POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER

READING Presented To

The Faculty of the Nursing Department

Clarissa Yap, RN, MN

In Partial Fulfilment of Requirements in NCM 217 RLE

By:

Montano, Karl Angelo S., STN

BSN3B

March 27, 2021

DEFINITON
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric disorder that may occur
in people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event such as a natural
disaster, a serious accident, a terrorist act, war/combat, or rape or who have been
threatened with death, sexual violence or serious injury.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder criteria in DSM 5

A. Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence in one
(or more) of the following ways:
1. Directly experiencing the traumatic event(s).
2. Witnessing, in person, the event(s) as it occurred to others.
3. Learning that the traumatic event(s) occurred to a close family member or close
friend. In cases of actual or threatened death of a family member or friend, the
event(s) must have been violent or accidental.
4. Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of the traumatic
event(s) (e.g., first responders collecting human remains: police officers repeatedly
exposed to details of child abuse).
Note: Criterion A4 does not apply to exposure through electronic media, television,
movies, or pictures, unless this exposure is work related.

B. Presence of one (or more) of the following intrusion symptoms associated with the
traumatic event(s), beginning after the traumatic event(s) occurred:
1. Recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive distressing memories of the traumatic
event(s).
Note: In children older than 6 years, repetitive play may occur in which themes or
aspects of the traumatic event(s) are expressed.
2. Recurrent distressing dreams in which the content and/or affect of the dream are
related to the traumatic event(s).
Note: In children, there may be frightening dreams without recognizable content.
3. Dissociative reactions (e.g., flashbacks) in which the individual feels or acts as if
the traumatic event(s) were recurring. (Such reactions may occur on a continuum,
with the most extreme expression being a complete loss of awareness of present
surroundings.)
Note: In children, trauma-specific reenactment may occur in play.
4. Intense or prolonged psychological distress at exposure to internal or external
cues that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event(s).
5. Marked physiological reactions to internal or external cues that symbolize or
resemble an aspect of the traumatic event(s).

C. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event(s), beginning

after the traumatic event(s) occurred, as evidenced by one or both of the following:
1. Avoidance of or efforts to avoid distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings about
or closely associated with the traumatic event(s).
2. Avoidance of or efforts to avoid external reminders (people, places, conversations,
activities, objects, situations) that arouse distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings
about or closely associated with the traumatic event(s).

D. Negative alterations in cognitions and mood associated with the traumatic

event(s), beginning or worsening after the traumatic event(s) occurred, as evidenced
by two (or more) of the following:
1. Inability to remember an important aspect of the traumatic event(s) (typically due
to dissociative amnesia and not to other factors such as head injury, alcohol, or
drugs).
2. Persistent and exaggerated negative beliefs or expectations about oneself, others,
or the world (e.g., “I am bad,” “No one can be trusted,” ‘The world is completely
dangerous,” “My whole nervous system is permanently ruined”).
3. Persistent, distorted cognitions about the cause or consequences of the traumatic
event(s) that lead the individual to blame himself/herself or others.
4. Persistent negative emotional state (e.g., fear, horror, anger, guilt, or shame).
5. Markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities.
6. Feelings of detachment or estrangement from others.
7. Persistent inability to experience positive emotions (e.g., inability to experience
happiness, satisfaction, or loving feelings).
E. Marked alterations in arousal and reactivity associated with the traumatic event(s),
beginning or worsening after the traumatic event(s) occurred, as evidenced by two
(or more) of the following:
1. Irritable behavior and angry outbursts (with little or no provocation) typically
expressed as verbal or physical aggression toward people or objects.
2. Reckless or self-destructive behavior.
3. Hypervigilance.
4. Exaggerated startle response.
5. Problems with concentration.
6. Sleep disturbance (e.g., difficulty falling or staying asleep or restless sleep).

F. Duration of the disturbance (Criteria B, C, D, and E) is more than 1 month.

G. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social,

occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

H. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance

(e.g., medication, alcohol) or another medical condition.
Specify whether:
With dissociative symptoms: The individual’s symptoms meet the criteria for
posttraumatic stress disorder, and in addition, in response to the stressor, the
individual experiences persistent or recurrent symptoms of either of the following:
1. Depersonalization: Persistent or recurrent experiences of feeling detached from,
and as if one were an outside observer of, one’s mental processes or body (e.g.,
feeling as though one were in a dream; feeling a sense of unreality of self or body
or of time moving slowly).
2. Dereaiization: Persistent or recurrent experiences of unreality of surroundings
(e.g., the world around the individual is experienced as unreal, dreamlike, distant,
or distorted).
Note: To use this subtype, the dissociative symptoms must not be attributable to the
physiological effects of a substance (e.g., blackouts, behavior during alcohol
intoxication) or another medical condition (e.g., complex partial seizures).
Specify if:
With delayed expression: If the full diagnostic criteria are not met until at least 6
months after the event (although the onset and expression of some symptoms may
be immediate).

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder for Children 6 Years and Younger

A. In children 6 years and younger, exposure to actual or threatened death, serious

injury,or sexual violence in one (or more) of the following ways:
1. Directly experiencing the traumatic event(s).
2. Witnessing, in person, the event(s) as it occurred to others, especially primary
caregivers.
Note: Witnessing does not include events that are witnessed only in electronic
media,
television, movies, or pictures.
3. Learning that the traumatic event(s) occurred to a parent or caregiving figure.

B. Presence of one (or more) of the following intrusion symptoms associated with the
traumatic event(s), beginning after the traumatic event(s) occurred:
1. Recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive distressing memories of the traumatic
event(s).
Note: Spontaneous and intrusive memories may not necessarily appear distressing
and may be expressed as play reenactment.
2. Recurrent distressing dreams in which the content and/or affect of the dream are
related to the traumatic event(s).
Note: It may not be possible to ascertain that the frightening content is related to
the traumatic event.
3. Dissociative reactions (e.g., flashbacks) in which the child feels or acts as if the
traumatic event(s) were recurring. (Such reactions may occur on a continuum, with
the most extreme expression being a complete loss of awareness of present
surroundings.)
Such trauma-specific reenactment may occur in play.
4. Intense or prolonged psychological distress at exposure to internal or external
cues
that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event(s).
5. Marked physiological reactions to reminders of the traumatic event(s).

C. One (or more) of the following symptoms, representing either persistent

avoidance of
stimuli associated with the traumatic event(s) or negative alterations in cognitions
and
mood associated with the traumatic event(s), must be present, beginning after the
event(s) or worsening after the event(s):
Persistent Avoidance of Stimuli
1. Avoidance of or efforts to avoid activities, places, or physical reminders that
arouse
recollections of the traumatic event(s).
2. Avoidance of or efforts to avoid people, conversations, or interpersonal situations
that arouse recollections of the traumatic event(s).
Negative Alterations in Cognitions
3. Substantially increased frequency of negative emotional states (e.g., fear, guilt,
sadness, shame, confusion).
4. Markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities, including
constriction
of play.
5. Socially withdrawn behavior.
6. Persistent reduction in expression of positive emotions.

D. Alterations in arousal and reactivity associated with the traumatic event(s),

beginning
or worsening after the traumatic event(s) occurred, as evidenced by two (or more) of
the following:
1. Irritable behavior and angry outbursts (with little or no provocation) typically
expressed
as verbal or physical aggression toward people or objects (including extreme
temper tantrums).
2. Hypervigilance.
3. Exaggerated startle response.
4. Problems with concentration.
5. Sleep disturbance (e.g., difficulty falling or staying asleep or restless sleep).

E. The duration of the disturbance is more than 1 month.

F. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in relationships

with parents, siblings, peers, or other caregivers or with school behavior.

G. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance

(e.g.,
medication or alcohol) or another medical condition.
Specify whether:
With dissociative symptoms: The individual’s symptoms meet the criteria for
posttraumatic
stress disorder, and the individual experiences persistent or recurrent symptoms
of either of the following:
1. Depersonalization: Persistent or recurrent experiences of feeling detached from,
and as if one were an outside observer of, one’s mental processes or body (e.g.,
feeling as though one were in a dream; feeling a sense of unreality of self or body
or of time moving slowly).
2. Derealization: Persistent or recurrent experiences of unreality of surroundings
(e.g., the world around the individual is experienced as unreal, dreamlike, distant,
or distorted).
Note: To use this subtype, the dissociative symptoms must not be attributable to the
physiological effects of a substance (e.g., blackouts) or another medical condition
(e.g., complex partial seizures).
Specify if:
With delayed expression: If the full diagnostic criteria are not met until at least
6 months after the event (although the onset and expression of some symptoms may
be immediate).

Incidence
The lifetime prevalence of PTSD ranges from 6.1 to 9.2 percent in national
samples of the general adult population in the United States and Canada, with one-
year prevalence rates of 3.5 to 4.7 percent.

As an example, in a sample of 5692 respondents in the United States, 82.7

percent were exposed to severe and potentially traumatic events, and 8.3 percent of
the trauma-exposed respondents were diagnosed with lifetime PTSD. Among
patients from a community primary care clinic, 65 percent reported a history of
exposure to severe, potentially traumatic events; 12 percent went on to develop
PTSD.

Studies show that there is usually a spike in PTSD cases in the Philippines

whenever there are natural calamities like the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991 and
when Typhoon Yolanda ravaged the country in 2013. Another known risk factor for
PTSD in the country are those who are working for the military who are usually
exposed to traumatic events during deployment. Although modern science has
paved the way for recovering from PTSD, a number of sociocultural factors still
hinder most people from seeking help.

Types of PTSD

Normal Stress Response

Normal stress response is what occurs before PTSD begins. However, it does not
always lead up to the full-blown disorder. Events like accidents, injuries, illnesses,
surgeries and other sources of unreasonable amounts of tension and stress can all
lead to this response. Typically, normal stress response can be effectively managed
with the support of loved ones, peers and individual or group therapy sessions.
Individuals suffering from normal stress response should see a recovery within a few
weeks.

Acute Stress Disorder

Acute stress disorder, while not the same as PTSD, can occur in people who have
been exposed to what is or what feels like a life-threatening event. Natural disasters,
loss of loved ones, loss of a job or risk of death are all stressors that can trigger
acute stress disorder. If left untreated, acute stress disorder may actually develop
into PTSD. Acute stress disorder can be treated through individual and group
therapy, medication and intensive treatments designed by a psychiatrist.

Uncomplicated PTSD
Uncomplicated PTSD is linked to one major traumatic event, versus multiple events,
and is the easiest form of PTSD to treat. Symptoms of uncomplicated PTSD include:
avoidance of trauma reminders, nightmares, flashbacks to the event, irritability,
mood changes and changes in relationships. Uncomplicated PTSD can be treated
through therapy, medication or a combination of both.

Complex PTSD
Complex PTSD is the opposite of uncomplicated PTSD. It is caused by multiple
traumatic events, not just one. Complex PTSD is common in abuse or domestic
violence cases, repeated exposure to war or community violence, or sudden loss.
While they share the same symptoms, treatment of complex PTSD is a little more
intense than uncomplicated PTSD. Individuals with complex PTSD can be diagnosed
with borderline or antisocial personality disorder or dissociative disorders. They
exhibit behavioral issues, such as impulsivity, aggression, substance abuse or
sexual impulsivity. They can also exhibit extreme emotional issues, such as intense
rage, depression or panic.

Comorbid PTSD
Comorbid PTSD is a blanket term for co-occurring disorders. It is applied when a
person has more than one mental health concern, often coupled with substance
abuse issues. Comorbid PTSD is extremely common, as many people suffer from
more than one condition at a time. Best results are achieved when both the
commingling mental health condition and the comorbid PTSD are treated at the
same time. Many people who suffer from PTSD try to treat it on their own. This can
include self-medication and other destructive behaviors. Using drugs or alcohol as a
way to numb the pain will only make things worse and prolong treatment.

Risk factors
●Gender
●Age at trauma
●Race
●Less education
●Lower socioeconomic status
●Separated, divorced, or widowed
●History of trauma
●General childhood adversity
●Personal and family psychiatric history
●Reported childhood abuse
●Poor social support
●Initial severity of reaction to the traumatic event

Assessment
Patients with possible PTSD should receive a comprehensive psychiatric
assessment. Examples of questions a clinician can ask to elicit symptoms of PTSD
are provided below.
●How do you feel when you recall the event?
●Do you experience dreams or flashbacks about it?
 ●Do you find yourself avoiding people or activities you associate with the event?
●Do you find yourself forgetting occurrences from that period?
●Do you find yourself looking carefully around when you are in a public place?

Patients need to be asked specific questions about their traumatic experience(s) to

differentiate PTSD from other psychiatric disorders. These questions should be
asked with sensitivity. Patients are often reluctant to discuss past traumatic events
because of guilt, embarrassment, or discomfort inherent in revisiting painful
memories.

Management/treatment
Post-traumatic stress disorder treatment can help you regain a sense of
control over your life. The primary treatment is psychotherapy, but can also include
medication. Combining these treatments can help improve your symptoms by:

 Teaching you skills to address your symptoms

 Helping you think better about yourself, others and the world

 Learning ways to cope if any symptoms arise again

 Treating other problems often related to traumatic experiences, such as

depression, anxiety, or misuse of alcohol or drugs

Psychotherapy

Several types of psychotherapy, also called talk therapy, may be used to treat
children and adults with PTSD. Some types of psychotherapy used in PTSD
treatment include:

 Cognitive therapy. This type of talk therapy helps you recognize the ways of
thinking (cognitive patterns) that are keeping you stuck — for example, negative
beliefs about yourself and the risk of traumatic things happening again. For
PTSD, cognitive therapy often is used along with exposure therapy.

 Exposure therapy. This behavioral therapy helps you safely face both

situations and memories that you find frightening so that you can learn to cope
with them effectively. Exposure therapy can be particularly helpful for
flashbacks and nightmares. One approach uses virtual reality programs that
allow you to re-enter the setting in which you experienced trauma.
  Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). EMDR
combines exposure therapy with a series of guided eye movements that help
you process traumatic memories and change how you react to them.

Medications

 Antidepressants. These medications can help symptoms of depression and

anxiety. They can also help improve sleep problems and concentration. The
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) medications sertraline (Zoloft) and
paroxetine (Paxil) are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for
PTSD treatment.

 Anti-anxiety medications. These drugs can relieve severe anxiety and

related problems. Some anti-anxiety medications have the potential for abuse,
so they are generally used only for a short time.

 Prazosin. While several studies indicated that prazosin (Minipress) may

reduce or suppress nightmares in some people with PTSD, a more recent study
showed no benefit over placebo. But participants in the recent study differed
from others in ways that potentially could impact the results. Individuals who are
considering prazosin should speak with a doctor to determine whether or not
their particular situation might merit a trial of this drug.

REACTION
New technologies may profoundly change the way of understanding
psychiatric disorders including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Imaging and
biomarkers, along with technological and medical informatics developments, might
provide an answer regarding at-risk patient’s identification. Recent advances in the
concept of ‘digital phenotype’, which refers to the capture of characteristics of a
psychiatric disorder by computerized measurement tools, is one paradigmatic
example.

Impact of the new technologies on health professionals practice in PTSD care

remains to be determined. The recent evolutions could disrupt the clinical practices
and practitioners in their beliefs, ethics and representations, going as far as
questioning their professional culture. In the article that I read, they conducted an
extensive search to highlight the articles which reflect the potential of these new
technologies.They conducted an overview by searching in the database with articles
that is about PTSD and digital diagnosing of psychiatric diseases. The results were,
the synthesized literature in two categories: prediction and assessment. Results
were synthesized narratively.

I was was amazed by the article that I have read because they have made it
easier for the physicians to diagnose PTSD with the help of computers. I hope in my
nursing career I can also experience working in a mental institution to help those
people with mental illness. I hope in the future there will be more accurate and faster
way of diagnosing PTSD so that it can be cured faster and it will not become severe.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Psychiatric Association (2013) “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of

Mental Disorders DSM-5 5th ed.” American Psychiatric Publishing:1000
Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1825, Arlington, VA 22209-3901: “Depressive
Disorder” pp. 155-188 retrieved on: March 26, 2021
Bourla, A., Mouchabac, S., El Hage, W., & Ferreri, F. (2018). e-PTSD: an overview
on how new technologies can improve prediction and assessment of
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). European journal of
psychotraumatology, 9(sup1), 1424448.
https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1424448
Litin, S. C. (2018). Mayo Clinic family health book: Completely revised and
updated (5th ed.). Mayo Clinic Press.
Post-traumatic stress disorder. (n.d.). NIMH »
Home. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stress-
disorder-ptsd/index.shtml