10 COOLING WATER TREATMENT Cz water is circulated through equipment to absorb and carry away heat. ‘The three basic types ‘of cooling water systems are shown in Figure 10.1. ‘The open recirculating cooling water system is by far the most common and is the type used in most gas processing plants to cool compressed gas and overhead streams from fractionating towers. Closed recirculating systems usually involve much smaller volumes of water and are often used to cool natural gas engine jackets and compressor cylinders. Once-through cooling systems are seldom used because of the large volumes of water required and potential pollution problems when the water is discharged back to the environment. OPEN RECIRCULATING COOLING SYSTEMS In open recirculating cooling systems, the cooling water is pumped through a heat exchanger where the process stream is cooled and the water is heated. The warm water then passes to a cooling tower or spray basin where it is cooled by contact with air before circulation back to the heat ex- changer. ‘The water is cooled in the tower or spray pond by evaporation of a portion of the circulating water, This evaporation loss results in an increase in the concentration of the dissolved solids in the circulating water since the evaporated water contains no dissolved solids. The water lost by evapora- tion must be replaced by makeup water. Water is also lost by entrainment of droplets in the circulating air. This is called drift or windage loss. These droplets of circulating water contain the same concentration of dissolved solids as the rest of the circulating water. Therefore, their loss does not contribute to the concentration of dissolved solids in the system as does evaporation loss. However, windage losses must also be replaced by makeup water. Water lost by inadvertent leakage must also be replaced. Evaporation Losses It requires approximately 1000 Btu's to evaporate one pound of water. This is equal to the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 100 pounds of water 10°F [5.5°C]. Therefore, for CHAPTER 10 27COOLING WATER TREATMENT OPEN RECIRCULATING ——Examples__ —Characteristics_ —Common Problems_ Diesel-Engine Jackets: Average Temperature Change - Corrosion ile Radiators 10° to 15°F Fouling Chilled-Water System Amount of Water Used - Negligible: ONCE-THROUGH = Characteristics _ Common Problems ‘Average Temperature Change - Corrosion Sto 10°F Fouling ‘Amount of Water Used - Scale Extremoly Large Microbiological Figure 10.1 Cooling System Characteristics APPLIED WATER TECHNOLOGYOPEN RECIRCULATING COOLING SYSTEMS each drop of 10°F [5.5°C] through the tower, one pound of water will be lost by evaporation per 100 Pounds of water cooled. This is the equivalent of 1% of the water circulating. Therefore, the evapora- tion rate can be calculated as follows: Evaporation Rate(gpm) = Temperature Drop (°F) , Circulation Rate (gpm) (10.1) 10 100 Windage Loss Windage loss for induced draft cooling towers may be estimated as from 0.10 to 0.20 percent of water circulation. Reference to the cooling tower manufacturer's specification sheet will often estab- lish this figure for the installation in question. Where 0.2 percent is guaranteed, use 0.15 percent, and where 0.1 percent is guaranteed, use 0.07 percent. ‘A much wider variation (0.3 to 1.0 percent) in windage losses occurs in natural draft towers, and ‘most calculations can be based on total mechanical loss; i.e., blowdown plus windage. Windage loss in spray pond systems is typically 1 to 5 percent of the circulation rate. Blowdown Blowdown is the continuous or intermittent removal of some of the circulating water. Evaporation results in increased concentration of the dissolved solids in the circulating water. The concentration is decreased by removing a portion of the circulating water and replacing it with makeup water containing a lower concentration of dissolved solids. Thus, the circulating water is diluted to control the buildup of dissolved solids in the circulating water. Cycles Of Concentration Cycles of concentration, or concentration ratio, is an expression of the degree to which the dis- solved solids concentration in the original circulating water has been increased or concentrated by evaporation losses. Since the water originally introduced into the circulating system was “makeup water,” the degree of concentration, or cycles of concentration, can be expressed as follows: pmchlorides in circulating water (10.2) Gyeles Hees =" ppmchloride in makeup water The chloride ion is normally used because it is quite soluble and seldom lost from water by precipitation, Makeup Water ‘The amount of makeup water required is equal to the sum of all losses of water from the circulat- ing system. ‘Makeup = Blowdown + Windage + Evaporation (10.3) CHAPTER 10 299COOLING WATER TREATMENT Material Balance Calculations In previous sections we have defined evaporation and windage losses, blowdown, cycles of con- centration, and makeup. It is now possible to derive an equation for the calculation of blowdown rate ‘by making a material balance based on chloride ion concentrations. ‘At equilibrium, the chlorides entering the system must equal the chlorides leaving the system. Furthermore, the chloride concentration in the blowdown is the same as in the circulating water. Consider the following four equations: MX Cly =(B+W)xCly 10.4) Cly =Clp (10.5) M=B+W+E (10.6) Clr IE 10.7, Cha 10.7) = Circulation rate Blowdown rate Makeup rate = Windage rate Evaporation rate Cycles of concentration omékun Substituting Equations 10.4 and 10.5 into Equation 10.3, we obtain: (B+ WH E)X Cly =(B+ M)x Cly Rearranging this expression into the form of Equation 10.6: Cl _B+W+E ory (10.8) Equation 10.7 can be rearranged and solved for B to yield the following expression: E-[wx(C-1)] ea (10.9) Example 10.1: Given: Circulation Rate = 10.000 gpm ‘Water to tower 100°F ‘Water from tower = 80°F Guaranteed maximum windage loss 0.2% Chlorides in tower makeup = 100 ppm Chlorides in circulating water = 500 ppm 300 APPLIED WATER TECHNOLOGYCOOLING WATER TREATMENT OBJECTIVES Example 10.1 (Cont'd): Determine: Windage loss rate Evaporation rate Cycles of concentration Blowdown rate Total makeup rate Solution: 1. W=0.0015x10000gpm = 1Sgpm (Assumes that actual losses were only 75% of the guaranteed maximum.) 100-80, 10000 = —— = 10 * 100 = 08m i E-lWxte-y _ 200-5 (5-1) «scm M = B+W+E=35+15+200=250gpm COOLING WATER TREATMENT OBJECTIVES Cooling waters are treated to prevent four types of problems: 1. Scale formation on the heat transfer surfaces. 2. Corrosion of metal piping and heat exchangers by the cooling waters. 3. Fouling of the heat exchangers and the cooling tower. 4, Deterioration of wooden cooling towers. Scale Prevention Calcium Carbonate Scale Calcium carbonate scale is extremely common in cooling waters, especially in the heat exchang- ‘ers where the water is hottest. The Ryznar Index The Ryznar Stability Index is commonly used to estimate calcium carbonate scaling tendencies for cooling waters. It should be calculated for both the makeup water and the circulating water. The ‘most common methods of preventing calcium carbonate scale are: 1. If the makeup water is not scaling, control the number of cycles of concentration so that the Ryznar Stability Index will not exceed 6.0. CHAPTER 10 301COOLING WATER TREATMENT 2. Add sufficient acid to the makeup water to maintain the pH of the circulating water at a value slightly less than pHs. Sulfuric acid is normally used for pH control since it is usually the most economical. However, caution must be exercised not to precipitate calcium sulfate scale. This is most likely to occur when the makeup water is high in sulfates and alkalinity. The rule of thumb for avoiding calcium sulfate scale is to limit the concentration of cal- cium sulfate in the circulating water to a maximum of 1700 ppm. Another guide is that the calcium concentration multiplied by the sulfate concentration (when both are expressed in pm) should not exceed 500 000. If calcium sulfate scale becomes a problem, HCI can be substituted for HSOx. 3. Use inorganic polyphosphates (sometimes in conjunction with pH control) or organic scale inhibitors. Magnesium Scales ‘Magnesium hydroxide will precipitate only in very alkaline waters and is not a widespread prob- Jem. Magnesium carbonate is usually controlled in the same manner as calcium carbonate. Silicates Prevention of silicate scale deposition is normally achieved by limiting the silica concentration in the cooling water to a maximum value of 175 ppm (preferably 150 ppm). The cycles of concentration based on the silica ratio should not be allowed to fall appreciably below the cycles based on chlorides and hardness, as this would indicate silica deposition. If both silica and magnesium cycle at a lower figure than chlorides, this indicates deposition of magnesium ate Pretreatment of Makeup Water The formation of calcium and magnesium scales can be prevented by removing the calcium and magnesium ions (hardness) and alkalinity from the water by a softening process. The cold lime process (see Chapter 6) is commonly used for cooling water. Corrosion Control Inorganic corrosion inhibitors such as chromates, polyphosphates, or a combination of the two, have been used for corrosion contro! for many years. Zinc is also used in combination with either chromates, polyphospates, or both, to improve inhibition, Since many of these materials are toxic to living organisms, disposal of blowdown into surface waters can pose a serious pollution hazard. In fact, chromates are seldom used because of disposal problems. Organic inhibitors have generally been less effective in cooling waters than the inorganics. Microbiological Control Algae, fungi, and bacteria can all contribute to problems in open cooling water systems. They ‘can encourage corrosion, cause fouling and cause deterioration of the wood in cooling towers. 302 ‘APPLIED WATER TECHNOLOGYCLOSED RECIRCULATING COOLING SYSTEMS Chlorine is most widely used to control the growth of microorganisms.‘"2) A chlorine residual of 0.3 to 1.0 ppm is usually adequate. Chlorine residuals of greater than 1.0 ppm for long periods can cause deterioration of tower wood, and should be avoided. ‘A common procedure is to chlorinate to a residual of 1.0 ppm for four hours each day. Continu- ous chlorination to maintain a residual of 0.2-0.3 ppm is also used, but this may necessitate a periodic slug treatment with another biocide to kill resistant growths. Fouling Fouling of heat exchanger tubes and cooling towers is usually defined as the deposition of non- scale-forming materials such as: 1. Suspended sotids in the makeup water 2. Particulate matter from the atmosphere iological masses 4. Corrosion products 5. Hydrocarbon contamination due to process leaks Filtration and/or coagulation and settling may be employed to remove suspended solids from the makeup water. Side stream filtration and/or silt dispersants may be employed in the circulating system to reduce solids deposition. Biocides and corrosion inhibitors are used to prevent the generation of corrosion products and biological masses. Tower Wood Deterioration ‘Tower wood deterioration can usually be avoided by following three rules: 1. Maintain an effective biocide treating program from start-up. 2. Avoid excessive chlorination. (1.0 ppm residual for long periods) 3. Maintain the pH of the water at less than 8.3. CLOSED RECIRCULATING COOLING SYSTEMS A closed recirculating cooling system is one in which the water is circulated in a closed loop. The heat absorbed in the cooling operation is dissipated in some type of heat exchanger. Air-fan coolers are frequently used. Since the cooling system is closed, there is no evaporation, and therefore no change in water composition High chemical treatment levels are often required, but since water losses are negligible, these levels are economical. Excellent quality makeup water is generally used for best system operation. ‘The advantages of a closed system lie in improved control of cooling water temperature through the heat producing unit, and in the relative freedom from the problems of operating an open system. CHAPTER 10 303COOLING WATER TREATMENT 10.1 102 103 REFERENCES Ostroff, A. G.: Introduction to Oilfield Water Technology, Second Edition, National Association of Corro- sion Engineers, Houston, Texas (1979), Kemmer, Frank, N., Editor: The Nalco Water Handbook, McGraw Hill, New York (1979). Betz: Betz Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning, Seventh Edition, Betz Laboratories, Inc., Trevose, Pa, (1976) ‘APPLIED WATER TECHNOLOGY