions for poultry
were calculated to be 3270 kton without amino acids
and 2440 kton with amino acids. N2O reductions from
using amino acid-supplemented feed for swine and
poultry were 490 kton and 830 kton, respectively. The
reduction rate was 28.7% for swine and 24.6% for
poultry: the average combined reduction rate was
26.5%.
© 2013 Japanese Society of Animal Science
412 S. TSUJIMOTO et al.

N2O and CH4 emissions(CO2eq kton/year)

10 000
Without amino acid
N2O CH4
With amino acid 8000
3500
N2O emission (kton CO2eq/year)

6000
3000
4000
2500
2000
2000
0
1500 Without With Without With Without With
amino amino amino amino amino amino
1000
acid acid acid acid acid acid
500 Japanese style
treatment
0
Swine Poultry Japan France

Figure 2 N2O emissions in Japan from swine and poultry Figure 4 Greenhouse gas emissions in France after
excreta, with and without supplementing amino acids. replacement of the manure treatment and adding amino
acids to the feed.

N2O emissions and the reduction potentials from

Without amino acid
adding amino acids were calculated for Annex 1 coun-
With amino acid
tries as shown in Figure 3. The addition of amino acids
N2O emission (kton CO2 eq/year)

14 000
generally accounted for about a 25% reduction in
12 000 these countries. For example in France, in spite of the
10 000 fact that they have greater numbers of swine and
poultry than Japan, N2O emissions were lower than in
8000
Japan. The reason was mainly attributed to the differ-
6000 ence in the manure treatment methods between the
4000 two countries.
2000
0 GHG emissions in France and Japan
Russia
Japan

France

USA
Germany

Canada

The choice of manure treatment methods was consid-

U

ered to have a large affect on the N2O and CH4 emis-

sions in GHG of each country. The N2O estimating
Figure 3 N2O emissions from swine and poultry excreta, method was the same for Japan and the Annex 1
with and without supplementing amino acids in other countries. CH4 could be estimated using UNFCCC 2010
Annex 1 countries. France CRF table 4.B(a)s1 and table 4.B(a)s2 and the
calculation method was taken from the IPCC Good
Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in
N2O emissions and the reduction from National Greenhouse Gas Inventories 2000 Chapter
adding amino acids in Annex 1 countries 4.3 equation 4.17.
N2O emissions from Annex 1 countries could be calcu- N2O and CH4 emissions in Japan and France with
lated using UNFCCC 2008–2010 CRF for each country. and without amino acid-supplemented feed were cal-
In Japan, the UNFCCC NIR covers livestock data in culated and the results are shown in Figure 4. Figure 4
detail, for instance nitrogen excreta and the ratio of also shows GHG emissions in Japan and France and
manure treatment and other areas. On the other hand, shows that the manure treatment system of Japan is
UNFCCC 2010 NIR data for other Annex 1 countries is considered to be a N2O emission type and that of
not covered in the same detail. In other Annex 1 France a CH4 emission type. Because amino acids only
countries, N2O could be estimated by UNFCCC CRF contribute to the reduction of N2O emissions, the GHG
only. Figure 3 shows the calculated N2O emissions with reduction ratio remained at 7.2% when adding amino
and without amino acid-supplemented feed in Japan, acids in France; on the other hand, a 24.8% reduction
France, Germany, USA, Canada and Russia. In Japan, rate for GHG was observed in Japan.
the difference in N2O emissions calculated by CRF was The calculation for GHG emissions in France was
about 5% smaller than that calculated by NIR. performed by using the Japanese manure treatment

© 2013 Japanese Society of Animal Science Animal Science Journal (2013) 84, 409–415

Without amino acid
With amino acid
2000
Arable land area (1000 ha)
1500
1000
500
0 N2O emissions and reduction rate in
Swine Layer
Figure 5 Changes in arable land area used to grow forage
crops for swine and poultry in Japan due to usage of amino
acids in feed.
style and the results are shown in Figure 4. Using the
Japanese manure treatment style to replace the
French manure treatment, N2O emissions increased
23.5%, but the CH4 emissions decreased 30.3% and
over all GHG decreased 14.5%. Furthermore, using
the Japanese manure treatment style to replace the
French manure treatment and adding amino acids to
the feed, N2O decreased 24.5% and the GHG reduction
ratio significantly increased to 23.4%.
Reduction of arable land used for
feed crops by using amino
acid-supplemented feed
The arable land area used for crops to feed Japanese
swine and poultry was calculated with and without
amino acids added to the feed. The feed formulation
with and without amino acids were applied from
Takada, Fujisaki and Yamazaki as described above.
Crop data on the yield per ha were taken from the
USDA-FAS (2010) international data base. The arable
land area figures were obtained by the reciprocal
number of the yield.
The weighted average yield of each country
according to the import ratio was applied. For
example, in the case of soybeans, 74.5% was from
the United States, 13.5% from Canada and 7.3%
from China based on the import and export statistics,
Japan 2008. The allocation of data on yield per ha of
soybean oil and meal, or the allocation of rice and
bran were done by considering the economic value
of the crop, which was a combination of weight and
price. Because allocation data was not available for
rapeseed oil and meal, rapeseed arable land data itself
was used for rapeseed meal. The results are shown in
Figure 5.
Animal Science Journal (2013) 84, 409–415
GREENHOUSE GAS REDUCTION BY AMINO ACIDS 413
The arable land used for swine, layer and broiler feed
were 1 514 000 ha, 1 624 000 ha and 1 793 000 ha,
respectively, and when configured for amino acid sup-
plementation the resulting figures were 1 349 000 ha,
1 512 000 ha and 1 586 000 ha, respectively.
Total arable land was estimated at 4 930 000 ha
without amino acids which was reduced to
4 447 000 ha with amino acids: the reduced arable
land area was estimated to be 484 000 ha.
DISCUSSION
Broiler
Japan with amino acids
Five thousand kton of N2O (CO2eq) emissions was
estimated to come from swine and poultry excreta and
a 1400 kton reduction was estimated when amino
acids were added to animal feed. And the reduction
rate for swine was larger than that of poultry. The
reason for this appeared to be that the N2O reduction
rate using amino acids was lower for broilers than for
swine and layers. The reduction rate of nitrogen excre-
tion was lower for broilers due to lower reduction of
CP level of feed to avoid increase of abdominal cavity
fat and decrease of weight gain.
N2O emissions from swine and poultry
excreta and the reduction amount of
Annex 1 countries
Using the UNFCCC 2008–2010 CRF data for each
country, N2O emissions and the N2O reductions from
amino acids could be calculated for the leading Annex
1 countries. This means that N2O emissions and reduc-
tions could be calculated globally so that the global
ecological contribution potential of amino acids could
be estimated if data for non-Annex 1 countries was
available.
N2O emissions per head of swine and poultry in
Annex 1 countries were calculated and are shown in
Figure 6. The emission rates in Japan were bigger than
other countries, except for poultry in Canada and
swine in Russia. The manure treatment method is
thought to be the cause of the difference. In Japan a
purification method which discharges most of the N2O
is popularly used because of land constraints. The
emission rate of poultry in Canada and that of swine in
Russia requires further study.
The global GHG reduction rate from adding amino
acids to feed was estimated to be about 10% to 25% in
this study and 1% to 2% of the global GHG (25 billion
metric tons CO2) could be reduced.
To facilitate the dissemination of this technology
around the world, the United Nations should set up
and promote offset mechanisms that have already
been introduced in Japan.
© 2013 Japanese Society of Animal Science
414 S. TSUJIMOTO et al.

swine in Japan was reduced by 165 000 ha (10.7%).

N2O Emission (tCO2eq)/1000 head
350
Swine Using experimental results for layers (Fujisaki et al.
300 2003), the arable land area for feed crops used for
Poultry
250 layers was reduced by 112 000 ha (6.9%). Using
experimental results for broilers (Yamazaki et al.
200
1996), the arable land area for crops used for broilers
150 was reduced by 207 000 ha (11.5%). The total poten-
tial reduction area is 483 700 ha (9.8%), which means
100 about 10% more swine and poultry meat could be
50 produced by adding amino acids to feed. The land used
to produce livestock feeds was reduced by about 9%
0
with rather than without amino acids used in feed

Russia
USA
France

Germany
Japan

Canada
Figure 6 N2O emissions per head of swine and poultry in
other Annex 1 countries.
GHG emission calculation by introducing
Japanese-style manure treatment and
amino acids
In France, 81.75% of the swine manure treatment
methods are liquid systems and 16.3% are solid
storage; whereas in Japan 27.4% manure treatment
methods consist of liquid systems and 69.1% are
others (where others mean purification systems that
emit more N2O than the liquid systems or solid
storage). In France, poultry liquid systems account for
64.7% and solid storage represents 31.86%. In the
Japanese-style, solid storage accounts for 24.5% and
others accounts for 75.5%. N2O emission factor of
liquid systems is 0.001 kg N2O-N/kgN and 0.009 kg
N2O-N/kgN for purification. According to our CH4
emission calculations for each temperature area with
each emission factor (MCF), about 67% of the CH4
emissions in France were emitted from liquid systems,
whereas almost no emissions were emitted from puri-
fication. By introducing N2O emission-style treatment
(the purification of the Japanese style) to French
manure treatment systems, N2O increases by 23.5%,
but CH4 decreases by 30%, and the total GHG is
reduced by 14.5%. Furthermore, using amino acid-
supplemented feed with changing the manure treat-
ment system enhanced the GHG reduction by 23.9%.
The maximum implied reduction of GHG emissions
came from amino acid-supplemented feed (Mosnier
et al. 2011) and these results support the amino acid
contribution to GHG reduction from both sides.
Reduction in arable land to produce
livestock feed with or without
amino acids
Using experimental results for swine (Osada et al.
2011), the arable land area need for feed crops used for
(Mosnier et al. 2011). These two results are in good
agreement.
The changes in the formulation of crops by blending
amino acids in feed leads to decreased consumption of
soybean meal and decreases the production of soybean
oil by about 8%. In Japan, the other oils like corn,
rapeseed and palm oil will compensate for the
decreased supply.
This technique should be widely used and will con-
tribute to develop livestock sustainability when com-
bined with the developing techniques to suppress
gaseous regurgitation of ruminants.
Conclusion
By using the UNFCCC 2010 CRF or NIR data, N2O
emissions could be estimated for Annex 1 countries
like Japan and France. The N2O reduction could be
calculated by using experimental results from adding
amino acids to feed. For leading Annex 1 countries,
the implication is that amino acids in livestock feed
helps to reduce N2O by 25%. CH4 emissions could also
be estimated and it was found that adding amino acids
to livestock feed together with introducing other
manure treatment styles, reduced GHG by 24% in
France.
Amino acid-supplemented feed makes it possible to
adopt much higher-yielding crops, which means more
feed can be produced on the same arable land and
produce more meat. Combining the reduction of
arable land area with the reduction of GHG, shows
that amino acids might substantially contribute to
the enhancement of the sustainability for animal
husbandry.
REFERENCES
Agriculture and Livestock Industries Corporation (ALIC).
2010. Livestock and Livestock Products, Broiler. ALIC, Tokyo.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO). 2011. FAOSTAT. Production – Livestock Primary. FAO,
Rome; [cited 11 July 2012]. Available from URL: http://
faostat.fao.org/site/569/default.aspx#ancor
Fujisaki H, Hanazumi M, Hashimoto Y, Yonemochi C. 2003.
Reduction of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Excretion from Laying
Hens. Japan Scientific feeds Association, Tokyo.

© 2013 Japanese Society of Animal Science Animal Science Journal (2013) 84, 409–415

Hoehler D. 2005. Nutritional strategies to reduce nitrogen
emissions from commercial swine and poultry. Animal
Agriculture and Processing: Managing Environmental Impacts:
8.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2000.
Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Institute for Global
Environmental Strategies (IGES), Hayama.
Knabe DA. 1996. Optimizing the protein nutrition of
growing-finishing pigs. Animal Feed Science Technology 60,
331–341.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF).
2010a. Statistical Yearbook of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries Statistical Tables, Livestock and Poultry, Number
of Farm Households Raising Livestock by Size, (3) Pigs. MAFF,
Tokyo.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF).
2010b. Statistical Yearbook of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries Statistical Tables, Livestock and Poultry, Number
of Farm Households Raising Livestock by Size, (4) Layers.
MAFF, Tokyo.
Mosnier E, van der Werf HMG, Boissy J, Dourmad JY. 2011.
Evaluation of the environmental implications of the
incorporation of feed-use amino acids in the manufactur-
ing of pig and broiler feeds using Life Cycle Assessment.
Animal 5, 1972–1983.
Animal Science Journal (2013) 84, 409–415
GREENHOUSE GAS REDUCTION BY AMINO ACIDS 415
Osada T, Takada R, Shinzato I. 2011. Potential reduction of
greenhouse gas emission from swine manure by using a
low-protein diet supplement with synthetic amino acids.
Animal Feed Science and Technology 166–167, 562–574.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). 2010a. National Reports, GHG Inventories,
National Inventory Submissions Japan NIR 2010. UNFCCC,
New York.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). 2010b. National Reports, GHG Inventories (Annex
1), National Inventory Submissions Japan CRF 2010–2008.
UNFCCC, New York.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). 2010c. National Reports, GHG Inventories (Annex
1), National Inventory Submissions France, Germany, Canada,
USA and Russia CRF 2010–2008. UNFCCC, New York.
United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricul-
tural Service, (USDA-FAS). 2010. Production, Supply and
Distribution Online. USDA-FAS, Washington, DC.
Verge XPC, Dyer JA, Desjardins RL, Worth D. 2009. Green-
house gas emissions from the Canadian pork industry.
Livestock Science 121, 92–101.
Yamazaki M, Murakami H, Yamazaki M, Takemasa M. 1996.
Reduction of nitrogen excreted from broiler chicks by
feeding low-protein. Amino acid-supplemented diets.
Japan Poultry Science 33, 249–255.
© 2013 Japanese Society of Animal Science