Chapter 5: Exponential Functions and Equations

How Old is It?

Planet Earth is quite old, over 4.5 billion
years old, in fact. But how do we even
know this? How are we able to figure out
how old something really is, particularly
something so old that it far precedes the
earliest humans? Today, we’re going to
look at a common form of “radiometric
dating,” called potassium-argon dating,
which can help us uncover some of these
mysteries.

Atoms are the basic unit of matter in our world; they make up
everything you see. Atoms themselves are made of even smaller
particles: protons and neutrons (which create the “nucleus”),
surrounded by orbiting electrons.

An atom’s basic identity, or element, is determined by the

number of protons it has; for example, an atom with 1 proton is
called a hydrogen atom, while an atom with 6 protons is a
carbon atom.

An atom’s mass number is determined by summing all of its protons and neutrons. For example, a
carbon-14 atom contains 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Carbon-13 is an isotope of carbon-14. Isotopes are
atoms which contain the same number of protons (so they are of the same element), but different numbers
of neutrons.

Some isotopes, like carbon-14, contain an unstable nucleus.

Radioactive decay occurs when an atom’s nucleus loses
energy and mass over time. As a result, the number of
protons or neutrons (or both) may change at a particular rate.
Carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14 over a period of
thousands of years.

Radiometric dating is a process by which we can analyze the relative

quantities of radioactive isotopes in a sample to determine its age. If we
know the exact rate at which “x” decays into “y,” and we know the current
amounts of “x” and “y” in a sample, we can calculate how old that sample is.
 Chapter 5: Exponential Functions and Equations

A half-life is the amount of time it takes for
half of a substance to decay. Carbon-14 has a
half-life of 5,730 years. This means that, if
you begin with any amount of carbon-14, half
of it will be gone 5,730 years later.
Another isotope, potassium-40, has a half-life of
just about 1.25 billion years! Of the quantity of
potassium which has decayed, 11% of it
becomes argon-40, while 89% becomes
calcium-40.

Let’s say that you find a piece of volcanic rock from a recently-erupted
volcano, and you determine that it contains 20 milligrams of potassium-
40. Using the grid below, graph the changing quantity of potassium-40
over time.

1) Draw a line to connect the points on your graph. What type of relationship exists (be as
specific as possible)?
 Chapter 5: Exponential Functions and Equations

2) Using your knowledge about the half-life of potassium-40, write an exponential decay
function to describe the decay of potassium-40 over time. Use the formula K=K₀(1+r)t, where K
represents the current amount of potassium, K₀ is the rock's initial potassium level, and t is the
time (in billions of years) since the decay began.
 Chapter 5: Exponential Functions and Equations

Activity: Dating Volcanic Eruptions

Potassium-argon dating is a form of radiometric dating used to find the age of rocks (volcanic
rocks in particular). When potassium-40 decays over time, 11% of the decayed material becomes
argon-40. If we know the amounts of potassium-40 and argon-40 in a sample, we can find the
age of that sample.

The Yellowstone Caldera is a volcanic caldera

(or hollow) and supervolcano within
Yellowstone National Park. You, a geologist,
want to figure out when the volcano has
erupted throughout history in order to better
understand its volcanic activity.

After receiving permission to excavate the

area, you manage to collect three different
samples of volcanic rock which you believe
originate from different eruptions.

1) After analyzing your rock samples in the lab, you determine the amounts of potassium-40 and
argon-40 in each sample (measured in milligrams):

Potassium-40 (mg) Argon-40 (mg)

Sample 1 123.856 0.016

Sample 2 241.839 0.018
Sample 3 304.891 0.012

Your task is to use potassium-argon dating to find the age of each rock sample (this will tell you
how long ago each eruption occurred).

Hints:
 Begin by using the current amounts of potassium/argon to calculate how much potassium
was in the sample initially (before it began to decay)
 Use the exponential decay function you created earlier
 Avoid rounding as much as possible except in your final answer (you may use a
calculator)
 See the next page for an additional math hint
Chapter 5: Exponential Functions and Equations

Math hint) A logarithm (abbreviated "log") is

an operation, just like addition and subtraction.
The value of a logarithm is an exponent; for
example, log₃9 (read, “log base 3 of 9”) is the
exponent to which you raise 3 in order to get 9.
Log₃9 = 2 because 32 = 9. Let's say we have the
equation 6x = 14. We can say that x = log₆14. If
a logarithm is written without a base (for
example, log12 or log27), the base is assumed
to be 10 (so log12 means log₁₀12).

Here's a helpful property of logarithms: log(4²)

is the same as 2log(4). In words, the log of a
number raised to an exponent equals the
exponent times the log of the number. Let's say
you have an equation like 2 = 3x. How might we
solve for x? Remember that we can perform any
operation on an equation as long as we do the
same thing to both sides. Try taking the log of
both sides, then use your algebra skills to solve
for x.

2 = 3x
log(2) = log(3x)
log(2) = xlog(3)
x = log(2)/log(3)

We can find log(2) and log(3) on the calculator,

giving us our value for x.
Chapter 5: Exponential Functions and Equations
 Chapter 5: Exponential Functions and Equations

Conclusion) Potassium-argon dating is an extremely useful tool to help us find the ages of rocks,
volcanic eruptions, fossils, and other sample types. That being said, it has its limits. It relies on the
assumption that no argon as escaped from the sample over time, a fact which can be hard to guarantee.
Furthermore, based on the half-life of potassium-40, "K-Ar" dating is only really practical for samples
more than 100,000 year old. For younger material or organic matter (so non-rocks), we may turn to other
forms of radiometric dating, like carbon-14 dating or uranium-lead dating. Fortunately, scientists have
plenty of tricks in the bag (and are constantly inventing new ones) to help us uncover the secrets of the
past.

Learn More

https://www.britannica.com/science/potassium-argon-dating

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/history-of-life-on-earth/radiometric-
dating/v/potassium-argon-k-ar-dating

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3630100087/SCIC?u=seve27129&sid=SCIC&xid=ee1bed32

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/dating-rocks-and-fossils-using-geologic-
methods-107924044/

https://www.thoughtco.com/potassium-argon-dating-methods-1440803

Image URLs:

https://www.thoughtco.com/what-happens-when-a-volcano-erupts-4151722

https://www.electrical4u.com/concept-of-atom/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/yellowstone-supervolcano-may-erupt-sooner-than-
anticipated/